On the Effects of Ethical Climate(s) on Employees’ Behavior: A Social Identity Approach Stefano Pagliaro1, Alessandro Lo Presti2*, Massimiliano Barattucci3, Valeria A. Giannella1, Manuela Barreto4 1
Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Università degli Studi G. d'Annunzio Chieti
e Pescara, Italy, 2Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Italy, 3Università degli Studi eCampus, Italy, 4Psychology, University of Exeter, United Kingdom Submitted to Journal: Frontiers in Psychology
l a n o si
Specialty Section: Organizational Psychology ISSN: 1664-1078 Article type: Original Research Article
i v o r P Received on: 09 Mar 2018 Accepted on: 24 May 2018
Provisional PDF published on: 24 May 2018 Frontiers website link: www.frontiersin.org
Citation: Pagliaro S, Lo_presti A, Barattucci M, Giannella VA and Barreto M(2018) On the Effects of Ethical Climate(s) on Employees’ Behavior: A Social Identity Approach. Front. Psychol. 9:960. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00960 Copyright statement: © 2018 Pagliaro, Lo_presti, Barattucci, Giannella and Barreto. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution and reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
This Provisional PDF corresponds to the article as it appeared upon acceptance, after peer-review. Fully formatted PDF and full text (HTML) versions will be made available soon.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org
i v o r P
l a n o si
1
On the Effects of Ethical Climate(s) on Employees’ Behavior: A Social
2
Identity Approach
3 4
Stefano Pagliaro1, Alessandro Lo Presti2*, Massimiliano Barattucci3, Valeria Amata Giannella1, & Manuela Barreto4
5 6
1
7 8
2*
9
3
Laboratory NA, Institute NA, E-campus University, Roma, Italy
10
4
Laboratory NA, Institute NA, Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
11 12 13
* Correspondence: Alessandro Lo Presti, Università della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Viale Ellittico, 31, 81100, Caserta, Italy. Phone/Fax: Fax: + 39 0823 275 331. E-mail:
[email protected].
Laboratory of Social Psychology, Institute NA, Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy Laboratory NA, Institute NA, Department of Psychology, Università della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Caserta, Italy
14 15 16
19 20 21
i v o r P
Keywords: Ethical climate, Organization Identification, Moral Disengagement, Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, Counterproductive Work Behaviors
17 18
Word count:
Abstract: 171
Main Text and note: 4892 Reference List: 2487 Table: 149
22 23 24 25 26 27
l a n o si
Article type: Original research
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 28
Abstract
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
The spread and publicity given to questionable practices in the corporate world during the last two decades has fostered an increasing interest about the importance of ethical work for organizations, practitioners, scholars and, last but not least, the wider public. Relying on the Social Identity Approach, we suggest that the effects of different ethical climates on employee behaviors are driven by affective identification with the organization and, in parallel, by cognitive moral (dis)engagement. We compared the effects of two particular ethical climates derived from the literature: An ethical organizational climate of self-interest, and an ethical organizational climate of friendship. Three hundred seventy-six workers completed measures of Ethical Climate, Organizational Identification, Moral Disengagement, Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, and Counterproductive Work Behaviors. Structural equation modelling confirmed that the two ethical climates considered were independently related to organizational identification and moral disengagement. These, in turn, mediated the effects of ethical climates on Organizational Citizenship Behaviors and Counterproductive Work Behaviors. We discuss results in light of the social identity approach, and present some practical implications of our findings.
Eliminato: influenced
43
l a n o si
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
i v o r P
54 55 56 57 58 59 This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
2
Pervasiveness of Morality 61
The spread and publicity given to questionable practices in the corporate world during the last two
62
decades (e.g., scandals, frauds, bankruptcies, conflicts of interest, violation of workers’ rights, etc.)
63
have fostered an increasing awareness of, and interest in, the importance of ethical work climates
64
(Victor & Cullen, 1988) for organizations, practitioners, scholars and the wider public (Barattucci,
65
Alfano, & Amodio, 2017). The growing interest in the study of ethical climates – defined as a set of
66
shared perceptions of procedures and policies, both formal and informal, which shape expectations
67
for ethical behavior (Victor & Cullen, 1987) – relies on the observation that they strongly influence
68
individual and organizational outcomes and behaviors (Ehrhart & Raver, 2014; Mayer, 2014;
69
Treviño, Butterfield, & McCabe, 1998). Specifically, ethical climates that promote pro-social
70
behavior generally tend to be associated with stronger work performance than ethical climates that
71
promote individualism (e.g., Briggs, Jaramillo, & Weeks, 2012; Ehrhart & Raver, 2014; Mayer,
72
2014). Thus, the understanding of positive proximal (e.g., job attitudes) and distal (e.g., lowered
73
performance) organizational and individual consequences that different ethical climates may foster,
74
can help organizations harness their potential.
l a n o si
i v o r P
75
How does ethical climate – or better, how do different types of ethical climates – impact upon
76
individual’s attitudes and behavior? Relying on the Social Identity Approach (Tajfel & Turner, 1979;
77
Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Whetherell, 1987), in the present paper we suggest that the effects
78
of different ethical climates on employees’ behavioral tendencies are driven by affective
79
identification with the organization and, in parallel, by cognitive moral (dis)engagement (Bandura,
80
1990). Knowing whether and how different ethical climates foster organizational identification and
81
moral disengagement could be helpful to tailor organizational interventions targeting specific
82
dimensions of organizational climate, to foster positive organizational identification, or to discourage
83
moral disengagement. In particular, we aim to show that different kinds of ethical climates are related
84
to different levels of organizational affective identification and cognitive moral (dis-)engagement 3
Eliminato: predict
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 86
towards the organization as a whole, which impact on the employees’ positive (i.e., Organizational
87
Citizenship Behavior, hereafter OCB; e.g., Brief & Motowidlo, 1986) and negative (i.e.,
88
Counterproductive Work Behaviors, hereafter CWB; e.g., Spector & Fox, 2005) behavioral reactions.
89
Ethical Climate(s)
90
An ethical climate can be referred to as “the perception of what constitutes right behavior, and
91
thus becomes a psychological mechanism through which ethical issues are managed” (Martin &
92
Cullen, 2006, p. 177). As such, the construct of ethical climate approaches the notion of moral norms,
93
that is, behavioral guidelines that drive the interpretation of what is right and wrong within groups
94
and organizations (see for instance, Ellemers, Pagliaro, Barreto, & Leach, 2008; Pagliaro, Ellemers,
95
& Barreto, 2011). This refers to the fact that different organizations develop different subcultures that
96
govern how individuals relate to each other and regulate each other's behavior. Starting from the
97
original ethical climate theory (Victor & Cullen, 1987; 1988), a growing body of research has
98
focused on the consequences of ethical climate on employees’ perceptions and behaviors. In this
99
vein, researchers ascertained that ethical climates predict employees’ ethical behaviors (Treviño et
l a n o si
i v o r P
100
al., 1998; Verbeke, Ouwerkerk, & Peelen, 1996), job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction; Ambrose,
101
Arnaud, & Schminke, 2008; Deshpande, 1996; Schweper, 2001), commitment to the organization
102
(e.g., Babin, Boles, & Robin, 2000; Treviño et al., 1998), turnover intentions (Ambrose et al. 2008;
103
Mulki, Jaramillo, & locander, 2006; Schwepker, 2001), organizational citizenship behaviors (Leung,
104
2008; Shin, 2012), and a range of counterproductive work behaviors (for a review, see Ehrhart &
105
Raver, 2014; Meyer, 2014).
