Opening speech

2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 2010-08-02/06, Trabzon, Turkey

Proceedings

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Content

Steering Committee of the Workshop…………….….…………………………. 4 Foreword ……………………….…………………………………………….....…7 Trabzon message………………………………………………………….….....…9 Content of the Proceedings…………………….…………….………………... 11

Presentation and outcomes of the thematic workshops..……………...……….19

Oral presentations……………..………………….............................………….. 47

Posters…………………………………………………………….……………..289

Emails of participants………………………...……………………….….…… 437

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Steering Committee of the Workshop The steering committee is so far composed of experts from Mediterranean regions of the world:

Local Committee Mr Güven Algün, Trabzon Agricultural Quarantine Directorate Mr Osman Nuri Baki, Province Directorate of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Mr Doğan Işik, Karadeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Samsun Prof Atalay Sökmen, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon Mr Süleyman Türkseven, Ege University, Izmir Mr Ahmet Uludag, European Environment Agency Prof Huseyin Zengin, Igdir University, Igdir

International Committee Mr Ahmet Aslan, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Turkey Mr Anoir Al Mouemar, University of Damas, Syria Mr Christian Bohren, Agroscope Changins, Switzerland Mr Giuseppe Brundu, University of Sassari, Italy Prof Ramiro Bustamante, University of Chile, Chile Ms Sarah Brunel, OEPP/EPPO Ms Laura Celesti-Grapow, University "La Sapienza di Roma", Italy Ms Costanza dal Cin D‘Agata, Park for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna, Greece Mr Joe DiTomaso, University of California, Davis, California Mr Pierre Ehret, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe Mr Guillaume Fried, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Mr Piero Genovesi, ISSG Prof. Vernon Heywood, University of Reading, United Kingdom Mr Geoffrey Howard, IUCN Prof Inderjit, CEMDE, University of Delhi, India Ms Elizabete Marchante, University of Coimbra, Portugal Ms Lindsey Norgrove, CABI Prof Baruch Rubin, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Prof Abdelkader Taleb, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Morocco Prof David M. Richardson, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Mr Andy Sheppard, CSIRO Entomology, Australia Ms Sarah Simons, Global Invasive Species Programme Ms Salma Talhouk, The American University of Beirut, Lebanon Ms Anna Traveset, Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Spain Mr Tuvia Yaacoby, Plant Protection and Inspection Services, Israel Prof Sinasi Yildirimli, Hacettepe University, Turkey

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Editors of the Proceedings Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO (Editor in chief) Mr Ahmed Uludag, EEA Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe Mr Giuseppe Brundu, University of Sassari, Italy

Reviewers Prof. Mohamed Bouhache, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Morocco Ms Madeleine Mc Mullen, EPPO Prof. Pavol Elias, Dept. Of Ecology, Slovak Agricultural University, Slovakia Mr Vladimir Vladimirov, Institute of Botany Bulgarian Academy Of Sciences, Bulgaria Ms Ernita van Wyck, South African National Biodiversity Institute, South Africa Mr. İlhan Üremiş, Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Mr. Pierre Ehret, French Plant Protection Organization, France Ms Judith Lorraine Fisher, University of Western Australia/Fisher Research, Australia Ms Elizabete Marchante, University of Coimbra, Portugal Mr Guillaume Fried, French National Plant Protection Organization, France Prof. Ramiro O. Bustamante, University of Chile, Chile.

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Foreword At the 10th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Nagoya (Japan) in 2010, world governments adopted targets aimed at reducing pressures on biological diversity. Target 9 concerned Invasive Alien Species, know to be one of the main causes of extinction of species at the global level: ―: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritised, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment‖, Mediterranean type regions are hotspots of biological diversity at the world level and thus an improved knowledge of how they are affected by invasive alien species and how to prevent their arrival and spread is vital to be able to preserve their biological richness. A First International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World was held in Mèze (France) from 25 to 27 May 2008, helping bring together information and expertise on the topic. (http://archives.eppo.org/MEETINGS/2005_meetings/workshop_invasive/workshop.htm ) This second Workshop, co-organized by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, The European Environment Agency, the Council of Europe, Igdir University and The Turkish Ministry of Agriculture was held in Trabzon (Turkey), from 2 to 6 August 2010. It was attended by over 90 participants from 29 countries (Australia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Chile, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Malaysia, Morocco, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sudan, Syria, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USA). Experts from the other Mediterranean Type Regions of the World (Northern Chile, California, the Cape Region of South Africa, and Western Australia) presented their experience with invasive species. The workshop consisted in plenary presentations and small working groups, allowing participants to network and to discuss current and future projects. The conclusions of all small working groups, as well as either full contributions or abstracts of oral or poster presentations are available in these proceedings. A statement was also made at the workshop: the Trabzon message, focusing on the need for more science and more conservation action on invasive alien species in Mediterranean- type regions. The 3rd workshop of that series should be organized in 2014 in Tunisia.

The Editors.

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Trabzon message The participants of the 2nd workshop on invasive alien plants in the Mediterranean type regions of the world meeting in Trabzon, Turkey, from 2 to 6 th of August 2010: 1. Warmly thank Turkish authorities and the Igdir University for their warm welcome and excellent hosting of the meeting and the European Environment Agency, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, and the Council of Europe for their support, as well as the sponsors. 2. Recall the Mèze Declaration and note that Invasive Alien Plants are a major threat both to natural and semi-natural habitats and agriculture and that our societies would highly benefit from addressing the issue and taking further steps to control their spread and mitigate their impacts. 3. Encourage governments, the scientific community, conservation practitioners, the agriculture profession, the horticulture industry, National Plant Protection Organizations, and other appropriate stakeholders to publicize and implement the recommendations below which are the result of discussions in the different workshops from this meeting: 

Promote awareness on IAP, targeting diverse public, by creating a well-planned and effective communication strategy, and organize a wide Mediterranean “cleanup day” including hands on activities to control IAP (2011 or 2012) which should be widely publicized;

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Encourage the elaboration of lists of priority alien plants as a tool to raise awareness on emergent invasive alien species by biogeographical zones, particularly in Mediterranean countries where global databases are lacking, as it is planned to be done by a number southern Mediterranean countries with the EPPO prioritization process;

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Promote the removal or eradication of invasive alien plants as a tool to be used as part of the integrated management of IAS, giving due consideration to its costs, feasibility and the health, economy and conservation gains; prioritize species and target habitats, monitor results and publicize and exchange information;

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Take necessary steps to make Codes of conduct on invasive alien plants better known and used and to encourage their use, establishing a dialogue with the horticulture industry and its customers (including managers involved in landscaping operation); use meetings of the horticulture industry such as the one to be held in Turkey in 2016 to draw their attention to the need of cooperation; publicize the Council of Europe/EPPO Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, and translate it into different languages and adapt it nationally;

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Discourage the planting of Acacia species known to be invasive; establish a network to transfer knowledge so that management can be improved and risk assessment communicated;

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Encourage and support the inclusion and integration of North African countries in the European early warning system being developed by organizing a workshop targeting representatives of national authorities and academics so as to raise awareness and promote the increase in knowledge;

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Encourage cooperation on, training of specialists and early warning in the Black Sea region which is subject to high trade and fast spread of IAP and relatively difficult exchange of information;

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Promote early warning and rapid response systems, including at the local and/or regional level; create awareness among governments and international bodies on the need to deal soon and effectively with new invasive alien plants; promote flexible mechanisms of early response, based on local expertise and resources; work towards and integrated European system such as the one proposed by the EEA.

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Use risk assessment for the selection of biofuel crops, and monitor closely the plants that are used in order to assess their invasiveness in new cropping systems;

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Launch a questionnaire on the important invasive alien plants in arable areas in Mediterranean countries to be spread to the participants and any relevant contacts, analyze and update these data on the Internet;

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Focus research on new invasive alien plants under global change (e.g. aquacrop model of FAO);

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Support the preparation of national inventories and herbaria of IAP as useful tools for IAS national strategies and promote local and regional exchange of information.

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Thematic Workshops Section 1 : Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries, Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried and Ms Sarah Brunel……………………………………………………………………………………..20 Alien trees in the Mediterranean countries: focussing on Acacia spp., Chaired by Ms Genevieve Thomson and Mr Giuseppe Brundu……………………………………………………………….22 Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and Mediterranean area, Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy…………………………………...………….24 Section 2 : Early warning Building an Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) for the Mediterranean, Chaired by Mr Kassim Al-Khatib and Mr Ahmet Uludag……………………………………………….……….26 Identifying targets for eradication in the Mediterranean and eradication experiences, Chaired by Mr Eladio Fernandez Galiano…………………………………………………….……………….29 Cooperation/inclusion of North African Countries in European early warning system, Chaired by Mr Mohamed Bouhache and Mr Riccardo Scalera……………….………….……………32 Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Implementing Codes of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean, Chaired by Prof. Vernon Heywood……………………………………………………….……….34 How to communicate on invasive alien plants? Effective involvement of stakeholders in addressing IAPs, Chaired by Ms Elisabete Marchante………………….……………………..37 Biofuel crops in the Mediterranean: exploring the use of risk species, Chaired by Mr Pierre Ehret and Mr Roberto Crosti………………………..…………………………………………………….38 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Field Trip: hands on survey for alien weeds, Chaired by Mr Giuseppe Brundu and Mr Necmi Aksoy…………………………………………………………………………………….…………….40 Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean, Chaired by Mr Christian Bohren……………………………….……………………………………………….42 Measures preventing the introduction of invasive plants in arable crops, Chaired by Ms Garifalia Economou and Mr Ahmet Uludag………………………………………………………..……….44

