Observations on the faunas of two warm streams in ...

New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research

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Observations on the faunas of two warm streams in the taupo thermal region M. J. Winterbourn & T. J. Brown To cite this article: M. J. Winterbourn & T. J. Brown (1967) Observations on the faunas of two warm streams in the taupo thermal region, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 1:1, 38-50, DOI: 10.1080/00288330.1967.9515190 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288330.1967.9515190

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38

[MAR.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FAUNAS OF TWO WARM STREAMS IN THE TAUPO THERMAL REGION M.

J. WINTERBOURN and

T. J. BROWN

Zoology Department, Massey University, Palmerston North (Received for publication 27 September 1966) SUMMARY

Downloaded by [200.98.139.205] at 16:41 29 January 2016

Observations were made on the biota of two warm streams in the Taupo thermal region during December 1965 and June 1966. Distribution of the fauna was related to the observed water temperatures, and the possible effects and importance of high temperature are discussed. The principal "thermal" species were Protozoa, larval and adult Hydrophilidae (Coleoptera), larval and pupal Ephydridae (Diptera), Nematoda, and Rotifera.

INTRODUCTION

Very little has been written about the animals living in New Zealand's thermal waters. Poynton (1903) described large numbers of fly larvae living in pools at the Black Terraces, Taupo, and these were later identified by Hutton as a species of Opomyza. In fact they were probably the allied Ephydrella aquaria which occurs there now in large numbers. Stoner (1923) noted the presence of Diptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera at hot springs in New Zealand, while a nematode, Aphelenchus sp., discovered in a hot spring at Rotorua at a temperature of 61.3°c is cited by Mason (1939) as being at the highest temperature at which any freshwater animal has been observed. Tillyard's (1920) report on the Neuropteroid insects of the hot springs region of New Zealand deals with trout streams only, and thermal waters are not discussed. In this study, observations were made in two warm streams near Taupo, the Waipuwerawera and the Waipahihi. Both were examined in June 1966, and the lower course of the Waipahihi Stream was also sampled in December 1965. LOCALITY AND HABITAT (Fig.

1)

Waipahihi Stream flows into Lake Taupo about 2 miles south of the centre of Taupo township. Its origin is a number of clear, acid springs at the back of the Terrace Hotel on the Taupo-Napier highway, and it has a bed of creamy sinter (Grange 1937). There is very little gas in the springs in this region. Waipuwerawera Stream is about 3 miles long and has its origin in springs just over a mile west of Karapiti Blowhole. It flows through a number of hot pools before entering Waikato River just south of Huka Falls. Very little gas rises in any of the springs in the Waipuwerawera valley. N.Z. Jl mar. Freshwat. Res. 1: 38-50

1967]

WINTERBOURN & BROWN—WARM-STREAM FAUNA

39


WAIRAKE

mile

Fie. 1—Sketch map of Taupo thermal region showing localities of the two warm streams, A. Waipuwerawera Stream, B. Waipahihi Stream, and positions of sampling stations.

40


[MAR.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONDITIONS

On 4 and 5 June 1966, observations were made at six stations in Waipuwerawera Stream and at four stations in Waipahihi Stream. Temperature readings and biological samples were obtained at all stations, but dissolved oxygen concentrations and pH of water were measured at selected stations only. Water samples were taken in 250 ml reagent bottles and the preliminary steps of the Winkler test were made in the field. The pH of the water was measured with papers giving a reading accurate to 0.5 of a unit. All temperature readings were made with a mercury centigrade thermometer. Temperatures and chemical conditions are recorded in Table 1.


TABLE 1—Temperatures, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and pH of water at selected stations in Waipuwerawera and Waipahihi Streams, 4 and 5 June 1966 Station

Temperature °c

1 2 3 4 5 6

24.5 22.5 22.0 23.0 30.5 29.0

1 2 3 4

44.5 45.3 35.0 33.5

Oi cone. ml/1

O2 saturation %

WaipuwerawerE1Stream Stream 5.4 96.5 5.4 93 — — 5.2 99.5 Waipahihi Stream 4.4 105 4.9 4.8