106
A second important area of investigation around ethical climate has focused on the
107
understanding of the different facets of the concept itself. While some have regarded it as a single
108
construct (see Arnaud & Schminke, 2007; Mayer, 2014; Schwepker, 2001), the concept of ethical
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
4
Pervasiveness of Morality 109
climate is more commonly regarded as multi-dimensional (Babin et al., 2000; DeConinck, 2011;
110
Victor & Cullen, 1988). For example, in their seminal work Victor and Cullen (1987, 1988) proposed
111
a theoretical typology of ethical climates comprising nine ethical climate types based on two
112
dimensions: a) the criteria used for making ethical decisions (i.e., egoism, benevolence and
113
principles) and b) the locus-of-analysis (i.e., individual, local and cosmopolitan). Following from this
114
proposal, several types of ethical climates have been theorized, as well as different ways of
115
differentiating between them. An important distinction for the present purpose can be made between
116
an ethical organizational climate of self-interest, which underlines a more individualistic and
117
independent way of dealing with ethical issues within the organization; and an ethical organizational
118
climate of friendship, which, on the contrary, subsumes a collective and interdependent way to deal
119
with the same ethical issues (Cullen, Victor, & Bronson, 1993). In the present paper, we deal in
120
particular with the relationship between these two ethical climates and employees’ positive and
121
negative behaviors, in terms of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – that is, discretionary
122
behaviors that are favorable to the organization (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986) – and their extreme
123
opposite, Counterproductive Work Behaviors – that is, “volitional acts that harm or intend to harm
124
organizations and their stakeholders” (Spector & Fox, 2005, pp. 151-152).
125
Eliminato: The
l a n o si
i v o r P
Although both climates of friendship and self-interest may have positive effects, when it
126
comes to promoting pro-organizational behavior like Organizational Citizenship Behavior (and/or to
127
discourage negative tendencies such as Counterproductive Work Behaviors), we propose that an
128
ethical climate of friendship (vs. self-interest) will have the upper hand. This is because such an
129
interdependent and collective way of dealing with ethical issues within organizations is more likely
130
to promote organizational affective identification, and discourage cognitive moral disengagement.
131
The relation between ethical climate, on the one hand, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (e.g.,
132
Leung 2008; Shin, 2012) and a plethora of Counterproductive Work Behaviors (for a review, Ehrhart 5
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 134
& Raver, 2014) on the other, has been demonstrated in the literature: however, far less attention has
135
been devoted to the investigation of the affective and cognitive mechanisms that underlie such
136
relation. Clarifying these mechanisms is the main goal of the present paper.
137
Organizational Identification and its Relationship with Ethical Climate
138
The seminal work on organizational identification by Ashforth and Mael (1989) highlighted the fact
139
that applying the social identity approach (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner et al., 1987) to
140
organizations allowed a new understanding of many organizational dynamics (e.g., leadership;
141
conflict and conflict resolution; job strain, amongst others). The central statement of the social
142
identity approach (Tajfel, 1978) is that, whereas in many situations people think about themselves as
143
unique and independent individuals, who behave on the basis of their own idiosyncratic
144
characteristics, in many other contexts they are inclined to think of themselves (and others, in turn) in
145
terms of group membership (e.g., in terms of their belonging to an organization). Most importantly,
146
in the cognitive elaboration of the approach – that is, self-categorization theory – Turner and
147
colleagues (1979) elaborated on the conditions under which different levels of self-definitions
148
(personal vs. social) are likely to become salient, as well as on the perceptive and behavioral
149
consequences of those different self-definitions (Oakes, Haslam, & Turner, 1994; see also, Ellemers,
150
DeGilder, & Haslam, 2004). Thus, the social identity approach specifies how group membership –
151
and the affective connection with one’s group (i.e., social identification) – provides individuals with
152
normative guidelines that help them define who they are, how to behave, and which aspects of their
153
group belongingness are particularly important (Ellemers, Pagliaro, & Barreto, 2013). As a result,
154
their group belongingness becomes part of their collective self-concept.
l a n o si
i v o r P
155
Building on Ashforth and Mael (1989; 1996), researchers highlighted the link between
156
organizational identification and several aspects of organizational life (see Riketta, 2005, for a
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
6
Pervasiveness of Morality 157
review), including, for instance, work motivation (Haslam, Powell, & Turner, 2000), turnover
158
intentions (Ellemers, Kingma, van de Burgt, & Barreto, 2011; Ngo, Loi, Foley, Zheng, & Zhang,
159
2013; Smith, Amiot, Callan, Terry, & Smith, 2012), organizational trust (Roeck & Delobbe, 2012),
160
procedural justice (Epitropaki, 2013), perceived organizational support (Cheung & Law, 2008), and
161
job performance (Riketta, 2005). Nevertheless, only few studies have tried to connect organizational
162
identification and ethical climate (Briggs et al., 2012; DeConinck, 2011; DeConinck, DeConinck, &
163
Banerjee, 2013; Umphress, Bingham, & Mitchell, 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2011). Among these, the
164
most relevant for the present purpose is the work by DeConinck (2011), who found that facets of
165
ethical work climates (i.e., responsibility/trust) were directly related to organizational identification
166
in a sample of salespeople. Nevertheless, this previous research did not investigate whether or not
167
different ethical climates relate to organizational identification, nor has it ascertained how this further
168
impacts upon employees’ positive and negative organizational behaviors, as we tried to do in the
169
present research. The lack of empirical studies on the relation between ethical climate and
170
organizational identification is at odds with recent evidence of how central moral/ethical issues are
171
for group belongingness and identification (DeConinck, 2011; Ellemers et al., 2013; Pagliaro et al.,
172
2011; van Prooijen & Ellemers, 2015). In fact, individuals prefer to identify with, and are particularly
173
proud of, groups and organizations that are considered as moral and honest (for a review, Ellemers et
174
al., 2013), and this centrality of organizational morality leads them to commit themselves to the
175
organization (Ellemers et al., 2011). Following this rationale, it should be predicted that strong
176
ethical climates facilitate employee organizational identification (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Becker,
177
Billings, Eveleth, & Gilbert, 1996), in particular when this subsumes a collective and interdependent
178
(vs. an individual and independent) way to behave within the organization. This is why in the present
179
research we focused on the comparison between an ethical organizational climate of self-interest and
180
an ethical organizational climate of friendship, which subsume two opposite ways to deal with the
l a n o si
i v o r P
7
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 181 182
same ethical issues (Cullen et al., 1993). Moral Disengagement in Organizational Contexts
183
Bandura (1990, 1991) introduced the concept of moral disengagement to identify several social-
184
cognitive mechanisms that people use to justify or rationalize their wrongful and deviant antisocial
185
behaviors. In particular, it is posited that individuals generally behave in ways that are consistent
186
with their internal standards of morality because they may experience anticipatory negative emotions
187
(e.g., remorse, guilt, and shame) when they deviate from those internal standards. However, under
188
specific situations individuals might perform behaviors that violate such internal standards, even
189
when these remain unchanged, thus effectively bypassing the negative emotions that would normally
190
emerge from such violation. Moral disengagement is therefore a process that allows individuals to
191
regard their negative behavior, and its consequences, in a socially acceptable way (Gibbs, Potter, &
192
Goldstein, 1995). It can operate as an automatic and anticipatory mechanism preventing individuals
193
from perceiving moral inconsistencies, or as a post-hoc rationalization (Ashforth & Anand, 2003;
194
Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Bandura, Caprara, & Zsolnai, 2000; Fida et al.,
195
2015; Martin, Kish-Gephart, & Detert, 2014). While some scholars focused on moral disengagement
196
as a disposition (e.g., Moore et al., 2012), others have started to examine how situational or
197
contextual factors may promote moral disengagement and unethical behaviors (Kish-Gephart, Detert,
198
Trevino, Baker & Martin, 2014; Martin et al., 2014).