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Oral contributions Opening speeches The impacts of global change on plant life in the Mediterranean region and the spread of invasive species, Prof. Vernon Heywood, UK………………………………………………………..…….48 Flora of Turkey: Richness, updates, threats, Mr Necmi Aksoy, Turkey (Abstract)…………..….64 Role of soil communities and novel weapons in exotic plant invasion: an update, Prof. Inderjit, India……………………………………………..………………………………..….65 Invasive Weeds threats in Gangetic inceptisols of India, Prof. Ratikanta Ghosh, India………………………………………………………………...…….71 Niche modeling in invasive plants: new insights to predict their potential distribution in the invaded areas, Prof. Ramiro Bustamente, PC Guerrero, FT Peña-Gómez, Chile…….…...77 Bern Convention on invasive alien plants, the Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Eladio Fernandez-Galiano, Council of Europe (Abstract)………..………..…89 EPPO activities on Invasive Alien Plants, Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO (Abstract) …………..……90 Role of the European Food Safety Authority in risk assessment of invasive species potentially harmful to plants, Ms Sara Tramontini, V. Kertesz1, E. Ceglarska1, M. Navajas, G. Gilioli, EFSA (Abstract) ………..………………………………………………..…………..……91 Exploring options for an early warning and information system for invasive alien species in Europe, Mr Riccardo Scalera, P Genovesi, IUCN………………………………..…..……92 European Environment Agency: Activities addressing invasive alien species, Mr Ahmet Uludag, EEA (Abstract)....................................................................................105 Results of the survey on invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries, Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy, Mr Guillaume Fried, France, Ms Sarah Brunel, EPPO. (Abstract)………………106

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Section 1: Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Chair: Prof Vernon Heywood Molecular research as tool for managing biological invasions: Acacia saligna as a case study, Ms Geneviève Thompson, JJ Le Roux, DU Bellstedt, DM Richardson, JRU Wilson, South Africa………………………………………………………………………………………..….…...107 Prioritization of potential invasive alien species in France, Mr Guillaume Fried, France………………………………………………….………………….120 Modeling range changes of invasive alien and native expanding plant species in Armenia, Mr George Fayvush, Kamilla Tamanyan, Armenia………..……….…………………….139 Noxious and invasive weeds in Greece: current status and legislation, Mr Petros Lolas, Greece……………………………………………..…………...………148 A tales of two islands: comparison between the exotic flora of Corsica and Sardinia, Mr Daniel Jeanmonod, Switzerland, and Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)………..….………155 New species threatening the biodiversity in Morocco: Verbesena encelioides (Asteraceae), Prof Abdelkader Taleb, M Bouhache & B El Mfadi, Morocco………………………...…156

Section 2: Early warning Chair : Mr Ahmet Uludag Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Alien Plants in California, Mr Kassim Al-Khatib, Joseph M. DiTomas, USA….168 Early experiences in the establishment of a National Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for South Africa, Mr Philip Ivey, John Wilson, Ingrid Nänni1 and Ms Hilary Geber, South Africa………..…………………………………………………...……....…175 The NOBANIS gateway on invasive alien species and the development of a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System, Ms Melanie Josefsson, Sweden (Abstract)…..…192 From mediocrity to notoriety - the case of invasive weedy rice (Oryza sativa) biotypes in Malaysian rice granaries, Mr Baki Bakar, Malaysia………..……………………….……193 Assessment and attempted eradication of Australian acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR programme, Mr John Wilson, Haylee Kaplan, Carlo de Kock, Dickson Mazibuiko, Jason de Smidt, Rafael D. Zenni, Ernita van Wyk, South Africa………………….………..………206 The value of context in early detection and rapid response decisions: Melaleuca invasions in South Africa, Mr Ernita Van Wyck, Llewellyn Jacobs and John Wilson, South Africa…..213

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Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Chair: Prof. Ramiro Bustamente Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Prof. Vernon Heywood, UK (Abstract) ………………………………………….………224 Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Anil Yilmaz, Turkey (Abstract) ………..………………………….……225 Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts on Invasive Alien Species on biodiverse Mediterranean ecosystems in southwest Australia, Ms Judy Fisher, Australia (Abstract) ………………………………………...…………226 Combining methodologies to increase public awareness about invasive alien plants in Portugal, Ms Elisabete Marchante, HMarchante, M Morais and H Freitas, Portugal………….…227 Outcomes of the Tunisian Experience on Farmer Field School Management of an invasive species Solanum elaeagnifolium, Mr Mounir Mekki, M. M’hafdhi, R. Belhaj and K. Alrouechdi, Tunisia………..…………………………………………………………...…240 Legislative, biological and agronomic measures to comply with the Bern Convention recommendation n141/2009 on "Potentially invasive alien plants being used as biofuel crops" by Contracting Parties in the Mediterranean Basin, Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract) ………..…..……………249

Biomass crops in the Mediterranean: can experiments in Languedoc Roussillon help characterize the risk of invasiveness of the plants used? Mr Pierre Ehret, France……............………250 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Chair: Mr Giuseppe Brundu Management of alien plant invasions: the role of restoration - Insights from South Africa, Ms Mirijam Gaertner, Patricia M. Holmes & Mr Dave M Richardson, South Africa…….…256 A large-scale project of invasive plant coenosis control in Mediterranean sand coastal area: two case studies and a model to standardize the management criteria, Mr Antonio Perfetti, Italy (Abstract) ……………………………………...………….…267 Three tools to manage alien weeds in Swiss agricultural and non agricultural environments - a proposal, Mr Christian Bohren, Switzerland………………………………..……………268 Biology and control of the invasive weed Heterotheca subaxillaris (camphorweed), Ms Mildred Quaye, Tuvia Yaacoby and Baruch Rubin, Israel…………………...………274 Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora): A threat to agriculture and pastoralism in Sudan, Mr Abdel Gabar T Babiker, Nagat EM and Ahmed EAM, Sudan…………..……………283 Is bio control of Ambrosia spp. with Epiblema strenuana found in Israel possible? Mr Tuvia Yaacoby, Israel (Abstract)………..…………………………………..…….…288

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Posters Section 1: Plant invasions in the Mediterranean: where do we stand? Inventories of invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Lists of invasive alien plants (IAPs) as a key issue/tool in effective management of invasive nonnative species, Mr Pavol Eliáš, Slovakia……..………...…………………………..….…290 Monitoring Invasive Alien Plants in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey, Mr Necmi Aksoy, Ayşe Kaplan, Neval Güneş Özkan , Serdar Aslan , Turkey………...….304 Alien Plant Species in the Western Part of Turkey: Assessing their Invasive Status Mr Emin Ugurlu, Turkey & Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract)……………………......309 Invasive plants in Armenia (current situation), Ms Kamilla Tamanyan & George Fayvush, Armenia……………………………….....…310 Invasive aquatic plants in the French Mediterranean area, Ms Emilie Mazaubert, Mr Alain Dutartre, Nicolas Poulet, France………...……………316 The inventory of the alien flora of Crete (Greece), Ms Costanza Dal Cin D’Agata, Greece, Ms Melpomene Skoula, Greece & Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)…………………..325 Cactaceae naturalized in the Italian Mediterranean region Mr Alessandro Guiggi & Mr Giuseppe Brundu, Italy (Abstract)…………...........……...326 Comparison of the alien vascular flora in continental islands: Sardinia (Italy) and Balearic Islands (Spain), Ms Lina Podda, Italy (Abstract)………………………………………………..327 Is it the analogue nature of species which enables their successful invasion in woodland and coastal ecosystems of the southwest Australian Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot? Ms Judith L. Fisher, D Merritt & K Dixon, Australia (Abstract)……………………..……..328 Inventories of weeds in Mediterranean countries Alien plants in cotton fields and their impact on Flora in Turkey, Mr İlhan Üremiş, Bekir Bükün, Hüseyin Zengin, Ayşe Yazlik, Ahmet Uludağ, Turkey (Abstract)………………….…….329 Some Invasive Weeds in Turkey: Diplachnea fusca, Chondrilla juncea, Bromus spp., Mr Demirci, M., Ilhan Kaya, H. Aykul, S. Türkseven, Y. Nemli, Turkey (Abstract)…………………………………………………….…………………….…….330 Some Important Invasive Plants Belonging to the Asteraceae Family in Turkey, Ms Ilhan Kaya, I. Tepe, R. Yergin, Turkey (Abstract)………………………………………………....……331 Some Invasive Obligate Parasitic Plants: Cuscuta spp., Orobanche spp., Phelipanche spp., Mr Yildiz Nemli, R. Yergin, Ş. Tamer, P. Molai, A. Uludag, Turkey…………………..……..332 Some invasive weeds in cereal areas of Northern Cyprus: Oxalis pes-caprae and Gladiolus italicus, A. Göksu, Y. Nemli, K. Vurana, B. Gökhan, S. Türkseven, M. Demirci, A. Erk, E. Hakel, Cyprus & Turkey (Abstract)…………………………………………….………..335 15

Section 2: Early warning Validation and use of the Australian Weed Risk Assessment in Mediterranean Italy, Mr Roberto Crosti, Ms Carmela Cascone & Mr Salvatore Cipollaro, Italy (Abstract)……..........….336 A proposal for a cooperation program on modeling the spread of invasive weeds, Mr Guillaume Fried, France, Mr Anwar Al Mouemar, Syria & Mr Henry Darmency, France (Abstract) ……………………………………………………….…...……...…...337 Impact of Humulus japonicus on riparian communities in the south of France, Mr Guillaume Fried, France (Abstract) ………........................................................……...338 Allelopathic effects of Oxalis pes-caprea on winter cereal crops, Mr Mohammed Bouhache, Prof. Adbelkader Taleb & M. A Gharmmate, Morocco………...…………….………………...339 Fitness of the populations of invasive volunteer sunflower, Ms Sava Vrbnicanin, Ms Dragana Bozic, Ms Danijela Pavlovic & Ms Marija Saric, Serbia (Abstract) ………….....……...348 Particular cases of invasive alien plants and weeds Nicotina glauca: an invasive alien with harmful potential, Mr Stephen L Jury & Mr JD Ross, UK (Abstract) ………...………………..…..…….....349 Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) – Establishment and invasion in Croatia, Mr Veljko Lodeta, Mr Nemad Novak & Mrs Maja Kravarscan, Croatia………...………………….…….....350 Effect of Ambrosia artemisiifolia invasion on public health and agricultural production in Hungary, Ms Okumu Martha, É Lehoczky, Hungary………...…………………………...353 Heracleum sosnovskyi habitats and naturalization in Lithuania, Ms Ligita Baležentienė, Lithuania………...............................................................……...366 Distribution of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) in Greece and invasiveness as related to leaf morphological characters, Ms Garifalia Economou, Ms Costas Fasseas, D. Christodoulakis & Ilias S. Travlos, Greece (Abstract) ………...…………………...…...373 Germination ecology of the invasive Acacia saligna (Fabaceae): interpopulation variation and effects of temperature and salinity, F Meloni, CA Dettori, F Mascia, L Podda, G Bacchetta, Italy……………….......……...374 Assessing the potential invasiveness of Cortaderia selloana in wetlands through seed germination study, Ms. Lina Podda, Italy (Abstract) ………................................……...386