103 99.5

pH

6.5-7.0 6.0-6.5 6.0-6.5 6.0-6.5 7.0 6.5-7.0 7.0 6.5

Highest water temperatures in Waipahihi Stream were recorded near the source, and there was a gradual fall in temperature towards the mouth. By contrast, the highest temperatures in Waipuwerawera Stream were recorded nearer the mouth than the source, as the stream passes through areas of thermal activity lower down its course. The entire range of temperatures encountered in Waipahihi Stream exceeded those recorded in the Waipuwerawera. Water temperatures at stations 1^4 in the latter stream fall within the range of temperature attained frequently in small bodies of fresh water in New Zealand (e.g., Cunningham et al. 1953). Maximum air temperature recorded in Taupo over the sampling period was 12.2°c, 9.8°c colder than the lowest temperature recorded in Waipuwerawera Stream. At all stations the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water was close to saturation level or the water was supersaturated. In Waipahihi Stream where a carpet of blue-green algae was present on the stream bed, the continuous production of oxygen bubbles by the photosynthesising algae would probably account for the supersaturation of the water at stations 1 and 3. The pH of the water was slightly acidic in both streams.

1967]

N.Z. JOURNAL OF MARINE & FRESHWATER RESEARCH

41

VEGETATION

Waipuwerawera Stream Emergent and rooted vegetation typical of small bodies of fresh water was found throughout the length of this stream. Species included Ludwigia palustris, Polygonum persicaria, Callitriche stagnalis, and Potamogeton sp. L. palustris was most abundant at higher temperatures and formed dense mats in places, while C. stagnalis was most abundant near the stream source in places where water movement was slight. Some growth of blue-green, filamentous algae (predominantly Oscillatoria spp.) was found at all levels and became increasingly abundant in the lower course of the stream where the substrate was hard and the temperatures highest.


Waipahihi Stream The bed of the Waipahihi Stream has a thick covering of algal felt, densest at the highest water temperatures. Again species of Oscillatoria were predominant, and blue-green algae of this genus have also been recorded by Mason (1939) in Algerian hot springs between 33.0 and 58.0°c. No rooted or emergent vegetation was present, but at station 2 broken branches projected from the algal felt on the bed, and in some cases were colonised by a moss, Fissidens sp. Associated with this moss were the green algae Cladophora and RMzoclonium. At stations 3 and 4 grass growing on the banks was partly submerged in the water, and pine needles had also accumulated on the bed at station 3. NON-PROTOZOAN FAUNA

Biological sampling was strictly qualitative. Vegetation and stream beds were swept with a fine-meshed hand-net; stones and large pieces of vegetation were removed and examined individually. Non-protozoan animals found at each station are recorded in Table 2. Many of the species found belong to groups which are not well known in New Zealand, and the works used in identifying the fauna were as follows: Coleoptera-Hydrophilidae, Pennak (1953), Ward and Whipple (1959), Broun (1880-93); Diptera-Ephydridae, Harrison (1959); Diptera-Chironomidae, Forsyth (1965); Odonata-Zygoptera, Wise (1962); Mollusca, Ponder (1964); Pisces, Woods (1963). Identifications of Hydrophilidae are tentative. The specific status of the various morphological forms of the gastropod Potamopyrgus are at present under revision, therefore no specific designation is given; shell shape most closely resembles that of P. antipodum zelandiae (Gray). The fauna of Waipuwerawera Stream was poor, Potamopyrgus being the only animal found in abundance (about 30 snails per cubic foot of weed). By contrast, the fauna of Waipahihi Stream was richer in both species and individuals, although numbers of both decreased with an increase in water temperature. The fauna in December was richer than

42


[MAR.

TABLE 2—Distribution of non-protozoan faunas of Waipuwerawera and Waipahihi Streams related to observed temperatures

Temperatures °c Stations

Dec. June 1966 1965 Waipuwerawera Stream Waipahihi Stream 22.0 22.5 23.0 24.5 29.0 30.5 33.5 35.0 44.5 45.3 34.0 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 1 2 4

MOLLUSCA

Gastropoda Potamopyrgus sp. (Prosobranchia) Lymnaea tpmentosa Pfeiffer (Pul-

X

monata)

X X

X X

X X

Physa fontinalis L. (Pulmonata)

X X

X

X X X

X X X

X X


ARTHROPODA

Insecta Coleoptera—Hydrophilidae Enochrus tritus (Broun) Enochrus sp. Laccobius sp. A Laccobius sp. B Larval Hydrophilidae Diptera—Ephydridae Ephydrella aquaria. (Hutton) larvae and pupae Scatella sp. pupae Diptera—Chironomidae Chironomus cylindricus Freeman larvae Diptera—Stratiomyidae Unidentified larvae Hemiptera—Hydrometridae Hydrometra ribesci Hungerford Hemiptera—Veliidae Microvelia sp. Odonata—Zygoptera lschnura aurora (Brauer) larvae

X

X X X

X X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X X X X

X

X X

X X X

NEMATODA

Tylocephalus sp. Aphelenchoides sp.