199
l a n o si
i v o r P
In organizational contexts, researchers have ascertained the relationship between moral
200
disengagement on the one hand and a number of misconducts on the other hand, including
201
violations of legal and moral rules in the production process (Brief, Buttram, & Dukerich, 2001),
202
unethical work behaviors (Barsky, 2011; Moore, 2008), and violation of safety rules (Barbaranelli &
203
Perna, 2004; for a review, see Treviño, Weaver, & Reynolds, 2006). Deviance can have profound
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
8
Pervasiveness of Morality 204
negative effects on organizational performance and can be very costly (Huang, Wellman, Ashford,
205
Lee, & Wang, 2017). Ethical climates might influence the self-regulation process that reduces or
206
increases negative behaviors, allowing workers to keep a positive view of themselves even if they
207
undertake deviant actions (Baron, Zhao, & Miao, 2015; Christian & Ellis, 2014; Greenhalgh, Watt, &
208
Schutte, 2015).
209
Although the relationship between moral disengagement and Counterproductive Work
210
Behaviors has been ascertained, far less attention has been devoted to the possible relationship
211
between ethical climate and moral disengagement. Saidon, Galbreath, and Whiteley (2012) found
212
that moral disengagement mediated the effect of ethical climate on interpersonal deviance.
213
Nevertheless, as noted above, ethical climate has been acknowledged as a multi-dimensional
214
construct, which underpins different ways of treating moral issues within organizations. Later,
215
Paharia, Vohs, and Deshpande (2013) found that situations promoting self-interest fostered moral
216
disengaged reasoning and behaviors. Thus, we are inclined to believe that the specific (individual and
217
independent vs. collective and interdependent) nature of the ethical climate endorsed within an
218
organization may favor moral disengagement towards that organization and subsequently promote
219
anti-social behaviors. In particular, we suggest that the more the organization endorses a collective
220
and interdependent way to treat moral issues (i.e., a friendship ethical climate), the less employees
221
should morally disengage, the more they should display OCBs and the less they should display
222
CWBs.
223
l a n o si
i v o r P The Present Research
224
In the present research we directly tested how two different kinds of ethical climate relate to
225
employees’ affective identification with organization, cognitive moral disengagement, and (positive
226
and negative) behaviors. In particular, considering that social identity approach stresses the
9
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 227
importance of the psychological link with other ingroup members, we considered two particular
228
ethical climates: An ethical organizational climate of self-interest, which underlines an individualistic
229
way to deal with ethical issues within the organization, and an ethical organizational climate of
230
friendship, which on the contrary subsumes a more collective and interdependent way to deal with
231
the same ethical issues (Cullen et al., 1993). Our main proposition is that the more the ethical climate
232
of an organization endorses a collective way to manage the ethical issues, the more employees should
233
be encouraged to strengthen their psychological linkage with their peers and their organization as a
234
whole, and the less they should therefore disengage from their own organization. As a result, they
235
should behave in a way that benefits the organization as a whole rather than themselves as
236
individuals. On the contrary, the more the ethical climate of an organization promotes individuality,
237
the less employees should be encouraged to strengthen their psychological linkage with their peers
238
and their organization as a whole, and the more they should consider correct to behave in an
239
individualistic way, even in ways that threaten the organization as a whole. As a result, they should
240
not invest time and energies in behaviors that benefit the organization as a whole.
241
l a n o si
i v o r P
In summary, we anticipated that the perception of an ethical organizational climate of self-
242
interest would be negatively related to organizational identification (Hp1a) and positively related to
243
moral disengagement within the organization (Hp1b). On the contrary, we anticipated that the
244
perception of an ethical organizational climate of friendship should be positively related to
Eliminato: predict
245
organizational identification (Hp2a) and negatively related to moral disengagement within the
Eliminato: predict
246
organization (Hp2b). Moreover, we hypothesized that both organizational identification and moral
247
disengagement should be related to employees’ positive and negative behaviors, in terms of OCB and
248
CWB, although in opposite directions. That is, organizational identification should be positively
249
related to OCB (Hp3a) and negatively related to CWB (Hp3b). On the contrary, moral
250
disengagement should be negatively related to OCB (Hp4a) and positively related to CWB (Hp4b).
Eliminato: negatively predict Eliminato: predict
Eliminato: predict
Eliminato: predict Eliminato: predict Eliminato: predict Eliminato: predict
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
10
Pervasiveness of Morality 260
Finally, in order to clarify whether the effects of ethical climate on OCB and CWB are driven by
261
organizational identification and moral disengagement, we tested whether these effects are actually
262
mediated by both organizational identification and moral disengagement (Hp5). We tested these
263
hypotheses in a comprehensive structural equations modelling. Figure 1 depicts our research model
264
and summarizes the main hypotheses.
265 266 267
Eliminato: d
Method Participants and Procedure Data were collected among employees at eleven Italian small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
Eliminato: a variety of Eliminato: O
268
in different sectors: insurance, health, chemical, manufacturing, and welfare. We adopted this
Eliminato: . SMEs worked
269
sampling procedure because SMEs are the typical Italian organization and this could help achieve the
Eliminato: O
270
highest variability in responses.
271
l a n o si
i v o r P
The final sample consisted of 376 workers, 215 (57.2%) of whom were women (9 missing
272
cases). Mean age was 40.35 years (SD = 10.95), while average organizational tenure was 10.98 years
273
(SD = 10.69). One hundred twenty-seven respondents (33.8%) were single, 212 (56.4%) were
274
married/cohabitating and 18 (4.8%) were divorced or widowed (19 missing cases). 26 (6.9%) held a
275
junior high school degree or less, 161 (42.8%) a high school degree and 175 (46.5%) a university
276
degree (14 missing cases). As for employment contract, 258 (68.7%) held a permanent contract
277
against 98 (26.1%) with a permanent contract (20 missing cases).