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Section 3: Communication, policies & strategies for tackling invasive alien plants Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants, Mr Anil Yilmaz, Turkey (Abstract) ………...…...……………………..…...387 Anigozanthos hybrids: what are the chances of eradicating this flower-farm escapee? Mr Ivey Philip, South Africa (Abstract) ……………………………………..…...……...388 Use of ―native‖ Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) as a bioenergy crop in the Mediterranean basin: concerns regarding invasive traits of some taxa, Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy, & Ms Janet A. Leak-Garcia US………...…………………………………………………………….…...389 Section 4: Management of invasive alien plants Management of invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Control experiments on selected invasive alien species in the Bulgarian flora, Mr Vladimir Vladimirov & Ms Senka Milanova, Bulgaria (Abstract) ………...……………………...392 Management of Ludwigia peploides (water primrose) in the Vistre River (South-East of France): first results, Mr Alain Dutartre, Mr C. Pezeril, Ms Emilie Mazaubert, France (Abstract) ………......393 A project for the eradication and the control of Ailanthus altissima in a river park in Northern Italy, Ms Anna Mazzoleni, Elena Tironi, Eric Spelta, Gianluca Agazzi, Federico Mangili, Gabriele Rinaldi, Italy………...……………………………………………………..…...394 Solanum eleagnifolium, an increasing problem in Greece, Prof Eleni Kotoula-Syka, Greece....400 Plant invasion, soil seed banks and native recruitment in two urban Mediterranean woodland remnants, in southwest Australia, Ms Judith L. Fisher, Australia & Mr Roberto Crosti, Italy (Abstract) ………...………………………………………….…………….………….....404 Management and experiments of weeds in Mediterranean countries Applying cover crops to reduce impacts of Egyptian Broomrape in infested fields, Ms Mitra Ghotbi, Ms Marjan. Ghotbi, Iran, Ahmet Uludag, Turkey………..............................…...405 Biological characteristics of Giant sumpweed seed (Iva xanthifolia) and the possibilities for fighting it by using soil herbicides, Ms Dragana Marisavljevic,Mr Branko Konstantinovic, Ms Danijela Pavlovic, Ms Maja Meseldzija, Serbia………...……………..……………..409 Allelopathic potential of rice (Oryza sativa) cultivars on barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), Ms Leila Jafari, Mr Hossein Ghadiri & Mr Ali Moradshahi, Iran…………….....………416 Biological control Solanum elaeagnifolium, an emerging invasive alien weed in the Mediterranean region and Northern Africa, Mr Javid Kashefi, Greece (Abstract) ………......................……...…...429 Evaluation of Indigenous Fungi as Potential Biological Control agents to Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), Ms Alloub Hala, TT Abdeldaim, Sudan….…………….………..…….…...430 17

Presentation of the Thematic Workshops

19 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Thematic Workshop Session 1.1 Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried ([email protected]) and Ms Sarah Brunel ([email protected])

Description of the project The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization is in the process of developing a prioritization process for invasive alien plants which aims: - to produce a list of invasive alien plants that are established or could potentially establish in the EPPO region; - to determine which of these invasive alien plants have the highest priority for an EPPO pest risk analysis. This process consists of assessing plants through simple and transparent criteria such as the spread potential of the plant, the potential negative impact of the plant on native species, habitats and ecosystems, etc. This process is currently under use and testing in France and in Belgium. It is being implemented through workshops where experts bring their results for specific plants, and compare and discuss these. Such a tool eases the dialogue among experts and the homogenisation of definitions, and allows lists of invasive alien plants to be drafted giving priority at a regional scale. This could be done at the scale of the Mediterranean area. Aims of the thematic workshop - to make the prioritization process known - to test the process for the 5 following invasive alien plants relevant to the Mediterranean area: Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora & L. peploides (Onagraceae) and Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae). Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the document describing the prioritization process will be sent to the participants of the thematic workshop Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants would have read the documents sent prior attending - the participants would have gathered information and run the process for the 5 species to be tested: Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora & L. peploides (Onagraceae) and Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae). Links with other thematic workshops This process will be presented during an oral presentation in session 1 by Guillaume Fried. General work on lists of plants for the Mediterranean would have been presented in the opening speeches by Giuseppe Brundu, Guillaume Fried and Sarah Brunel. The thematic workshops on eradication and early warning could take the prioritization process into account in their discussions. 20 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Conclusions of the thematic workshop Mr Fried went through the process with the case of Cortaderia selloana. The process raised questions: - on the potential impact of the species: shall species which are reservoir (i.e., host or vector for diseases, pathogens) be ranked higher? - on the spread of the species: shall planting for ornamental purposes be considered as an element to be taken into account in the spread potential of a species? - on the final use of the process in building lists and - on the audience targeted by the process. The group was concerned that a prioritization process should be as simple as possible so as to make fast assessments. The possibility to develop a tool that could be used by both the ministries of environment and agriculture was raised, and this should be attempted as much as possible as both ministries are trying to develop partnerships within EPPO countries. In general, the group concluded that the prioritization process is useful and feels a gap. Countries are willing to use it and to adapt it to their national peculiarity. It appeared that the experience in California is similar, setting criteria that need to be answered on a scale of 0 to 5. Experts from South Africa, Morocco, Tunisia, and Armenia wanted to be involved in the ongoing EPPO work on the prioritization process, and to test the process for the list of invasive alien plants recorded for their countries. The article on the prioritization process to be published in the EPPO bulletin will be circulated to the participants of the workshop.


Thematic workshop Session 1.2 Alien trees in the Mediterranean countries: focussing on Acacia spp. Chaired by Ms Genevieve Thomson ([email protected]) and Mr Giuseppe Brundu ([email protected])

Description of the target species Many species of the genus Acacia have been voluntarily introduced by humans in numerous Mediterranean Type Regions of the World, mainly as silvicultural and ornamental species. There are however, many other uses including the stabilisation of sand dunes and land reclamation; the use as a livestock fodder, for leather tanning and fuel; as a medicine, paint or perfume. For instance, Acacia spp. are grown in the USA for sale as cut flowers. Acacia dealbata is a popular plant in Europe and has been grown in Southern France and Italy (since 1918), and sold as a cut flower under the local common name ―Mimosa‖. A. baileyana purpurea is also grown in Israel for its cut foliage. Today, products from a number of Acacia species are utilised commercially in Australia and throughout the world. The timber of A. melanoxylon is highly valued for building and furniture making, while lower quality timbers from other species have been used for fence construction. Plantations of fast growing Australian Acacia species are being planted in developing countries as a source of firewood, where population growth has led to the depletion of the native tree species which were traditionally used as a fuel source. More recently, Acacia is also being considered as a biomass producer in short rotation coppice systems. As with other invasive alien plants of the legume family, the success of many Acacia species outside their native ranges has been attributed to their ability to fix nitrogen, their tolerance to fire, high seed production, and allelopathic effects. Some of these traits are also responsible for rendering the eradication/control of acacias more problematic. Aims of the thematic workshop The scope of the workshop is to raise awareness on species within the Acacia genus in all Mediterranean Type Regions of the World; as well as to compile an inventory of all the introduced/naturalised species. Furthermore, the workshop aims to build a network of interested people/stakeholders for further research activities/projects and to prevent the un-regulated entry and spread of these species through common actions across the respective regions. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop Prepare a general list of Acacia species cultivated/naturalised in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World with main cultivation purposes/introduction pathways. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop Collect information on Acacia species concerning their own country/region (species, sub-species or hybrids, pathways, distribution, threats, legislation, programme for eradication/control etc.) prior to attending.


Links with other thematic workshops - General work on lists of plants for the Mediterranean. - Thematic workshops on eradication, early warning and the prioritization process should consider this thematic workshop in their discussions. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen people from 10 Countries (Chile, Croatia, France, Israel, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Portugal, South Africa, United Kingdom) took part to the workshop on Acacia spp. At the beginning of the workshop the background idea was presented as well as main research activities that are on-going in South Africa (which was also the subject of a general oral presentation). All participants then briefly presented their country situation with concern to main introduction pathways and purposes for Acacia spp., the most common species introduced, problems and impacts, activities for control and general perception of the status of these species in their countries. From the general discussion, more evidence was raised on the fact that many species of this genus have been voluntary introduced by man outside their native range, for many different purposes, and that many of them are naturalised to invasive elsewhere. In some cases the species are environmental weeds, and there is quite a lot of evidence of the general difficulties in control (in relation to plant main traits, such as resilience to fires, high seed production, seed hardiness, capability of vegetative spread), even if, for some species, biological control is already available. In spite of the invasiveness and/or of the potential risks, there are quite high diverse perceptions between relevant stakeholders in different countries. In some cases, local forestry politics and land managers seem not to be aware of potential risks, and still promote the introduction of the species, even at large scale plantations, as these species are among the few capable of growing in very dry or in highly degrade sites. Therefore, in spite of large removal interventions, e.g. those taking place in Portugal sand dunes (where different removal/control techniques are also under evaluation – including the review of the national legislation), or in Israel, in other countries Acacia spp. are broadly planted and introduced in novel habitats, e.g. for soil erosion, road side stabilisation, goat fodder, such as in Chile or in Kenya, or as ornamental (A. dealbata in France). In other countries, both new introductions and control activities are occuring. Furthermore, there is a general interest for new plantings of Acacia saligna for biomass production, in short rotation forest systems, e.g. in the south of Italy (where it is already described ad highly invasive in natural and semi natural habitats and as a strong coloniser of burned soils). A general oral workshop presentation addressed the problem of biofuels (on the 04/08) with reference to this problem. It is noteworthy that in Malaysia, where A. mangiun was introduced as a forestry species, there is now a general perception of it as a weed, also because production incomes are not as relevant as expected. Although not all expected outcomes of this thematic workshop were achieved, the general discussion was very useful to exchange knowledge on these species, and general information of species presence and status in different countries, and participants agreed to provide further country information for updating the list of Acacias species traded/planted/naturalised/invasive in the Mediterranean. So far, the list includes, e.g., A. cyclops A. dealbata, A. karoo, A. longifolia, A. mearnsii, A. melanoxylon, A. pycnantha, A. retinoides, A. saligna.