X

X

X

X

X

X

ANNELIDA

Hirudinea Glossiphonia sp.

X

ASCHELMINTHES

Rotifera—unidentified CHORDATA

Pisces—Teleostei Carassius auratus L.

X


1967]


43

that in June when numbers of chironomid larvae and molluscs decreased considerably. Shortly after the December sampling, poison was introduced into the stream to eradicate the population of Carassius, which it appears to have done successfully; this probably accounts for the overall decrease in animal numbers. Both Mason (1939) and Pennak (1953) consider that 35.0-39.0°c represents the normal upper temperature limit for members of the general freshwater fauna. Animals living above this temperature are considered to be "thermal species". Temperatures at both the lower stations in Waipahihi Stream lie close to this thermal limit, and species living near their thermal death point almost certainly include the larvae of Ischnura aurora and Chironomus cylindricus, stratiomyid larvae, and the pulmonate gastropods Physa fontinalis and Lymnaea tomentosa. None of these species was found at temperatures above 35.0°c. It is possible that the upper temperature limit of Potamopyrgus is lower than any recorded in Waipahihi Stream. Larval Ephydridae, adult and larval Hydrophilidae, some rotifiers and the nematode Tylocephalus may be regarded as thermal species in the sense defined above. The distributions of the major groups of animals are discussed below. CHIRONOMIDAE

Larvae of Chironomus cylindricus were the dominant invertebrates at station 4 in Waipahihi Stream. The maximum temperature at which they were found was 35.0°c. C. cylindricus is a rare species of chironomid (Forsyth 1965), and it may well have become established here close to its upper temperature limit because competition from related species is lacking. Adult midges were emerging in June and December. Chironomidae are cited by Pennak (1953) as being common inhabitants of thermal waters, and the presence of haemoglobin in larval bloodworms, such as those of C. cylindricus which have a definite reddish coloration in life, might be considered a pre-adaptation for life in an environment such as this, having a relatively low dissolved oxygen content. EPHYDRIDAE

Two species, Ephydrella aquaria and Scatella sp., were present. Adults of both species were taken beside the stream in December and June, throughout the length of Waipahihi Stream, but larvae and pupae were most abundant at the two stations with higher temperatures. They were frequently found associated with Hydrophilid beetles on the surface of submerged, broken branches at station 2 (45.3°c). Members of this family have previously been reported from hot springs in U.S.A. by Pennak (1953), and in the Himalayas at 49.1°c by Mani (1962). E. aquaria has also been taken from a saline pool in Central Otago (Benham 1905), and from saline pools on the seashore (Miller 1910). It does not appear to have been found in "normal" fresh water.

44


[MAR.

HYDROPHILIDAE

Beetles are among the most characteristic inhabitants of hot springs, species of Hydrophilidae and Dytiscidae having been recorded in water up to 45 °c. Two species of Enochrus were found in Waipahihi Stream and were distributed throughout the temperature range. In station 2 (45.5°c) they were clinging to pieces of decaying wood, both beneath the surface and in the "spray zone" immediately above the water, while some beetles were concealed between the bark and the wood. Laccobius sp. A had a similar temperature range to that of the Enochrus spp. (33.5^4.5°c), but Laccobius sp. B appeared to be restricted to slightly cooler water (29.0-34.0°c). Unidentified larvae of two species of Hydrophilidae were living at both the upper and lower water temperatures found in Waipahihi Stream.


Enochrus tritus has been recorded by Byars (1960) from a pond in Otago with a temperature range of 2.8-20.0°c, so it cannot be regarded as a solely thermal species. PISCES

The goldfish Carassius auratus, abundant in the lower Waipahihi Stream in December, appeared to be restricted to the stream water and fish were not seen to venture into the lake. They were not seen the following June, so it is assumed that poisoning carried out in January to eliminate them has been successful. The restricted distribution of the fish was probably attributable to the widely contrasting temperatures of the stream and lake waters. Fry et al. (1942) quoted by Macan (1963) found that the lower lethal temperature of C. auratus was 17.0°c when acclimatised at 36.5°c. The latter temperature is approximately that at which the fish were living in Waipahihi Stream, but the temperature of Lake Taupo is considerably below 17.0°c; the coldness of the lake water would therefore act as an effective barrier, preventing goldfish living in the stream from entering the lake.