278
Respondents received a copy of the questionnaire, along with a letter of research presentation
279
and a sealable envelope in order to protect privacy (Italian Law No. 196/2003). Questionnaires were
280
distributed within organizations by trained researchers and participation was voluntary. Researchers
281
contacted the human resource managers of the companies, explained the topic under investigation to
282
them, and these collectively distributed the questionnaires to the employees. Employees were asked 11
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 288
to fill in the questionnaires and return them within 2 weeks. Individuals had the opportunity to stop
289
their participation at any time. The study complied with ethical standards and was approved by the
290
Ethical Committee of the second author’s institution.
291
Measures
292
Ethical organizational climate of self-interest (Cullen et al., 1993; Italian version: Lo Presti,
293
Pagliaro, Barattucci, & Marcato, 2017) was assessed through four items (e.g., “In this company,
294
people are mostly out for themselves”). Responses were given through a 6-point scale (from 0 =
295
“completely false” to 5 = “completely true”; Cronbach’s alpha = .75).
296
Ethical organizational climate of friendship (Cullen et al., 1993; Italian version: Lo Presti et
l a n o si
297
al., 2017) was assessed through six items (e.g., “In this company, people look out for each other’s
298
good”). Responses were given through a 6-point scale (from 0 = “completely false” to 5 =
299
“completely true”; Cronbach’s alpha = .90).
300
Eliminato: ,
i v o r P
Organizational identification was assessed through the Italian adaptation by Manuti and
301
Bosco (2012) of the original 6-item scale by Mael and Ashforth (1992), adapted for organizational
302
contexts (e.g., “When someone criticizes my organization, it feels like a personal insult”). Responses
303
were given on a 6-point Likert scale (from 0 = “completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”;
304
Cronbach’s alpha = .92).
305
Moral disengagement was evaluated through the Work Moral Disengagement Scale (Fida et
306
al., 2015). The scale comprised 24 items (e.g. “Being absent from work frequently is acceptable since
307
many people at work are not productive anyway”) through a 6-point Likert scale (from 0 =
308
“completely disagree” to 5 = “completely agree”; Cronbach’s alpha = .93).
309
Counterproductive work behaviors (CWB) were assessed through the Italian version
310
(Barbaranelli, Fida, & Gualandri, 2013) of the original checklist by Spector et al. (2006). In This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
12
Pervasiveness of Morality 312
particular, we assessed CWB towards organizations, that is behaviors targeting the organization as a
313
whole, through 13 items (e.g., “stole something belonging to my employer”). Responses were
314
collected via a 6-point frequency scale (from 0 = “never” to 5 = “always”; Cronbach’s alphas = .95).
315
Finally, to assess Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) we administered the Italian
316
version (Argentero, Cortese & Ferretti, 2008) of the original questionnaire by Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
317
Moorman, and Fetter (1990). The scale includes 15 items (e.g., ‘Help others who have heavy
318
workloads’). Participants responded by using a 7-point frequency scale (from 1 = ‘never’, to 7 =
319
‘always’; Cronbach’s α = .97).
320
Data Analysis
321
l a n o si
Structural equation modeling analysis (Lisrel 9.3) using Maximum Likelihood estimation
322
methods (along with the indicators’ covariance matrix) were used to evaluate the measurement and
323
structural models concerning study variables and their associations.
324
i v o r P
With regard to the measurement model, given the low ratio (5.52) between cases (i.e., 376)
325
and the number of items (i.e., 68) we relied on the item parceling technique (Little, Cunningham,
326
Shahar, & Widamon, 2002), which allows parcel creation on the basis of the calculated mean
327
between different items referring to the same construct. Advantages of this technique include fewer
328
instability risks in the parameters’ estimates, fewer estimation problems deriving from the small
329
number of cases, and fewer risks deriving from items’ non-normality or the excessive number of
330
parameters to be estimated.
331
Item parceling was used for the following variables: moral disengagement (6 items for 24
332
items), counterproductive work behaviors (6 parcels for 13 items), organizational citizenship
333
behaviors (5 parcels for 15 items), increasing the cases/item ratio to 11.39.
13
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 334
With regard to the models’ goodness-of-fit evaluation, we relied on both absolute and relative
335
goodness-of-fit indices. In addition to referring to the chi-square and degrees of freedom to evaluate
336
possible significant differences between alternative nested models, we reported the following indices:
337
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; acceptable values lower than .08; Browne,
338
Cudeck, & Bollen, 1993), Standardized Root Mean square Residual (SRMR; acceptable values lower
339
than .08; Hu & Bentler, 1999), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Incremental Fit Index (IFI), for
340
which scores higher than .90 are acceptable (Hoyle, 1995; Marsh, Balla, & Hau, 1996).
341
Given that we measured all study variables through a single questionnaire, we addressed
342
common method variance and response bias according to methods outlined by Podsakoff,
343
MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). Different scale endpoints and formats for the predictor and
344
criterion measures were used in order to reduce method biases caused by commonalities in scale
345
endpoints and anchoring effects. Moreover, we randomly inserted items into the questionnaire and
346
scales were graphically separated from each other. Finally, two different versions of the
347
questionnaire, containing a different scales’ sequence, were used for data collection.
348
350 351
i v o r P Results
349
l a n o si
Table 1 reports the descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations among the variables of the study.
A measurement model was developed in order to examine the construct validity of study
352
measures using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). A common method is to compare different
353
models (nested models), from a one-factor model to a final one containing as many factors as
354
included measures (in our case six latent variables), passing over intermediate solutions. The
355
different models were compared on the basis of chi square/degrees of freedom scores, and on
356
different goodness of fit indices. This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
14
Pervasiveness of Morality 357
Three different measurement models were developed: A one single factor model, a three
358
factors model (predictors, mediators, outcomes), and finally the model to be confirmed, containing
359
six separate factors (Table 2).
360
There was a remarkable improvement from model 1 to model 3, demonstrated by all the
361
included indices. Such results supported a measurement model in which items and parcels referred to
362
their respective latent variables making it possible to estimate the subsequent structural model. We
363
subsequently verified scales’ internal consistencies through Cronbach alphas. Cronbach alpha values
364
were satisfactory for all scales (see Measures section).
365
The subsequent structural model contained all hypothesized relationships (see Figure 2):
Eliminato: 1
l a n o si
366
direct links from the two predictors (organizational ethical climates of self-interest and friendship) to
367
organizational identification and moral disengagement as intermediate and mediating variables, while
368
these two latter variables linked to counterproductive work behaviors and organizational citizenship
369
behaviors as outcomes.