Thematic workshop Session 1.3 Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and Mediterranean area Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy ([email protected])

Description of the project The main goal of this project is to evaluate the similarities and differences between the distribution of invasive plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean Area, and in particular: - to understand the components of the Mediterranean Flora and the Euro-Siberian Flora in the Black Sea area; - to list the invasive alien plants common to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to list the differences in invasive alien plants in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to compare which of these plants pose the highest risk of invading the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas; - to observe the invasive characteristic of alien plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean areas. The workshop consists of observing and identifying plants through their invasive characteristics through criteria such as the spread potential of the plants, their potential negative impacts on the native species, habitats and ecosystems in the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas. We may also develop new means to observe and compare the invasive plants of both regions. Through understanding the invasive plants in the Black Sea area wewill discuss and test whether it is possible to transfer the methods which are being implemented in the Mediterranean area. Aims of the thematic workshop - to define the differences and similarities of the alien plants in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas; - to make a list of the priority invasive alien plants in the Black Sea area; - to monitor some invasive alien species of the Black Sea area during the field trip of the workshop; - to consider methods to control the invasive plants in the Black Sea area. Tasks of the coordinator of the workshop - to send a document describing the Mediterranean Flora in the Mediterranean area and the Euro-Siberian Flora in the Black Sea area to the participants of the thematic workshop prior to the workshop; - to show some of the alien plants to the participants of the workshop during the field excursion. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants are advised to read the document prior to attending; - they are also advised to make the necessary preparations for the field excursion. 24 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Links with other thematic workshops This thematic workshop is particularly linked with the field trip. Conclusions of the thematic workshop The following invasive alien plants common to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean areas were listed: Abutilon theuphrasti, Phytolacca americana, Opuntia ficus-indica, Agave americana, Amorpha fruticosa. Similarities and differences between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea Region were discussed. Historical patway must be follow in two areass are important elements to understand plant colonization and need to be considered. The participants dicussed to observe the invasive characteristics of alien plants in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean areas. They considered that the number of species per square meter, area size, and observations must be done every year. The participants also elaborated a list of the priority invasive alien plants in the Black sea area: 1. Abutilon teophrasti 2. Phytolacca americana 3. Opuntia ficus-indica 4. Agave americana 5. Solanum eleagnifolium 6. Robinia pseudoacacia 7. Eucalyptus camuldulensis 8. Conyza canadensis 9. Ambrosia elatior 10. Xanthium spinosum were listed The following suggestions to control invasive plants in Black Sea area were made: - To consider models developed by other countries - To collaborate with the ministry of agriculture - To collaborate with the European Union - To build a network of universities


Thematic workshop Session 2.1 Building an Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) for the Mediterranean Chaired by Mr Kassim Al-Khatib ([email protected]) and Mr Ahmet Uludag ([email protected])

Description of the project Early detection of invasive alien plants and quick coordinated responses are needed to eradicate or contain invasive plants before they become widespread and control becomes practically and/or financially difficult. Although early detection and rapid response are important elements of invasive plant management, currently there is no comprehensive regional system for detecting, and monitoring invasions of alien plants in the Mediterranean region. The group will discuss the existing EDRR in different locations of the region. EDRR system may exist in certain locations; however, inadequate planning and technologies, insufficient resources and information hindered EDRR efforts in other locations. The workgroup will discuss ways to develop plan to coordinate efforts and improve networking for the purpose of developing regional detection system. Aims of the thematic workshop - To determine critical needs and resources to develop regional EDRR - To develop and priorities species lists for EDRR - To allow access to reliable, effective, and affordable invasive plants management information - To facilitate rapid and accurate species identification - To establish procedure for rapid risk assessment - To discuss mechanisms for coordinating the efforts of regional agencies and authorities to address EDRR. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants would have read this document prior attending - Prepare a short report on existing EDRR in your location - What is the preferred EDRR system for your location - Develop a vision of how you can contribute to a regional approach of EDRR and what are the limitations. Links with other thematic workshops and presentations - Related information will be presented and discussed in different session. Presentations of particular interest are: - Similarities and differences between distribution of invasive alien plants in the Black Sea area and Mediterranean area, Chaired by Mr Necmi Aksoy - Using the prioritization process for Mediterranean countries, Chaired by Mr Guillaume Fried and Ms Sarah Brunel 26 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

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Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts on Invasive Alien Species on biodiversity in Mediterranean ecosystems in South-West Australia, Ms Judy Fisher, Australia

Conclusions of the workshop Participants from 11 countries participated, including Armenia, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Malaysia, Slovakia, South Africa, Sweden, Portugal, Turkey, USA. Early detection of invasive alien plants and quick coordinated responses are needed to eradicate or contain invasive plants before they become widespread and control becomes practically and/or financially difficult. Although early detection and rapid response are important elements of invasive plants management, currently there is no comprehensive regional system for detecting and monitoring invasions of alien plants in the Mediterranean region. The work group has discussed the existing Eealy Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) in different locations, limitation to EDRR in the region, coordination and cooperation between locations, and resources needed for EDRR. Below is the summary and conclusions from the workshop discussion. Current Status of EDRR  Inventories of invasive species - Slovakia has lists of invasive species and animals - Sweden has started the elaboration of a blacklist - Portugal has a list of species that must not be introduced. - France through the Botanical Conservatory networks have good lists of all plants including invasive species  Political will needs to be strengthened - EEA, EPPO and the European Commissionare are considering the development of an EDRR - Currently, there are 2 desk officers working on invasive alien species at DG-Environment in Bruseels. - Member States are encouraging the European Commission to act on invasive alien species.  Local legislation in place - Slovakia has law to offer protection of native composition of ecosystems to prevent the spread of invasive species. - Portugal has law forbidding sale of certain species  Some local support from Nurseries that have sympathy for the problem - In Bulgaria, some nurseries have removed invasive alien plants from their stock and selling lists. Nursery champions need to be encouraged. Needs to Build EDRR  Strengthen and encourage political will into actions and regulations - Resolve the issue of free trade versus environmental protection. Commission needs guidance; the stakeholders meeting in September 2010 will assist. - The European Commission needs to provide laws to allow countries to take legal action without fear of losing the challenge. 27 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

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Member countries need to be able to monitor plants being imported by other member countries and be able to prevent import of potentially invasive species (perception that the Netherlands is the major importer of live plant material which is then distributed across the continent, but other states may be responsible too, Turkey has 6-8 major plant importers). - If regulations are imposed then means are needed to enforce them  Need to strengthen law enforcement - In Portugal, species are meant to go through an impact assessment to clear species to enter the country, however, many species enter illegally by passing the impact assessment - Plants are grown illegally, misidentified and mislabeled  Create awareness - policy makers – target them and train them – e.g. perception that Armenia is mountainous and therefore not subject to this invasion in reality 3% of land surface is already invaded by invasive plants - nursery industry - members of the gardening public - school children – Portugal have some very good examples and projects  Establish local early warning system - Slovakia has no early warning system, as a result this type of scenario develops: inspectors in regions monitor the occurrence of invasive plants, they prepare a report on the elimination of particular species, no action is taken and since the report, the number of localities have increased five times and costs have increased five times as well. - In Portugal there is no early warning system in place. Researchers have applied for funding for such an early detection system but Nature Conservation has no plans to do this. - France has an early detection system working with all the environmental space managers and existing agriculture networks.  Taxonomists need to be involved - to assist with development of inventories - training of new taxonomists to take over from retiring taxonomists  An early warning email listserve e.g. google group could be created.


Thematic workshop Session 2.2 Identifying targets for eradication in the Mediterranean and eradication experiences Chaired by Mr Eladio Fernandez Galiano ([email protected])

Description of the project While eradications are considered a very efficient technique to manage invasive alien species, very few have been undertaken for plants in European and Mediterranean countries. One of the difficulties of such a task lies in the identification of those species that are still of limited distribution, but have the potential to have deleterious impacts and to spread further. The practical application of eradication, although being inexpensive and very cost effective if taken at an early stage, needs to be promoted through concrete cases. The Council of Europe has published a recommendation (no. 126 in 2004) of examples of invasive alien plants to be eradicated (see appendix below), and aims to help countries implement such action. The Council of Europe will work with its Member states to in the coming years to develop projects of eradication of invasive alien plants Aims of the thematic workshop - to identify 5 or 6 invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries that represent good targets for eradication; - for each of the cases, to clarify the stakeholders involved, the technique(s) to be used, the material and personnel needed, the budget, and communication methods; - to identify international expertise to be associated with each eradication case. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants should identify possible cases of eradication in their own country; - Participants should document each potential case of eradication (situation, stakeholders, method to be used, budget, communication, etc.). Links with other thematic workshops - the thematic workshops on the prioritization process (1.1), on EDRR (2.1) and on early warning in North-African countries (2.3) might highlight species that would be suitable for eradication. Concusions of the thematic workshop - Eradication and control of spread of invasive species are costly exercises. So much attention should be devoted both to their careful planning, long-term development and the choice of species to be controlled or eradicated. - There are already good methods to choose candidate species for eradication/control using criteria such as invasiveness, degree of impact on natural habitats or native species and present distribution (which can influence success of eradication). - Biological control should be systematically explored for invasive plants that are well spread and for which mechanical or chemical control are prohibited.


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Eradication should be integrated in a much wider context of management and generally not used as a separate tool. Eradication in the early stages of invasion should be a priority, which speaks strongly in favor of the establishment of an early-warning rapid response system. Many eradications are a success and there is an urgent need to better document eradication/control operations, both those that are successful and those that are not and so often unreported. Eradication/control plans should integrate a strategy for re-vegetation or ecological restoration of areas left base by removal of the invasive species. While most eradications focus on a target species, more attention needs to be given to an ―ecosystem approach‖, controlling one or several invasive alien plants in a particularly vulnerable ecosystem (eg. Dunes wetlands). Eradication should be promoted for newly arrived species even if there are uncertainties on their invasiveness, applying the precautionary approach.

Appendix The species listed in the recommendation 126 of the Council of Europe for which eradication or containment is recommended in Mediterranean countries are: Species

Ecosystems

Hydrocotyle ranunculoides

Uncultivated

Pueraria lobata Solanum elaeagnifolium

Uncultivated Uncultivated and cultivated

Countries in which the species occurs Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom. Italy, Palestine, Israel. Italy, Switzerland. Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, ―the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Serbia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia.