PROTOZOAN FAUNA

Protozoa in samples of substrate and water taken from the two streams were examined both qualitatively and quantitatively using a Union inverted phase contrast microscope. Identification was facilitated at times by temporary staining with methyl green and neutral red. Classification and identification were carried out with the assistance of the literature of Honiberg et al. (1964), Kahl (1935), and Kudo (1954). Quantitative estimations were made with a Fuchs-Rosenthal haemocytometer. All estimations are the average of at least five samples and counts. As the time between the collection of the samples and their examination was several hours, it was impossible to say whether the organisms identified were present in the warm streams in an active state, or whether they were only able to survive such temperatures as cysts, excystment having taken place on subjection to normal atmospheric temperatures.

1967]


QUALITATIVE

45

OBSERVATIONS

Table 3 shows the species that were present and their distribution over the range of temperatures sampled.


No flagellates were found at temperatures above 24.5 °c and there have been no previous reports of their natural occurrence at temperatures higher than this. The species recorded from the highest temperatures were, with one exception (i.e., Difflugia sp.), ciliates. Glaucoma scintillans was found at 44.5 °c and also between 22.0 and 33.5°c. This was the only species tolerating such a wide temperature range. Colpidium colpoda and Paramecium aurelia had ranges of 11.5°c and 13.0°c respectively, both being found at the lowest temperature recorded (22.0°c). Vorticetla appears to tolerate a wide range of temperatures (23.0°c-45.3°c), but it is very likely that the individuals recorded represent more than one species. Unfortunately, specific identification is often difficult or even impossible within the genus Vorticella without recourse to extensive culture work which was outside the scope of this study. Forty-four percent of the species occurring only at temperatures above 33.5°c were hypotrichous ciliates. These are considered to be the most morphologically specialised of the free living Protozoa, and it seems that in some cases metabolic and physiological specialisations may be linked with those of structure. Dogiel (1965) stated that the commonest Protozoa from hot springs are often testate rhizopods. In the present study only three species were encountered and these only in small numbers. The upper temperature limit given by Dogiel for these forms is 45.0°c. It is suggested that the presence of testate rhizopods in hot springs and streams is related primarily to the high mineral content of the water often characteristic of such habitats, rather than to the high temperatures found there. Calcium and silicon are used in test formation and high temperature is more likely to be a factor which can be tolerated, rather than one which is necessary or even desirable. Dogiel states further that the most commonly reported Protozoa from hot springs are the rhizopods Centropyxis, Difflugia, Trinema, and Quadrula, from waters at 4O.CM5. O°c, while Hyalodiscus has been found in waters up to 54.0°c. Uyemura (1936) working with samples from Japanese hot springs reported Amoeba verrucosa, Chilodonella sp., Lionotus, and Paramecium caudatum from temperatures between 36.0°c and 40.0°c. In the present work two species of Chilodonella were found in water at 45.3°c, but P. caudatum was not seen, although P. aurelia was found in water no hotter than 35.0°c. It is interesting to note that from the highest temperature range (30.0-50.0°c) reported by Uyemura (1936) he recorded the hypotrichous ciliate Oxytricha jallax, and the present authors recorded a species of Oxytricha, but no other hypotrichs at 45.3°c.

46


[MAR.

TABLE 3—Distribution of protozoan faunas of Waipuwerawera and Waipahihi Streams related to recorded temperatures June 1966 Temperatures °C

Waipuwerawera Stream 22.0 22.5 23.0 24.5

Waipahihi Stream 33.5 35.0 44.5 45.3


Phylum PROTOZOA Subphylum SARCOMASTIGOPHORA

Order Euglenoida Euglena sp. Ehr. E. gracilis Klebs Anisonema acinus Duj. Phacus acuminata Stokes Astasia klebsi Lemmermann Peranema trichophorum (Ehr.) Order Kinetoplastida Bodo sp. Ehr. Colponema loxoides Stein Order Arcellinida Arcella sp. Ehr. Difflugia sp. Leclerc Euglypha sp. Duj.