370
i v o r P
Such model (χ2 = 1225.58, df = 484) showed acceptable goodness of fit indexes: RMSEA =
371
.064, CFI = .924, IFI = .924, SRMR = .0604 and, being consistent with our hypotheses and research
372
model, was retained. Organizational ethical climate of self-interest was negatively related to
Eliminato: predicted
373
organizational identification (β = -.16, p < .05; Hp1a) and positively related to moral disengagement
Eliminato: predicted
374
(β = .21, p < .01; Hp1b), while friendship climate was only positively related to organizational
Eliminato: predicted
375
identification (β = .31, p < .001; Hp2a). Contrary to Hp2b, friendship climate was not reliably
376
associated with moral disengagement, although the relationship between these variables was in the
Eliminato: to
377
predicted direction. Thus, our data seems to suggest that friendship climate impacts more on positive
Eliminato: it seems
378
(i.e., identification) than negative (i.e., disengagement) reactions. Organizational identification was
379
positively related to organizational citizenship behaviors (β = .29, p < .001; Hp3a) and negatively
Eliminato: predicted
380
related to counterproductive work behaviors (β = -.27, p < .001; Hp3b); a reverse pattern emerged
Eliminato: predicted
15
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 389
concerning moral disengagement, which was negatively related to organizational citizenship
Eliminato: predicted
390
behaviors (β = -.40, p < .001; Hp4a) and positively related to counterproductive work behaviors (β =
Eliminato: predicted
391
.41, p < .001; Hp4b). Organizational ethical climates of self-interest and friendship showed a
392
significant correlation (r = -.47, p < .001), as well as counterproductive work behaviors and
393
organizational citizenship behaviors (r = -.15, p < .001), while moral disengagement and
394
organizational citizenship behaviors did not show any reciprocal correlation. Moreover, with regard
395
to the indirect effects, according to Hp5 our proposed mediators (i.e., organizational identification
396
and moral disengagement) totally mediated the effects of self-interest climate on counterproductive
397
work behaviors (indirect β = .13, p < .01), and organizational citizenship behaviors (indirect β = -.13,
398
p < .01), as well as the effects of friendship climate on counterproductive work behaviors (indirect β
399
= -.11, p < .01) and organizational citizenship behaviors (indirect β = .11, p < .01). Finally, the links
400
inserted in the model explained the following variances for dependent variables: Moral
401
disengagement = 6%, organizational identification = 17%, counterproductive work behaviors = 26%,
402
organizational citizenship behaviors = 27%.
403 404
l a n o si
i v o r P Discussion
In the present paper we dealt with the impact of ethical climate on employees’ behavior.
405
Relying on the Social Identity Approach, we proposed that the effects of different ethical climates on
406
employees’ behavioral tendencies may be driven by a process of affective identification with one’s
407
organization and, in parallel, by cognitive moral disengagement toward the organization itself. Our
408
findings showed that an ethical organizational climate of self-interest, which underlines an
409
individualistic way of dealing with ethical issues within the organization, reduces organizational
410
affective identification and enhances a cognitive process of moral disengagement. This, in turn,
411
facilitates counterproductive work behaviors and inhibits organizational citizenship behaviors among
412
employees. Conversely, an ethical organizational climate of friendship, which subsumes a collective This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
16
Pervasiveness of Morality 415
way of dealing with the same ethical issues, strengthens affective identification with the organization:
416
This produces more tendencies to organizational citizenship behaviors and reduces counterproductive
417
work behaviors among employees. Thus, our findings suggest that the effects of ethical climate on
418
individual’s behavioral reactions are driven by the psychological link with the organization (see also
419
DeConinck, 2011), and point to the fact that different ethical climates impact differently on
420
organizational identification and moral disengagement. In this way, the present research contributes
421
to the literature by showing the positive association between organizational identification and
422
employees’ attitudes and behaviors (Ashforth & Mael 1989; 1996; Ellemers et al., 2011; Haslam et
423
al., 2000; Riketta, 2005; Smith et al., 2012), and provides support to the idea that ethical climates
424
relate to different levels of organizational identification (Briggs et al., 2012; DeConinck, 2011;
425
DeConinck et al., 2013; Walumbwa et al., 2011).
l a n o si
426
The present research also shows that organizational identification and moral disengagement
427
play their roles in a rather independent way. This result has a strong applied value, since it suggests
428
that organizational identification is not an antecedent of moral disengagement. Moreover, the fact
429
that the ethical climate of friendship was not reliably associated with moral disengagement is
430
theoretically significant too, suggesting that different facets of ethical climate affect employees’
431
reactions for different reasons (identifying with one’s own organization on the one hand, morally
432
disengaging from it on the other hand).
i v o r P
433
Particular attention should be devoted to an ethical climate based on self-interest,
434
individualism and competitiveness, because our results suggest that it may negatively influence
435
identification with the organization and lead to morally disengage from the organization: Thus,
436
recognizing individualistic tendencies in ethical climate appears crucial for the organization.
437
Practical Implications
Eliminato: null effect of Eliminato: on
Eliminato: to
17
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 441
Modern working environments can be profitably understood through ethical context and
442
morality terms. Many companies are currently engaged in the contrast of unethical behaviors of their
443
own managers and employers, and they are increasingly stimulated to be guided by ethical principles
444
and environments. Institutions, organizations and magazines started to watch over companies’ ethical
445
behavior or offering ethical code advice and consulting.
446
Our results suggest some general guidelines for HR staff and managers. First, companies are
447
called to pay more attention to developing adequate ethical infrastructures, in order to reduce their
448
effects on moral disengagement processes and its subsequent behaviors: Organizations need to
449
strengthen those processes that subsume the development of positive ethical cultures and climates.
450
More specifically, in spite of organizational efforts to use and practice ethical codes, a competitive
451
context and culture may be responsible for counterproductive behavior. When formal (e.g., reward
452
systems) and informal (e.g., rumors) signals spread the organization and prompt that individualistic,
453
result-oriented, aggressive practices are recommended, good codes and regulations may not work
454
properly.
455
l a n o si
i v o r P
Furthermore, it has become increasingly clear that assessing ethical climate in organizations is
456
critical and that it should be done periodically, in order to share and discuss results and perceptions
457
together. HR managers should be aware that the communication of the results may have a critical
458
impact on employee’s perceptions and thus influence other organizational outcomes. Based on our
459
findings, organizations would also benefit from understanding how identification can be enhanced, as
460
a powerful tool to engage individuals within the organization, suggest how to recognize signals and
461
antecedents of ethical problematical situations, and lead to proper solutions.
462
Perceptions of ethical climate are a basic requirement for the effective functioning of
463
organizations and may influence several outcomes (e.g., Cullen, Parboteeah, & Victor, 2003;
464
Schwepker, 2001; Tanner, Tanner, & Wakefiled, 2015). Ethical climate becomes a strategic variable This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
18
Pervasiveness of Morality 465
for the efficient overall operation of the company, commitment, reward system, corporate identity
466
construction processes and organizational citizenship (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Clark, 2002; Schneider,
467
Ehrhart, & Macey, 2013).