Other examples of species that have high capacity of spread and potentially high impacts: Species

Ecosystems

Araujia sericifera Bothriochloa barbinodis

Uncultivated Uncultivated and cultivated

Countries in which the species occurs Spain, France France

Cenchrus incertus

Uncultivated and cultivated

Spain, Italy, Romania

Cotula coronopifolia Eichhornia crassipes Fallopia baldschuanica

Uncultivated Uncultivated Uncultivated

Hakea salicifolia Hakea sericea Myriophyllum heterophyllum Pistia stratiotes Senecio deltoideus Sesbania punicea


Portugal, Spain, Italy Portugal, Spain Czech Republic, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, France, UK Portugal Portugal, France Spain, Germany


Spain France Italy


Thematic workshop Session 2.3 Cooperation/inclusion of North African Countries in European early warning system Chaired by Mr Mohamed Bouhache ([email protected]) and Mr Riccardo Scalera ([email protected]) Why cooperation/inclusion? Biological invasions of alien plants and their pests do not only threaten biodiversity of concerned regions. They also affect the well-being and economies of human populations, endangering ecosystems and transforming landscapes. The movement of people and goods in the Mediterranean basin has favoured biological invasions in the regions since early times in human history. Today, since trade and tourism activities are very developed between Europe and North Africa, opportunities to exchange invasive alien species continue to be very high. Thus, our regions need to establish or to share an early warning framework and information system in order to be able to detect and react promptly to new invasions in order to respond to their ecological and economic threats. This requirement also complies with one recommendation of the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Specie adopted by the Council of Europe, which supports the development of effective systems to share IAS information with neighboring countries, trading partners and regions with similar ecosystems. While the European early warning strategies are in the course of being developed at both the EU level and at the level of single countries (e.g. Ireland) and regional networks (i.e. NOBANIS), the early warning and information system capacities of North African counties are still very limited. Aims of the thematic workshop - to make the European early warning system known to North African countries; - to include (or cooperate with) North African countries in European early warning system; - to define the scope and objectives of the cooperative actions; - to share concepts and terminology; - to identify countries and/or authorities concerned in North Africa. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the document describing the European early warning system will be sent to the participants of the thematic workshop. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - participants would have read the document prior attending - develop ideas on how to launch this cooperation or inclusion. Links with other thematic workshops and sessions This workshop will be preceded by three oral presentations: - by Riccardo Scalera: Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe (in opening speeches session); - by Kassim Al-Khatib: Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Plants (in session 2)


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by Philip Ivey: Establishment of a National early detection and rapid response programme - some early lessons (in session 2). The recommendations of the thematic workshop on the prioritization process may be taken into consideration in the early warning workshop progress.

Conclusions of the workshop Four participants took part in the workshop, and the following countries were represented: Morocco, Tunisia and Italy. The movement of people and goods in the Mediterranean basin has favoured biological invasions in the regions since early times in human history. Opportunities to exchange invasive alien species continue to be very high in the region, given the increasing levels of trade and tourism activities between Europe and North Africa. For this reason, initiatives to start the development of a regional early warning and information system for alien species should be undertaken as soon as possible. This would increase the capacity of Mediterranean countries to detect and react promptly to new invasions so as to respond to their ecological and economic threats. European early warning strategies are in the course of being developed at both the EU level and at the level of single countries (e.g. Ireland) and through regional networks (i.e. NOBANIS), but are not yet being duly considered in North African countries. In order to encourage and support the establishment of an early warning and information system in North African countries, to be coordinated and intergrated to the European one which is being developed, it is reccomended that a regional workshop is organised at the earliest convenience, so as to target the key representatives of the national authorities and academics. Such a workshop should be also aimed at raising awareness on the issue and promoting the increase in knowledge in the North African countries, and particularly in Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritania, Lybia and Algeria. In the meantime, as preparatory measures needed to guarantee a succesful implementation of the workshop, the participants agreed to start collecting all material and documents which might be useful to analise the state of the art in the region (inventories of alien species, studies on ecological and economic impact, examples of best practices and case studies, etc.) and a comprehensive list of contacts of concerned people from public adminstrations (ministry of agriculture, ministry of environment, etc.), universities and the private sectors, so as to start networking activities and identifing potential participants for the planned workshop. Both representatives from North African countries (Morocco and Tunisia) agreed to organise this workshop in their country, provided that some financial contribution be guaranteed by international organisations such as EPPO, FAO, CoE, EEA, etc.


Thematic workshop Session 3.1 Implementing Codes of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean Chaired by Prof. Vernon Heywood ([email protected])

Context The Code of Conduct on Horticulture and Invasive Alien Plants is a joint initiative of the Council of Europe (CoE) and the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). It is addressed to governments and the horticultural industry and trade – plant importers, commercial nurseries, municipal nurseries, garden centres, aquarists – and to those who play a role in deciding what species are grown in particular areas, such as landscape architects, municipal parks and gardens departments, recreation and leisure departments. Its aim is to help prevent the spread of alien invasive species already present in Europe and prevent the introduction of possible new plant invaders into Europe. The Code is voluntary and its effectiveness will depend on how far the horticultural industry and trade are willing to adopt the guidelines and good practices proposed in it. To achieve this, it is necessary to raise awareness on this topic among the professionals concerned. Aims of the workshop - to examine how far the Code is being implemented in the countries bordering the Mediterranean; - to determine the main types of problem encountered in implementing the Code; - to seek solutions to the problems identified or propose how they may be addressed; - to consider whether there are any special factors that might affect the relevance and implementation of the Code to Mediterranean countries; - to examine links with other European, regional and national initiatives which aim to control or prevent entry of new and emerging invasive plant species. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - to familiarize themselves with the Code (it is available in English, French and Spanish); - to ascertain, as far as possible, the response to the Code in their country and prepare a short note summarizing this; - to find out if there are other national Codes of conduct that may be relevant to the CoE/EPPO Code and its implementation in the Mediterranean. Links with other thematic workshops Most of the other thematic workshops address issues that are relevant such as prioritization, identification of target species, early warning, control and eradication and the need for communication with stakeholders.


Conclusions of the thematic workshop - Codes of conduct are a useful approach to deal with invasive alien plants but should not preclude governments to take a more restrictive, law-based approach if this is necessary to avoid the entry, release and spread of invasive alien plants. - Codes of conduct will only work if the industry (horticulture, agriculture, forestry) adopts them and not if they are simply given to them to apply. - While European Codes of conduct can serve as a source of inspiration for government/industry practice, it is fundamental that they are modulated to the problems, language and culture of each particular state or region, so that national, regional codes become the real operative tool. - The elaboration of national or regional codes of conduct should serve as an excellent way to foster dialogue with the industry and the public on IAS. - A particular effort should be done to make Codes of conduct better known and used by clients (of the horticultural industry, or forest industry) both private and institutional. - Codes of conduct are a good tool to publicise the problem of invasive alien species to a wider public.


Thematic workshop Session 3.2 How to communicate on IAP? Effective involvement of stakeholders in addressing IAPs Chaired by Ms Elisabete Marchante ([email protected])

The control and management of widespread invasive alien plants (IAPs) is extremely difficult and costly. Therefore, the best way to deal with invasive alien species is to start by preventing their introduction. Because every person is a potential vector for species introduction, it is necessary to start by educating the different publics about the problem and the species involved. A well-informed public can then contribute to the prevention, early-detection and management of invasive alien species. This thematic workshop aims to explore ways how scientists and practitioners engage with the public. Aims of the thematic workshop - to understand the importance of science communication on IAPs; - to discuss different approaches used to communicate on IAPs; - to discuss ways to assess success of communication on IAPs. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - to select amongst the abstracts received from the participants 4 or 5 examples and suggestions to be presented and discussed during the thematic workshop. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - Participants would have prepared and sent to the coordinator a small abstract about ways/strategies they use (or would like to test) to communicate on IAPs. Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on eradication and early warning could take communication into account in their discussion. Conclusion of the thematic workshop Although communication on IAPs is essential to prevent, early-detect and manage IAPs, this is still lacking. A round table during the thematic workshop highlighted that in Mediterranean type regions, several activities or documents have been used to communicate and raise public awareness about IAPs by different countries, namely: Czech Republic, France, Italy (Sardinia), Portugal, Slovakia, South Africa, Turkey, etc. Strategies used include: leaflets and printed documents, dedicated days to provide information, web pages, scientific meetings and publications, etc. ―Taking action on management‖ is also a good communication strategy. Specific legislation can be used to raise awareness, but if not properly publicized may not be effective by itself. The effectiveness of using leaflets and other paper documents to raise public awareness on IAPs is in general seldom measured. Although difficult to measure, evaluation is essential to 36 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

sustainably use the available funding in approaches that will be most effective in changing attitudes. In Portugal, the evaluation of the effectiveness of the approaches used was initiated for some activities, which represents one of the leading experiences in Europe. From the Portuguese experience, it appears that in general, the use of leaflets is more effective if combined with a talk, or with some practical, hands-on, interactive activities/approaches. As stated by different participants, funding is insufficient and often a limitation in communication on IAPs. It was nevertheless mentioned that financial support for these activities can be included in the context of research and management projects or through specific measures, e.g., LIFE+ Information and Communication. Additionally, some communication approaches can focus on stimulating the different publics to promote actions themselves. Ideally, information about biological invasions and IAS should be included on school curricula, so as to start educating the new generations, who, in addition, are very important vectors of information. For that, it is necessary to start training the schoolteachers. However, communication on IAS cannot rely only on the younger generations, and has to target different publics and stakeholders: the horticultural industry, politicians, policy makers, scientists, municipalities, forestry associations, conservation managers, farmers, etc. Media should also be highly involved. The participants also concluded that strengthened collaborations, sharing experiences, successes and failures in communication is essential and should be sought after. In many countries much work has been done in communication, including non-Mediterranean countries, but information is often too scattered. Different websites and approaches used could be gathered in a common website aiming at aggregating much of the information available about communication on IAPs, and making it more easily available. It was also stressed during the workshop that communication strategies may need to be prepared with the collaboration of communication experts. An effort should be done to develop ways to measure the effectiveness of communication campaigns, i.e., publications, actions, etc. This can be achieved, at least partially, if part of the management budget is directed to the evaluation of the communication actions. As a result of this workshop, it is proposed to organize a ―Mediterranean wide Cleanup day‖, including hands-on activities to control/remove IAPs, which would be widely publicized, engaging the media and stakeholders. This could be organized simultaneously by countries of all Mediterranean regions of the world, and be planned for 2011 or 2012.