X X X X X X X X

X

X X X

Subphylum CILIOPHORA

Order Gymnostomatida Pithothorax ovatus Kahl Amphileptus claparedei Stein Chilodonella sp. Strand C. algivora Kahl Chlamydodon cyclops Entz. Order Trichostomatida Colpoda sp. Muller C. cucullus Maupas Order Hymenostomatida Leucophrys patula Ehr. Glaucoma scintillans Ehr. Colpidium colpoda (Ehr.) C. campylum (Stokes) C. striatum (Stokes) Uronema pluricaudatum Noland Paramecium sp. Hill (dead) P. aurelia Ehr. P calkensi Woodruff Ctedoctema acanthocrypta Stokes Order Peritrichida Vorticella sp. Linn. Order Oligotrichida Halteria grandinella (Muller) Order Hypotrichida Oxytricha sp. Ehr. Uroleptus limnetis Stokes Kahlia acrobates Horvath Urostylia sp. Ehr. Holostichia vernalis Stokes H. hymenophora Stokes Euplotes sp. Ehr. Aspidisca sp. Ehr. A. lynceus Ehr.

X X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X

X X X

X X

x

x

X

X X X X

X

X

x

X

x X

X

X

X

x x x x X X X X

X

X

1967]

47



2 4 3 1 4 3 1 2

Waipuwerawera Stream — — 22.0 93,600 1,560 — 1,404 — — — 22.5 2,730 6,230 1,481 — — 23.0 8,892 4,375 — 1,091 1,325 — 24.5 16,380 6,525 — 234 — 702 — Waipahihi i Stream 33.5 7,171 505 — — — 35.0 13,104 390 — — — 156 110 44.5 — — — — — — 45.3 18,656 — — — — — •—

—.

— — —

o, S

nophoi ahlia acrobat

O

'•£

8

\. S

olosti chia hym

aredei

ft.

5 '3

eptus ci

xytric ha sp.

U

"5 arame

O

3

olpod a cucul,

1

a Is eucop hrys pa

H

"S o olpidi

empei ature °

oo

flage ilates*

tation

u

. campylum

o

lauco ma scin till ans

TABLE 4—Estimations of numbers per ml of the most abundant species of Protozoa in relation to temperature of water from which they were recorded

33

— — — —

— — — —

•

—

—

—

—

— —

101 202 202 _ — — 156 — — — — — — —

•

flagellates (micro flagellates) are very small flagellates (usually less than 10 fi) whose specific identification is extremely hazardous.

The nine species recorded at temperatures lower than 24.5°c are all forms commonly found in fresh waters at lower temperatures. These species were probably living near the upper limit of their tolerance. QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATIONS

Estimations were made of the number of individuals of the most abundant species per ml of water from four stations in each stream (Table 4). Distribution of micro flagellates appeared to have no relation to recorded temperatures. This was probably due to their numbers being made up of several species whose numbers fluctuate in relation to other environmental factors as well as temperatures. Similarly, the ciliates of Waipahihi Stream did not show any quantitative distribution patterns in relation to temperature. This was possibly because the range of temperatures encountered was much greater than that in Waipuwerawera Stream (Table 3), and the intervals between stations may have been too great to include the thermal distribution of any one species. In the Waipuwerawera Stream Colpidium colpoda and Glaucoma scintillans were dominant at all stations except station 4, where C. campylum replaced C. colpoda in the community. Quantitative distributions of C. colpoda and G. scintillans in Waipuwerawera Stream

48


[MAR.

7-1 _, 6-

R 5-

o

OS

o N o o


•-P

1\

22

23 2k temperature °G

25

FIG. 2—Fluctuations in population sizes of Glaucoma scintillans and Colpidium colpoda in relation to temperature in Waipuwerawera Stream.

are presented graphically in Fig. 2. In this stream individuals of C. colpoda find their optimum temperature at a higher level than do individuals of G. scintillans, whose numbers are reduced markedly above 22.5°c. It is likely that these optima are higher than they would be for similar species living in colder conditions (Mendelssohn 1902). DISCUSSION

Because of the limited scope of this survey few statements can be made regarding temperature as a factor actively limiting the distribution of animals in these two streams. Further, it is important to realise that the distribution of freshwater organisms is affected by a wide range of physical and chemical factors which nearly always operate in conjunction with one another to produce their effects. In this study a chemical examination has not been made of the stream waters, and as both streams originate from thermal springs, it is likely that chemical factors could have an important influence on the composition of the fauna. Ciliate protozoa, for example, are very sensitive to the biochemical oxygen demand which is a function of decay and bacterial action; most bacterial populations increase their growth rates to an optimal level with a rise in temperature, and as most freshwater ciliates are bacteriophagous, we can immediately see an important indirect effect

1967]