468
Limitations and future directions
469
Even though our findings support our main hypotheses, the present research presents some
470
limitations that need to be addressed in future studies. First, we compared two specific ethical
471
climates that, in our opinion, could lead the interviewed employees to differentially identify with the
472
organization and, in contrast, to show moral disengagement. Although, based on the social identity
473
approach, we chose to compare an individualistic and independent (i.e., self-interest) with a
474
collectivistic and interdependent (i.e., friendship) ethical climate, a natural extension of the present
475
research would be to check how the other facets of ethical climate impact upon employees’
476
tendencies to broaden their collective self to incorporate core aspects of the organization they belong
477
to. Moreover, it is worth nothing that we assessed perceptions of ethical climate as an individual-
478
level variable, as abundant literature did, but future research could also consider ethical climate as a
479
contextual variable beyond the perceptions of employees.
480
l a n o si
i v o r P
A further extension would be to consider other outcomes of the processes we highlighted.
481
Here we focus on behavioral positive and negative tendencies, in the form of organizational
482
citizenship behaviors and counterproductive work behaviors, respectively. It would be interesting to
483
consider how the different facets of ethical climate influence employees’ wellbeing – in terms of
484
stress or empowerment perception – through organizational identification. According to the social
485
identity approach, this could be particularly important when employees compare their own
486
organization (that is, their ingroup) with what happens in a competitor context (that is, their
487
outgroup). This intergroup context could enhance ingroup identification in case of a “collective”
19
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 488
ethical climate, but could foster disengagement in case of an “individualistic” ethical climate, for
489
instance.
490
Third, data collection through a self-report questionnaire could have inflated common method
491
variance bias, although we adopted several strategies suggested by the literature in order to, at least
492
partially, counterbalance such bias. Moreover, given that our research was cross-sectional, cause-
493
effect relationships can be only justified by previous evidence and available theory. The size of our
494
sample represents a further limitation that needs to be taken into account: Future research may
495
therefore focus on confirming the pattern of relations we presented here with a larger and more
496
heterogeneous sample.
497
l a n o si
Finally, an other intriguing question that could be addressed in future studies is whether
498
different components of identification are involved in the relation between ethical climate and
499
employees’ reactions. In fact, researchers highlighted the multidimensional nature of organizational
500
identification (see, for instance, Ellemers et al., 2004), acknowledging that it expresses self-definition
501
via cognitive and affective ties with the employing organization (Kreiner & Ashforth, 2004). Thus,
502
future studies may disentangle whether both components of the organizational identification are at
503
stake in the relation between ethical climate and employees’ reactions.
504
i v o r P
Overall, the present research is consistent with the idea that the social identity approach could
505
be fruitfully applied to the organizational contexts. In particular, we provided evidence that even the
506
effect of ethical climate on individual’s behavior depends upon the level of (personal vs. social) self-
507
categorization, an early assumption that still proved to be valid and efficient in explaining group
508
processes.
509 510 This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
20
Eliminato: ¶
Pervasiveness of Morality 512
Author Contributions Statement: All the authors developed the present research and equally
513
contributed to this paper. ALP collected and analysed the data.
514
Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that there are no potential conflicts of interest
515
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
516 517 518 519 520 521
References Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18
l a n o si
Ambrose, M. L., Arnaud, A., & Schminke, M. (2008). Individual moral development and ethical
522
climate: The influence of person–organization fit on job attitudes. Journal of Business Ethics,
523
77, 323–333.
524
i v o r P
Argentero P., Cortese C.G., & Ferretti M.S. (2008). An evaluation of organisational citizenship
525
behaviour: Psychometric characteristics of the italian version of Podsakoff et al.’s scale. TPM,
526
15, 61-75.
527
Arnaud, A., & Schminke, M. (2007). Ethical work climate: A weather report and forecast. In S. W.
528
Gilliland, D. D. Steiner, & D. P. Skarlicki (Eds.), Research in social issues in management:
529
Managing social and ethical issues in organizations (Vol. 5, pp. 181-227). Greenwich, CT:
530
IAP.
531 532
Ashforth, B. E., & Anand, V. (2003). The normalization of corruption in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25, 1–52.
21
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 533 534 535 536 537 538 539
Ashfort, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organisation. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20–39. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. A. (1996). Organizational identity and strategy as a context for the individual. Advances in Strategic Management, 13, 19-64 Babin, B. J., Boles, J. S., & Robin, D. P. (2000). Representing the Perceived Ethical Work Climate Among Marketing Employees. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 28, 345-358. Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in terrorism. In W. Reich (Ed.), Origins of
540
terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, states of mind (pp. 161–191). New York: Cambridge
541
University Press.
542
l a n o si
Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L.
543
Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. I, pp. 45–103). Hillsdale,
544
NJ: Erlbaum.
545
i v o r P
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Mechanism of moral
546
disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social
547
Psychology, 71, 364–374. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.364.
548 549 550
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., & Zsolnai, L. (2000). Corporate transgressions through moral disengagement. Journal of Human Values, 6, 57–64. doi: 10.1177/097168580000600106. Barattucci, M., Alfano, V. & Amodio, S. (2017) The company judged from the inside:
551
diversification, equity and justice in organizations. Journal of Psychological and Educational
552
Research, 25, 65-81.
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
22
Pervasiveness of Morality 553
Barbaranelli, C., Fida, R., & Gualandri, M. (2013). Assessing counterproductive work behavior: A
554
study on the dimensionality of Cwb-Checklist. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in
555
Applied Psychology, 20, 1–15
556 557 558
Barbaranelli, C., & Perna, A. (2004). Meccanismi di disimpegno morale nell’applicazione delle normative sulla sicurezza: contributo empirico. Risorsa Uomo, 10, 393–415. Baron, R. A., Zhao, H., & Miao, Q. (2015). Personal motives, moral disengagement, and unethical
559
decisions by entrepreneurs: Cognitive mechanisms on the “slippery slope”. Journal of
560
Business Ethics, 128, 107–118.
561 562 563 564 565
l a n o si
Barsky, A. (2011). Investigating the effects of moral disengagement and participation on unethical work behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 104, 59–75. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0889-7. Becker, T. E., Billings, R. S., Eveleth, D. M., & Gilbert, N. W. (1996). Foci and bases of
i v o r P
commitment: Implications for performance. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 464 – 482. Brief, A. P., Buttram, R. T., & Dukerich, J. M. (2001). Collective corruption in the corporate world:
566
Toward a process model. In M. E. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp.
567
471–499). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
568 569 570
Brief, A. P., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1986). Prosocial organizational behaviors. Academy of Management Review, 11, 710-725.
Briggs, E., Jaramillo, F., & Weeks, W. A. (2012). The influences of ethical climate and organization
571
identity comparisons on salespeople and their job performance. Journal of Personal Selling &
572
Sales Management, 32, 421–436.
23
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 573 574 575
Browne, M. W., Cudeck, R., & Bollen, K. A. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sage focus editions. Cheung, M. F. Y. & Law, M. C. C. (2008), Relationships of organisational justice and organisational
576
identification: the mediating effects of perceived organisational support in Hong Kong. Asia
577
Pacific Business Review, 14, 213-231.