Note: It should be kept in mind that participants in the thematic workshop may not be representative of their countries or regions, i.e., there are other communication and public awareness actions taking place elsewhere, as shown by other talks at the workshop (Switzerland, USA, other activities in Italy, etc.), and also many activities developed by non-participants entities/researchers and countries.


Thematic workshop 3.3 Biofuel crops in the Mediterranean: exploring the use of risk species Chaired by Mr Pierre Ehret ([email protected]) nd Mr Roberto Crosti ([email protected]) Increase demand for energy in the Mediterranean Regions enhanced the development of large scale biofuel cropping systems consisting of the use of plant biomass for energy production. Energy can be generated from ethanol, oil and combustion produced from plant material. In addition, recently, many businesses are investing in technologies (molecular genetics and engineering) to provide fuel from microalgae. To gain real environmental benefits, however, biofuel crops need to be farmed in an environmental sustainable manner. Major concerns include the loss of biodiversity, as a consequence of the potential escapes of aggressive crops cultivars which can compete, in the wild, with native vegetation. Several biofuel species or cultivars have traits in common with invasive species and may harm both the farmland biodiversity and functionality. Many of those potential biofuel crop species, selected for broad ecological amplitude, rapid growth, high seed production, vegetative spread, resistance to pests and diseases are, in fact, potentially invasive. Furthermore, in farmlands, habitat modification, distorted water balance and nutrient cycle, altered fire regimes and abandonment of arable lands might contribute to the establishment of invasive species in new or temporarily ―vacant niches‖. Planting massive quantities of vigorous plant varieties on a large scale by repeated introductions, often supported by economic subsidies, in different climates and soil conditions increases the propagules pressure and likelihood of ―crop escape‖, with subsequent, establishment of new biological invaders. Many of the proposed biofuel crops in the Mediterranean basin are already considered invasive elsewhere. On the other hand, some biofuel crops may have showed less aggressive trends, but this kind of information might not be often published and would be useful to share. During the WS a presentation of the preliminary results of a survey on Short Rotation Coppicing species which under the EU common agricultural policy (CAP) are granted support payments (each member state defines the species). Aims of the workshop - To raise awareness of potential invasiveness of biofuel species; - To set up a network to monitor both ―field escapes‖ and ―legislative acts‖; - To verify if, in Mediterranean type Regions, escapes have already occurred and if native habitats have been harmed; - To share experience concerning monitoring systems of biofuel species. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - registered participants will get, by e-mail, several papers on the topic; - to respond to the questionnaire. Tasks for the coordinators prior to the workshop - the chairmen of the thematic workshop will circulate a questionnaire and several papers and aggregate the results to be presented during this thematic workshop. 38 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Links with other thematic workshops Posters and talks in the meetings (e.g. by the chairmen in the same day of the workshop). Conclusion of the thematic workshop The thematic workshop began with the presentation of the survey launched by Roberto Crosti on "tree species getting EU Common Agricultural policy‖. Nine (9) countries out of 27 UE member states had provided a response. The lists are related to an EU directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (2009/28/EC) that is asking to produce a list of trees that can get the same kind of subsidies as annual or herbaceous perennials crops if planted as short rotation coppices. In some countries, several known invasive species are on such lists. Participants from the following countries presented their knowledge of the situation of species planted as biofuel crops in their countries: Australia, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Turkey and Sudan. Besides Italy and France, having presented papers just before in the general session, none of the participants had activities in direct connection with the biofuel crop production sector. From the round table, it appeared that: - There is a lack of interest from relevant institutions toward the biofuel crop planted that will not be harvested and that produce high quantities of propagules. - farming systems in most of the places under Mediterranean climate are not well adapted to biofuel feedstock production (small plots, small scale farms) and are more subject to invasion due to the presence of perennial neighbouring crops and to the low distance between cultivated land and almost natural or unmanaged land. Information was exchanged about particular species: - Pauwlonia elongata: this "new" fast growing species might need attention even if it is promoted as non invasive. - Acacia saligna: a strong consensus among participants from countries where the species is invasive was reached to alert other countries on the danger of planting this species. From a rural development point of view, it was stressed that there is a need to support local activities based on land use in rural areas with Mediterranean climate. Indeed these areas are often less competitive for agriculture or livestock production than other regions (particularly in EU countries). The group wondered if biofuel crops represent a good choice, and concluded that some other solutions may be more suitable to local farming systems. As a summary: - Biofuel feedstock cultivation does definitively select alien plants that have many traits in common with invasive plants and has therefore to be closely evaluated and monitored. - Some species are already well known as costly and difficult to manage invasive plants, in particular Acacia saligna, and there is a strong consensus to recommend the ban of plantation of this species.


Thematic workshop 4.1 Field Trip: hands on survey for alien weeds Chaired by Mr Giuseppe Brundu ([email protected]) and Mr Necmi Aksoy ([email protected])

Description of the activity and related final workshop The idea behind the two-day field excursion is not only to visit remarkably interesting sites from the environmental and cultural point of view, but also locations that, so far, are poorly studied from the point of view of plant invasions and exotic floras and inventories, thus to collect useful information and eventually to write an excursion report or possibly a short paper that could represent a preliminary contribution towards the exotic flora of a larger area. Field activities will be discussed during a workshop. Aims of the activity During the two days of the excursion different sites will be visited. In each site, according to the number of participants, the group could be divided in 2-3 sub-groups, having the possibility to survey a larger area, taking photos, recording locations by GPS positioning and other relevant information or data, and collecting plant samples. Tasks for the coordinators prior the workshop It is advisable to collect as much available information as possible on the study area in advance. The local botanists will be in charge to provide local "grey" literature on (invasive) alien plants and copies of the Turkish flora (or parts of it) that could be used for plant identification (and possible other "botanical" tools for plant identification and collection tools, such as lenses, paper sheets etc.). Tasks for the participants during the field-trip and the workshop During the field trip it is advisable to assign specific task to each component of the group, even if the same task (e.g. making photographs) could be done by more than one person. Example of specific tasks are e.g., making photographs, taking notes, collecting specimens as herbarium samples, interviewing people, taking note, collecting GPS locations, etc. At the end of the field trip participants will be asked to share the collected data, photos and information with the other participants and with workshop coordinators, and will be involved in writing the report of the excursion as co-authors and in discussing the results. Those that are not interested will be only acknowledged as participants. Collected herbarium samples will be available for further determination and for documenting the activity and as a basis for the exotic flora of the surveyed sites. Samples will be stored in Turkey. Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on Mediterranean lists, eradication and early warning could take the hands-on results into account in their discussions. 40 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Conclusions of the thematic workshop The presence, distribution or abundance of many invasive alien plants is positively correlated with roads, so roads need to be taken into consideration when planning a survey in a poorly studied area. During the two field surveys organized in the framework of the 2nd Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World, 81 alien species were observed in the investigated area, i.e. 70 neophytes and 11 archeophytes (including 9 doubtful species), with 54 new records for the DAISIE inventory. Three of these species, Acalypha australis, Microstegium vimineum and Polygonum perfoliatum, were recorded near a tea factory, and the import of material for tea processing is expected to have been their pathway of introduction. The results of this survey in the region of Trabzon in North-East Turkey show that roadside surveys are a useful tool for early detection efforts, in compiling and updating national or regional inventories (especially with time and budget constraints). This survey, being organized in the framework of an international workshop, enabled knowledge to be shared between experts in the field, and training of students and researchers. These survey methods could be adapted, improved, and used elsewhere by others seeking to use early detection as part of their overall weed strategy or to gather baseline data on invasive alien plants in a poorly studied area. These results have been the object of a publication in the EPPO Bulletin, so as to promote the initiative and the emerging invasive alien plants found: Brundu G, Aksoy N, Brunel S, P. Elias P & Fried G (2011) Rapid surveys for inventorying alien plants in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 41, 208–216.


Thematic workshop 4.2 Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean Chaired by Mr Christian Bohren ([email protected]) and Ms Martha Okumu ([email protected])

Description of the project Ambrosia artemisiifolia is an invasive alien plant causing severe allergies. It is present in many European countries (Croatia, France, Italy, Switzerland, etc.). Networks of experts including botanists, agronomist and allergists have been created to monitor this species and raise awareness among the public. The European Weed Research Society is deeply involved in the topic, and has built a network to share information on the species and enhance research into its biology and management. Aims of the thematic workshop - To raise awareness on the plant; - To build a network of experts interested in contributing to the existing networks on Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Tasks for the participants prior to the workshop - To investigate the presence/absence, distribution and abundance of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in his/her country; - The effects and control strategies being adopted to combat the spread of A. artemisiifolia in participant's respective countries

Links with other thematic workshops The thematic workshops on) Early Detection and Rapid Response (2.1) and on early warning in North-African countries (2.3) might help monitor the species in additional countries. Conclusions of the thematic workshop The thematic workshop on Building a network for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia was attended by 12 participants from a wide range of countries including Chile, France, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Serbia, South Africa and Switzerland. The participants shared experiences on the presence of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in their respective countries. This included the different pathways of entry, allergenic effects of the pollen on human, control methods being employed in the management of the weed, and presence or absence of networks of experts to tackle the plant in the various countries. The pathways of entry for Ambrosia artemisiifolia seeds in the countries include: water courses, bird mixtures (sunflower seeds) and human helped spread pathways like transport by construction machines, agricultural products and machinery/equipment.


The participants identified the need for more information on the following topics: - Pollen distribution in the air and its allergenic effects. - Monitoring and control methods (strategies) for this weed. - Biological control agents – how to use, when and where since the implementation part is very important. - Mapping – production of a single map showing the distribution of the weed in the Mediterranean region climate. - Other invasive and problematic Ambrosia species, other than Ambrosia artemisiifolia. The thematic workshop ended with the remark that Integrated Pest Management methods were the best approach for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in the Mediterranean region. It was agreed that networking for the control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Mediterranean region was a noble idea. The existing networks include the European Weed Research Society (Invasive Plants Working Group) and the International Ragweed Society (not yet well established). It was suggested that the exchange of email addresses and constant communication and sharing of information could enhance networking among participants. This was to be reinforced by the creation of a Google Group account for the participants.