49


of temperature on the environment. It is also relevant that many naturally occurring hot springs are heavily charged with minerals, e.g., calcium and silica, and the presence of these is likely to have a beneficial effect on those forms which require minerals for the construction of a lorica or test. Despite these limitations we have been able to describe the distributions of animals in relation to the observed temperatures and to show that definite correlations do exist between the ranges of certain species and the temperature of the waters in which they are found. It is probable that many of the animals do not choose the warmer areas because of the temperature factor itself, but that they are able to thrive in such areas because of reduced competition, in what is a relatively unexploited habitat. This seems particularly likely in the case of the Chironomid larvae, the Hydrophilid Enochrus tritus, and the larvae of Ephydrella aquaria, all of which are know to live in water at atmospheric temperatures. A similar situation almost certainly applies to many Protozoa (e.g., Oxytricha sp. and Aspidisca spp.) of which Dogiel (1965) has said "None are so specifically adapted to high temperatures that they cannot exist under other conditions." ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Mr J. P. Skipworth, Botany Department, Massey University, for assistance with the identification of aquatic plants, and Mr P. S. Dale, Zoology Department, Massey University, for identification of nematodes. REFERENCES

BENHAM, W. B. 1905: The aquatic larvae of the fly Ephydra. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 37: 308-12. BROUN, T. 1880-93: Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera. Vols. 1-7. Publ. Roy. Soc. N.Z. BYARS, J. A. 1960: A Freshwater Pond in New Zealand. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 2 (2) : 222-40. CUNNINGHAM, B. T., MOAR, N. T., TORRIE, A. W. and PARR, P. J. 1953: A survey

of the western coastal dune lakes of the North Island, N.Z. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res. 4 (2) : 343-86. DOGIEL, V. A. 1965: "General Protozoology." Oxford University Press. FORSYTH, D. J. 1965: A study of some New Zealand Nematocera (Diptera) M.Sc. Thesis. University of Auckland, N.Z. FRY, F. E. J., BRETT, J. R., and CLAWSON, G. H. 1942: Lethal limits of tempera-

ture for young goldfish. Rev. Can. Biol 1: 50. GRANGE, L. I. 1937: The geology of the Rotorua-Taupo subdivision. Bull. N.Z. geol. Surv. 37. 138 pp. HARRISON, R. A. 1959: Acalyptrate Diptera of New Zealand. Bull. N.Z. Dep. scient. ind. Res. 128: 1-382. HONIBERG, B. M., BALAMUTH, W., BOVEE, E. C., CORLISS, J. O., GOJDICS, M., HALL, R. P., KUDO, R. R., LEVINE, N. D., LEOBLICH, Jr., A. R., WEISER,

J., and WENRICH, D. H. 1964: A revised classification of the phylum Protozoa. J. Protozool 11 ( 1 ) : 7-20. KAHL, A. 1935: Urtiere oder Protozoa, 1; Wimpertiere oder Ciliata (Infusoria). In Dahl, F., "Die Tierwelt Deutschlands." Fischer, Jena.


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[MAR.

KUDO, R. R. 1954: "Protozoology." Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, U.S.A. MACAN, T. T. 1963: "Freshwater Ecology." Longmans Green, London. MANI, M. S. 1962: "Introduction to High Altitude Entomology." Methuen, London. MASON, I. L. 1939: Studies in the fauna of an Algerian hot spring. J. exp. Biol. 16: 487-98. MENDELSSOHN, M. 1902: Recherches sur la thermotaxie des organismes unicellulaire. J. Physiol. Path. gén. 4: 399-409. MILLER, D. 1910: Bionomic observations on certain New Zealand Diptera. Trans. N.Z. Inst. 42: 226-35. PENNAK, R. W. 1953: "Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States." Ronald, N.Y. PONDER, W. F. 1964: The freshwater Mollusca of New Zealand. Tane 10: 12-35. POYNTON, J. W. 1904: Notes on an insect found in some hot springs at Taupo. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 36: 170-72. STONER, D. 1923: Insects taken at hot springs, New Zealand. Ent. News 34: 88-90. TILLYARD, R. J. 1920: Report on the neuropteroid insects of the hot springs region, N.Z., in relation to the problem of trout food. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 45: 205-13. UYEMURA, M. 1936: Biological studies of thermal waters in Japan. IV. Ecol. St., 2: 171. WARD, H. B., and WHIPPLE, G. C. 1959: "Freshwater Biology." Wiley, N.Y. WISE, K. A. J. 1962: Characters for the determination of damsel fly nymphs (Odonata, Zygoptera) in New Zealand. N.Z. Ent. 3 (1): 56-9. WOODS, C. S. 1963: "Native and Introduced Freshwater Fishes." Reed, Wellington.