578 579 580 581 582 583 584
Christian, J. S., & Ellis, A. P. J. (2014). The crucial role of turnover intentions in transforming moral disengagement into deviant behavior at work. Journal of Business Ethics, 119, 193–208. Cullen, J. B., Parboteeah, K. P. & Victor, B. (2003). The effects of ethical climates on
l a n o si
organizational commitment: A two-study analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 46, 127-141.
Cullen, J. B., Victor, B., & Bronson, J. W. (1993). The ethical climate questionnaire: An assessment of its development and validity. Psychological Reports, 73, 667-674.
i v o r P
DeConinck, J. B. (2011). The Effects of Ethical Climate on Organizational Identification,
585
Supervisory Trust, and Turnover among Salespeople. Journal of Business Research, 64, 617-
586
624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2010.06.014.
587 588 589 590
DeConinck, J., DeConinck, M. B., & Banerjee, T. (2013). Outcomes of an Ethical Work Climate among Salespeople. International Journal of Business Administration, 4, 1-8. Deshpande, S. P. (1996). The Impact of Ethical Climate Types on Facets of Job Satisfaction: An Empirical Investigation, Journal of Business Ethics 15, 655–660.
591
Ehrhart, M. G., & Raver, J. L. (2014). The effects of organizational climate and culture on productive
592
andcounterproductive behavior. In B. Schneider & K. Barbera (Eds.), The handbook of
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
24
Pervasiveness of Morality 593
organizational climate and culture: Antecedents, consequences, and practice (pp. 153.176).
594
New York: Oxford University Press.
595
Ellemers, N., De Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. (2004). Motivating individuals and groups at work: A
596
social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management
597
Review, 29, 459–478.
598
Ellemers, N., Kingma, L., van Burgt de, J. & Barreto, M. (2011). Corporate social responsibility as a
599
source of organizational morality, employee commitment and satisfaction. Journal of
600
Organizational Moral Psychology 1, 97–124.
601 602 603
l a n o si
Ellemers, N., Pagliaro, S., & Barreto, M. (2013). Morality and Behavioural Regulation in Groups: A Social Identity Approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 24, 160-193.
Ellemers, N., Pagliaro, S., Barreto, M., & Leach, C.W. (2008). Is it better to be moral than smart?
i v o r P
604
The effects of morality and competence norms on the decision to work at group status
605
improvement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1397-1410.
606
Epitropaki, O. (2013). A multi-level investigation of psychological contract breach and
607
organizational identification through the lens of perceived organizational membership:
608
Testing a moderated-mediated model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 65–86. DOI:
609
10.1002/job.1793.
610
Fida, R., Paciello, M., Tramontano, C., Fontaine, R. G., Barbaranelli, C., & Farnese, M. L. (2015).
611
An Integrative Approach to Understanding Counterproductive Work Behavior: The Roles of
612
Stressors, Negative Emotions, and Moral Disengagement. Journal of Business Ethics, 130,
613
131–144. DOI 10.1007/s10551-014-2209-5
25
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 614
Gibbs, J. C., Potter, G. B., & Goldstein, A. P. (1995). The EQUIP program: Teaching youth to think
615
and act responsibly through a peer-helping approach. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
616
Greenhalgh, E. M., Watt, S. E., & Schutte, N. S. (2015) Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement in the
617 618
Endorsement of Asylum Seeker Policies in Australia. Ethics & Behavior, 25 (6), 482–499. Haslam, S. A., Powell, C., & Turner, J. C. (2000). Social identity, self-categorization, and work
619
motivation: rethinking the contribution of the group to positive and sustainable organizational
620
outcomes. Applied Psychology, 49, 319–39
621
Hoyle, R.H. (1995). The structural equation modeling approach: Basic concepts and fundamental
l a n o si
622
issues. In R.H. Hoyle (ed.), Structural Equation Modeling, Concepts, Issues, and Applications
623
(pp. 1-15). Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
624 625 626
Hu, L., & Bentler. P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis:
i v o r P
conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Huang, G. H., Wellman, N., Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Wang, L. (2017). Deviance and exit: The
627
organizational costs of job insecurity and moral disengagement. Journal of Applied
628
Psychology, 102(1), 26-42.
629
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Detert, J., Trevino, L. K., Baker, V., & Martin, S. (2014). Situational moral
630
disengagement: Can the effects of self-interest be mitigated? Journal of Business Ethics, 125,
631
267-285.
632 633
Kreiner, G. E. & Ashforth, B. E. (2004). Evidence toward an expanded model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 1-27.
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
Formattato: Tipo di carattere: Corsivo
26
Pervasiveness of Morality 634 635 636
Leung, K.(2008). Matching ethical work climate to in-role and extra-role behaviors in a collectivist work setting. Journal of Business Ethics, 79, 43-55. Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widamon, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel:
637
Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151-173.
638
Lo Presti, A., Pagliaro, S., Barattucci, M. & Marcato D. (2017, May). Examining the behavioral
Formattato: Tipo di carattere: Corsivo, Inglese (Stati Uniti)
639
effects of ethical climate. The role of organizational identification and moral disengagement.
640
Paper presented at the 18th conference of the European Association of Work and
641
Organizational Psychology, Dublin (Ireland).
642
l a n o si
Mael, F. A., & Ashforth, B. E. (1992). Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the
643
reformulated model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13,
644
103-123.
645 646 647
i v o r P
Manuti, A., & Bosco, A. (2012). Organizational identification: A contribution to the validation of the psychometric features of two measures. Giornale italiano di Psicologia, 39(4), 881-902. Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & Hau, K. T. (1996). An evaluation of Incremental Fit Indices: a
648
clarification of mathematical and empirical properties. In G. A. Marcoulides, & R. E.
649
Schumacker (Eds.) Advanced structural equation modeling, issues and techniques (pp. 315–
650
353). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
651 652 653 654
Formattato: Inglese (Stati Uniti)
Martin, K. D., & Cullen, J. B. (2006). Continuities and extensions of ethical climate theory: A metaanalytic review. Journal of Business Ethics, 69, 175–194. Martin, S. R., Kish-Gephart, J. J., & Detert, J. R. (2014). Blind forces: Ethical infrastructures and moral disengagement in organizations. Organizational Psychology Review, 4, 295-325.
27
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 655
Mayer, D. M. (2014). A review of the literature on ethical climate and culture. In B. Schneider & K.
656
Barbera (Eds.), The handbook of organizational climate and culture: Antecedents,
657
consequences, and practice (pp. 415-440). New York: Oxford University Press.
658
Moore, C. (2008). Moral disengagement in processes of organizational corruption. Journal of
659
Business Ethics, 80, 129–139.
660
Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why employees do
661
bad things: Moral disengagement and unethical organizational behavior. Personnel
662
Psychology, 65, 1–48.
663
l a n o si
Mulki, J. P., Jaramillo, F., & Locander, W. B. (2006). Effects of ethical climate and supervisory trust
664
on salesperson's job attitudes and intentions to quit. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales
665
Management, 24, 19−26.