Thematic workshop 4.3 Measures preventing the introduction of invasive plants in arable crops Chaired by Ms Garifalia Economou ([email protected]) and Mr Ahmet Uludag ([email protected])

Description of the project Biological invasions are large-scale phenomena of widespread importance, which represent one of the major threats to European biodiversity. Regardless of the mechanism, it is clear that the impact of the invasive species on natural plant communities, may also cause major economic problems, with invasive species becoming established as highly persistent and vigorous agricultural weeds, damaging manmade environments or choking open spaces and waterways. Several economic and environmental drivers markedly increase ecosystem vulnerability to invasion such as agriculture land and particularly arable crops. Species such as Solanum eleanifolium, Ipomoea hederacea in corn, Avena fatua, in winter wheat and Conyza albida in alfalfa are considered as the most problematic, fast- growing, easily propagated and vigorous competitors in the arable crops listed above in the Mediterranean zone. It is widely known that the application of conventional weed control methods has proved inadequate to prevent the rapid dispersal of these invasive species to a variety of habitats and therefore to enter crop fields. The prevention and mitigation of impacts of invasive species demands the action of ―developing measures aimed at the control of invasive alien genotypes as well as specific actions including an early warning system‖. Through this workshop the experts will draw on their experience in order to create a baseline for priorities definition at a regional scale. Aims of the thematic workshop Documentation of the problem - Reference to the arable crops invaded by alien species - Reference to the main invasive alien plants - Assessment of the invasive plants abundance and population trends - Effect of climatic change on alien plant invasion - Proposed control methods Tasks for the coordinators prior the workshop A document will be circulated to the participants describing: - the thematic issues in order to collect updated data in respect to their experience - the control methods that proved ineffective at a regional scale - the agronomic practices and the land use change at a regional scale - Climatic data at a regional / country scale Task for the participants prior to the workshop The participants should have collected information prior to attending.


Links with other thematic workshops - General work on list of alien plant invasion - Thematic workshops on eradication and early warning. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen (15) colleagues participated in the thematic workshop from nine (9) countries: Armenia, Greece, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Serbia, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The concept of the project was driven by the need to investigate the agronomic and environmental factors that increase the arable crops vulnerability to invasion of alien species. Arable crops, related either to human diet (cereals, corn, sunflower) or to human life improvement (fibber plants, biofuel crops) are of major importance. Taking action for developing measures to control invasive alien genotype is primordial, including an early warning system. Arable crops are characterized by a small life cycle and are bad competitors with alien plants which have a fast and vigorous growth and spread easily. In addition, the application of the conventional weed control methods proved inadequate to prevent their rapid spread. The aim of the thematic workshop was to document the problem at a country/regional scale with particular reference a) to the main invasive alien plants, b) to the arable crops invaded by alien species, c) to the assessment of the invasive plants abundance and population trend, d) to the effect of climatic change on alien plant invasion and e) to propose control methods. The participants achieved the following results during the thematic workshop: - The elaboration of a questionnaire about Invasive Alien Plants in Arable Crops, - The distribution of the questionnaire to the participants in order to be completed with additional tasks, data and comments for improvement, - To focus on the effects of climate change on alien plants invasions taking into consideration the parameters proposed by the model ―AquaCrop‖ registered by FAO with the objective to ―Estimate Climate Change Impacts on cotton, wheat, maize and sunflower in Greece using FAO‘s Crop Water Productivity Model AquaCrop‖, - To establish a permanent scientific process as a Small Working Group in order to create a baseline for priorities definition at a regional scale in each represented country, - To analyze the data, this will be gathered through a questionnaire, to be potentially published by EPPO if possible.

Links with other thematic workshops - General work on list of alien plant invasion - Thematic workshops on eradication and early warning. Conclusions of the thematic workshop Fifteen (15) colleagues participated in the thematic workshop from nine (9) countries: Armenia, Greece, Iran, Lithuania, Morocco, Serbia, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The concept of the project was driven by the need to investigate the agronomic and environmental factors that increase the arable crops vulnerability to invasion of alien species. 45 Thematic Workshops 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world


Oral presentations

47 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The impacts of global change on plant life in the Mediterranean and the spread of invasive species V H Heywood School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AS, UK. E-mail: [email protected] The Mediterranean region is a focus of attention because of its unique climatic features. It is widely agreed that it is one of the areas that will be severely impacted by accelerated climate during the 21st century with higher temperatures and increasing aridity projected by most models. Because of the lack of a hinterland that characterizes the climatic zone of the comparable Saharan hinterland, a new no-analogue climate will develop in Mediterranean Europe. The migration of plant species from south to north during the timescale of concern will be limited by the barrier that the Mediterranean Sea represents. As a result of this new climate and its interaction with other components of global change such population movements and changes in disturbance regimes (e.g. increased frequency and duration of forest fires), substantial changes in the composition of the vegetation may be anticipated as a result of the differential success of individual species in adapting to the changing climate, migrating to track their climate envelope or becoming extinct and no-analogue communities will develop. This will be particularly notable in the case of forest communities and tree species. Some species will probably arrive through long-distance dispersal and these will compete with the remaining resident species. The new species assemblages will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species, and it is probable that those invaders which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new species will become established. Strategies to try and mitigate the expected increase in the impacts of alien invasive species in the region need to take into consideration not just the conditions today but the new climates and species assemblages that will develop as a consequence of global change. Introduction ‗Scientific and societal unknowns make it difficult to predict how global environmental changes such as climate change and biological invasions will affect ecological systems‘, Hellmann et al. (2008) An increased risk of invasion by non-native species is one of the commonly cited consequences of climatic and other aspects of global change (Peterson et al., 2008; NAS, 2002; Hulme et al., 2009). In the case of the Mediterranean, the general perception until recently has been that the region‘s ecosystems are less vulnerable to invasion than similar ecosystems elsewhere, largely because of the long history of human interaction with the environment which


has left them with greater resilience (Lavorel, 1999 1). Such a view is no longer tenable, especially for Mediterranean islands (Traveset et al., 2008; Hulme et al., 2008) and a notable increase in invasive species has been recorded in recent years (Hulme, 2004; see below). This is partly as a consequence of major anthropogenic impacts in the region arising out of population growth and movements, industrialization, changes in agriculture, a massive growth in tourism and increased globalization, and partly as a result of better reporting. While some countries such as Spain have invested considerable resources in recording invasive alien species (e.g. SanzElorza et al., 2004; Andreu & Vilà, 2010; Crosti et al., 2010) underreporting of invasive species is still a major problem in the Mediterranean region, especially in the east and south of the region. A global scale survey of indicators of biological invasion by McGeoch et al. (2010) indicated that the number of documented invasive alien species may be affected by country development status which is associated with low investment in research and data collation. It has also been suggested that because the Mediterranean region has already been subjected to a major extinction event in an earlier period, it is more resistant now to further change (Greuter, 1995). The emphasis in this paper is deliberately on the consequences of global change, not just accelerated anthropogenic climate change, on the region‘s plant life and its implications for the extent of plant invasion in the Mediterranean. Global change comprises demographic change and population movements, changes in disturbance regimes such as fire, and the various components of climate change, all of which interact with each other (Box 1). In addition societal and technological changes also need to be taken into account. As Hellmann et al. (2008) have noted, ‗Scientific and societal unknowns make it difficult to predict how global environmental changes such as climate change and biological invasions will affect ecological systems‘, It is essential to take into account all the interacting drivers of global change in attempting to assess their impacts on plant invasions in the Mediterranean. These interactions make it difficult to disentangle the role of individual drivers and increase our uncertainty as to their effects (Pyšek et al., 2010). As Vilà et al. (2007) comment, ‗these ongoing changes … decrease our capacity to predict which introduced species are most likely to become invaders and which ecosystems are most vulnerable to invasion‘. Consequently, in assessing the likely extent of invasion in the Mediterranean region as a consequence of global change, we need to know what kinds of ecoclimatic scenarios will develop in the region and the socio-economic conditions and therefore the answers to a series of interrelated questions:  What will be the new climatic conditions that will develop and prevail in the region (e.g. anticipated changes in temperature and precipitation leading to increased aridity)?  What impact will these changes have on disturbance regimes such as fire, agricultural practices?  What demographic changes and population movements will occur and what will be the new pattern of tourism?  What kind of flora and vegetation will develop as a consequence of all these changes?

1

Lavorel cautions against the misuse of the term ‗resilience‘


Box 1 - The main components of global change Population change Human population movement/migrations Demographic growth Changes in population pattern Changes in land use and disturbance regimes Deforestation Degradation, simplification or loss of habitats Loss of biodiversity Climate change (IPPC definition) Temperature change Precipitation change Atmospheric change (greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide) Other climate-related factors Distribution of Nitrogen deposition Global dust deposition (including brown dust and yellow dust) Ocean acidification Air pollution in mega-cities

Only then can we make any confident predictions as to the likelihood of existing invasive species persisting or spreading and of new alien invasive species successfully arriving by whatever pathway, competing with the old and new resident species and becoming established and spreading. Predicting potential invasions is notoriously difficult even in relatively stable conditions. Doing so in a context of global change, and accelerated climate change in particular, is a challenge whose complexity we are only just beginning to understand. The Mediterranean climate The Mediterranean region has attracted a great deal of attention because of its unique characteristics: its semi-enclosed sea, elongated shape, large topographic contrasts and climate gradient from mid-latitude to subtropical and its great sensitivity to climate change (Lionello et al.,2008). The climate is transitional between the dry tropics and temperate Europe and is unique because of the lack of a hinterland that characterizes the climatic zone of the comparable Saharan hinterland. This combination of circumstances makes it a no-analogue climate and the vegetation that has developed there is also transitional and highly sensitive to relatively small climatic changes. As Ortolani & Pagliuca (2006) note the Mediterranean region ‗is highly sensitive to variations in climate and environment. Indeed, shifts in the climate bands towards north or south by only a few degrees of latitude may result in dramatic changes in soil surface conditions. This may cause, for example, desertification in areas that previously had a humid climate or vice versa‘. 50 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