666
i v o r P
Ngo, H., Loi, R., Foley, S., Zheng, X., & Zhang, L. (2013). Perceptions of Organizational Context
667
and Job Attitudes: The Mediating Effect of Organizational Identification. Asia Pacific
668
Journal of Management, 30, 149-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10490-012-9289-5
669
Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford:
670 671
Blackwell.
Ostroff, C., Kinicki, A. J., & Clark, M. A. (2002). Substantive and operational issues of response bias
672
across levels of analysis: an example of climate-satisfaction relationships. Journal of Applied
673
Psychology, 87, 355-368.
674
Pagliaro, S., Ellemers, N., & Barreto, M. (2011). Sharing moral values: Anticipated in-group respect
675
as a determinant of adherence to morality-based (but not competence-based) group norms.
676
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1117-1129. This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
28
Pervasiveness of Morality 677
Paharia, N., Vohs, K. D., & Deshpande, R. (2013). Sweatshop labor is wrong unless the shoes are
678
cute: Cognition can both help and hurt moral motivated reasoning. Organizational Behavior
679
and Human Decision Processes, 121, 81–88.
680
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases
681
in behavioural research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies.
682
Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.
683
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader
684
behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational
685
citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142.
686 687 688 689 690
l a n o si
Riketta, M. (2000). Discriminative validation of numerical indices of attitudes ambivalence. Current Research in Social Psychology 5, 63-83.
i v o r P
Riketta, M. (2005). Organizational identification: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 358-384.
Roeck, K., & Delobbe, N. (2012). Do environmental CSR initiatives serve organizations’ legitimacy
691
in the oil industry? Exploring employees’ reactions through organizational identification
692
theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 110, 397–412.
693
Saidon, I., Galbreath, J., & Whiteley, A. (2012). Organizational Ethical Climate and Interpersonal
694
Deviance: The Mediating Role of Moral Disengagement. 3rd International conference on
695
business and economic research proceedings (12-13 March 2012). Bandung, Indonesia.
696 697
Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. G., & Macey, W. A. (2011). Organizational climate research: Achievements and the road ahead. In N. Ashkanasy, C. Wilderom, & M. Peterson (Eds.),
29
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 698
Handbook of organizational culture and climate (2nd ed., pp. 29-49). Thousand Oaks, CA:
699
Sage.
700
Schwepker, C. H., Jr. (2001). Ethical climate’s relationship to job satisfaction, organizational
701
commitment, and turnover intention in the salesforce. Journal of Business Research, 54, 39–
702
52.
703 704 705 706 707
Schwepker, C. H., Jr. & Hartline, M. D. (2005) Managing the Ethical Climate of Customer-Contact Service Employees, Journal of Service Research 7, 377–397. Shin, Y. (2012). CEO ethical leadership, ethical climate, climate strength, and collective
l a n o si
organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 108, 299-312.
Smith, L. G. E., Amiot, C. E., Callan, V. J., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2012). Getting new staff to
708
stay: The mediating role of organizational identification. British Journal of Management, 23,
709
45-64. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2010.00728.x
710
i v o r P
Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2005). A model of counterproductive work behavior. In S. Fox & P. E.
711
Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive workplace behavior: Investigations of actors and targets
712
(pp. 151–174). Washington, DC: APA.
713
Spector, P. E., Fox, S., Penney, L. M., Bruursema, K., Goh, A., & Kessler, S. (2006). The
714
dimensionality of counterproductivity: Are all counterproductive behaviors created equal?
715
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 446–460.
716
Tanner, E.C., Tanner, F.T., & Wakefiled, K. (2015). Panacea or paradox? The moderating role of
717
ethical climate. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 35, 175–190.
718
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08853134.2015.1010540.
This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
30
Pervasiveness of Morality 719
Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic Press.
720
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W.G. Austin & S.
721
Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, C.A.:
722
Brooks Cole.
723 724 725 726 727 728 729
Treviño, L. K., Butterfield, K. D., & McCabe, D. M. (1998). The ethical context in organizations: Influences on employee attitudes and behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly, 8, 447–476. Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32, 951–990. doi:10.1177/0149206306294258.
l a n o si
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Unethical behavior in the name of the
i v o r P
730
company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity
731
beliefs influencing unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95,
732
769-80.
733
van Prooijen, A.-M. & Ellemers, N. (2015). Does It Pay to Be Moral? How Indicators of Morality
734
and Competence Enhance Organizational and Work Team Attractiveness. British Journal of
735
Management, 26, 225-236.
736
Verbeke, W., Ouwerkerk, C. & Peelen, E. (1996). Exploring the Contextual and IndividualFactors on
737
Ethical Decision Making of Salespeople. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 1175–1187.
738
Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1987). A theory and measure of ethical climate in organizations.
739
Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, 9, 51–71.
31
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 740 741
Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 101–125.
742
Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L. (2011).
743
Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-member exchange,
744
self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human
745
Decision Processes, 115, 204 –213.
746
Zehir, C., Müceldili, B., Altindağ, E., Şehitoğlu, Y., & Zehir, S. (2014). Charismatic leadership and
747
organizational citizenship behavior: The mediating role of ethical climate. Social Behavior and
748
Personality: an international journal, 42, 1365-1375.
l a n o si
749
i v o r P This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
32
Pervasiveness of Morality 750
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations among the variables of the study M (SD) 1) Org. climate
1
2
3
4
5
6
16.15 (7.91)
friendship 2) Org. climate self-
11.94 (5.08)
-.41***
2.88 (1.38)
.34***
-.29***
.84 (.80)
-.15**
.21***
-.10*
5.65 (.98)
.30***
-.20***
.30***
interest 3) Organizational identification 4) Moral
l a n o si
disengagement 5) Organizational citizenship behaviors
i v o r P
6) Counterproductive
.33 (.73)
work behaviors 751 752
Note: *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05.
.02
.10
-.22***
-.39***
.36***
-.25***
33
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 753
Table 2. Alternative measurement models on study variables, including goodness of fit indices Chi square
df
RMSEA CFI
IFI SRMR
model 1 – one factor
6952.35
495
.186
.338 .340
.203
model 2 – three factors
4389.71
492
.145
.600 .602
.180
model 3 – six factors
1199.84
480
.063
.926 .927 .0507
754 755 756
l a n o si
757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765
i v o r P
766 767 768 769 770 771 This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
34
Pervasiveness of Morality 772
Figure Captions.
773
Figure 1. Research model and hypotheses
774
Figure 2. Structural model on study variables
Eliminato: 1
775 776 777 778 779 780 781
l a n o si
782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790
i v o r P
791 792 793 794 795 796 35
Ethical Climates: A Social Identity Approach 798 799
Figure 1. Research model and hypotheses.
800
l a n o si
i v o r P This is a provisional file, not the final typeset article
36
Pervasiveness of Morality 801
Figure 2. Structural model on study variables
Eliminato: 1
802
803
l a n o si
804 805 806 807
i v o r P
37