While it is widely recognized that the normally benign climate of the Mediterranean basin has been favourable to the development of several civilizations over time , it shows considerable variation – in temperature and precipitation according to latitude, longitude, altitude, topography, regional winds (Mistral, Tramontane, Bora, Etésiens, Sirocco) and other factors even within short distances (Harding, 2006) – and frequently presents episodes of extreme temperature, prolonged drought and torrential rainfall that demand a fair degree of resilience from its inhabitants. Predicted changes in the Mediterranean climate A review of climate change projections over the Mediterranean region by Giorgi & Lionello (2008) based on the latest and most advanced sets of global and regional climate model simulations gives ‗a collective picture of a substantial drying and warming of the Mediterranean region, especially in the warm season (precipitation decrease exceeding − 25–30% and warming exceeding 4–5 þC). The only exception to this picture is an increase of precipitation during the winter over some areas of the northern Mediterranean basin, most noticeably the Alps. Interannual variability is projected to generally increase as is the occurrence of extreme heat and drought events‘. There is still uncertainty regarding precipitation trends but an increase of up to 10 per cent in winter precipitation and a decrease of 5 to 15 per cent in summer precipitation by the latter half of the 21st century are suggested by some models (Karas, 2000). The long-term projection is for continued warming as the influence of greenhouse gases increases over time. A global temperature increase of 2þC is likely to lead to a corresponding warming of 1 to 3þ in the Mediterranean (Giannakopoulos et al., 2005). Temperature scenarios for the Mediterranean have been estimated by Hertig & Jacobeit (2008) whose assessment indicated that even with a high level of uncertainty regarding the regional distribution of climate change in the region, ‗substantial changes of partly more than 4 oC by the end of the century have to be anticipated under enhanced greenhouse warming conditions‘. Temperatures are likely to be higher inland than along the coast and the largest increase will take place during the summer (Giannakopolous et al., 2005). This will have a serious impact on the evaporation rates and water budget and availability in the region which is likely to be at increased risk of water shortages, forest fires and loss of agricultural land. Gao & Giorgi (2008) used three measures of aridity to estimate the possible effects of late 21st century climate change on the Mediterranean area and their analyses suggest that the region might experience a substantial increase in the northwards extension of dry and arid lands, especially in central and southern parts of the Iberian, Italian, Hellenic and Turkish peninsulas and in areas of southeast Europe, the Middle East, north Africa and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. They identified the southern Mediterranean region as especially vulnerable to water stress and desertification as a result of these climate changes. The frequency of extreme weather events such as heat waves, torrential rains and droughts are expected to increase. The overall effect of these changes will be a northward shift and expansion of the Mediterranean-climate zone with a ‗saharization‘ in the southern part.


A different approach was taken by Klausmeyer & Shaw (2009) who determined the projected spatial shifts in the Mediterranean climate extent (MCE) over the next century for the five Mediterranean climate regions of the world 2. They showed that the median projection of the future MCE in the Mediterranean Basin is larger than the current MCE, but most of the atmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCM) simulations project contractions in Morocco and in the Middle East (see their Fig. 2). They note that high topographic diversity and contiguous land toward the nearest pole provide room for the expansion of the MCE in Greece, Turkey, Spain and Portugal whereas in Morocco, the Atlas Mountains provide topographic diversity, but the Mediterranean Sea blocks expansion toward the north. Interaction with other factors of global change An important consideration is how the projected climate changes in the Mediterranean will interact with other components of global change, notably changes in disturbance regimes. Sinclair et al. (2010) suggest that ‗changed patterns of habitat fragmentation and connection are likely to have at least as large an impact as climate change in the medium term, both as problems and solutions…‘. Human transformation of the Mediterranean landscapes can affect the ability and rate of migration of species in response to climate change (cf. Midgley et al., 2007). Wild-fire risk Fire has been a powerful factor in shaping the landscapes and plant communities in the Mediterranean region and in the evolution and differentiation of the flora. In European Mediterranean countries in particular, large fires induced by past land-use changes are the main driving factor in landscape and ecosystem dynamics. Fire was the driving force in the coevolution of Mediterranean humans and landscapes in the Pleistocene (Naveh,1991) and since the beginnings of this interaction between humans and the environment, the causes of wildfires have been increasingly anthropogenic and today account for 90–95% of the fires recorded. About 600 000 ha of Mediterranean forest burns each year. Land use changes such as movement away from the countryside in the northern rim has led to the development of large areas of continuous vegetation that are susceptible to wild fires (MRFA, 2009). Climate change with higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation is expected to lead to an increase in fire risk and disruption of natural fire regimes. There is evidence that the incidence of heat waves shows a correlation with the amount of forest burned (e.g. Colacino & Conte (1993a, b)). The area of fire-risk will expand northwards in line with the climate shift and also in the eastern and southern Mediterranean (e.g. Syria, Lebanon, Algeria) according to MFRA (2009). Changes in land use will not only affect the migration of species in the face of climate change but also the dispersal and spread of invasive alien species as they have to move across landscapes. As Vilà et al. (2007) comment, it is surprising that there have been so few studies on the interactions between the patterns of invasion and changes in land use or cover. 2

They used Aschmann‘s (1973) ‗conservative‘ definition of the Mediterranean climate and excluded areas traditionally included in the biome nsuch as the south coast of France, western Italy, northeastern Spain.


As well as the major transformations that have taken place in the landscapes in earlier periods, the Mediterranean basin has witnessed considerable changes in land use in recent decades, especially in the agricultural sector – where there are considerable differences between the trends in the northern part of the basin and the southern and eastern parts in terms of area under cultivation, crop substitutions, and agricultural intensification – and the forestry sector, and the balance between them and the native vegetation. In the northern part, movement from the land and abandonment of cultivation has led to an increase in forests, giving rise to large continuous areas of unmanaged forests and scrubland while urban development and tourism, especially in coastal areas has led to habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss. In the eastern and southern sectors, there has been considerable conversion of forests into grazing and agricultural cropland while others have been degraded. This has resulted in land degradation and desertification. Land use changes often lead to the disturbance and fragmentation of natural habitats which are well known to favour plant invasions. These changes will be intensified by climate change in the Mediterranean as the differential adaptation/survival, migration and extinction of individual species leads to the disassembly plant communities and the formation of new assemblages of species and the creation of gaps that will provide opportunities for the entry of invasive species which, if they establish successfully, will form part of the ‗new‘ species groupings. Tourism The Mediterranean is the leading tourist destination in the world visited by 147 million international tourists in 2003, representing 22% of the international tourism market, and generated US$113 billion for the region (WT0, 2003. 70% of these tourists visited just two countries, Italy and Spain. Over 12 million tourists visit the Mediterranean islands each year. On the other hand, the response to uncomfortably high summer temperatures in the Mediterranean could change the timing of visits with higher tourist numbers in the spring, autumn and winter. Also, predicted warmer temperatures in non-Mediterranean Europe could change the destination of tourists with adverse effects on the Mediterranean economy. The increase of tourism has led to massive urban and tourist-related development with accompanying infrastructural effects such as irrigation, drainage, desalinisation, large-scale transport infrastructures and so on which has led to the phenomenon known as ‗coastalization‘3 – the concentration of population and economic activities on coastal spaces which has inevitably led to an impoverishment of biodiversity, loss or fragmentation of habitats. The effects on the landscapes are all too visible but what is not so obvious is that this radical transformation of entire areas caused by tourism leads to soil erosion, increased pollution discharges into the sea, loss of natural habitat , increased pressure on endangered species and 3

Described as ‗Linear and nuclear concentrations along the coast […] phenomena that are directly linked with intensive housing development, indiscriminate land occupation, and the possession of large reserves of land which it is possible to build on‘ in the conclusions of the International Congress, ‗Sustainable Tourism in the Mediterranean: The Participation of Civil Society‘, 1998. MED Project ULIXES 21. For Sustainable Tourism in the Mediterranean.


heightened vulnerability to forest fires. Significantly, it puts a strain on water resources, which are already a critical issue in the Mediterranean: it is estimated that for instance, an average Spanish inhabaitant uses 250 litres of water per day while the average tourist uses up to 880 litres. The influx of tourists can also lead to the disruption of traditional cultures. One of the unexpected consequences of tourism is the increased threat of invasive plants being introduced as part of the landscaping schemes of the tourist hotels and complexes. The Mediterranean region is already the adopted home of many tropical and subtropical plants, notably trees, shrubs and palms and new species are being introduced through nurseries for both landscaping and domestic use. The nursery trade has developed and expanded considerably in the Mediterranean in the last two decades: the Pistoia region of Italy, for example, has the largest concentration of plant nurseries in Europe covering more than 5,500 ha. Given that the horticultural trade is the major pathway for plant invasions (Reichard & White, 2001) great vigilance is needed to ensure that this expansion of the ornamental nursery trade does not lead to a corresponding rise in new plant invaders. Predicting the impacts of climate change on the Mediterranean flora and vegetation It is widely agreed that the flora and vegetation of the Mediterranean region are the most vulnerable in Europe to climate change because of their sensitivity to drought and rising temperatures and the fact that they are already under stress (EEA 2005; Giannakopoulos et al., 2005; Lavorel, 1999). The challenges of predicting the impacts that climate change will have on ecosystems are complex and have been addressed by modeling, experimental and observational approaches (Midgley et al., 2007). The major difficulty is that individual species react in different ways to climate change and it is the outcome of these reactions in combination if these that makes up the ecosystem response. As Klausmeyer & Shaw (2009) observe, ‗Projecting how plant assemblages will shift in response to climate change is subject to significant uncertainty because it requires compounding the uncertainty with projecting climate change with the uncertainty inherent in projecting future distributions of individual species‘. The tool that is most frequently used in attempting to predict the responses of species to climate change is bioclimatic modelling. Bioclimatic models (bioclimatic envelope models) are a special case of ecological niche or distribution models. Today, most current projections of the future migration of plants are based on the use of ‗climate envelope‘ or bioclimatic modeling techniques (Nix, 1986; Guisan & Thuiller, 2005) in which projected future distributions are based on the current climate in the species‘ native range. These modeling techniques combine computer-based models of the current climate on the one hand, with information on the current distribution of species on the other hand, to establish a bioclimatic 4 niche model and this model of optimal environmental parameters is then fitted to a range of future climate scenarios to establish likely shifts in environmental optima for species. The models are used to help predict the potential geographic range responses of species to climate change. Bioclimatic modeling has been applied extensively in Europe and other parts of the world. There is no single standard 4

also known as edaphic, fundamental, environmental or Grinellian models.


approach and techniques are constantly being developed (for a review see Elith & Leathwick, 2009). Bioclimatic models are of course simplifications of reality and primarily important aids to research as Thuiller et al. (2008) point out. Modeling techniques aim defining the climate ‗envelope‘ that best describes the limits to its spatial range for any choosen species by correlating the current species distributions with selected climate variables. Although they are commonly referred to as predictions, their proper role is to contribute to the information base on which predictions of future change are made. Climate envelope modelling is a valuable and powerful tool in our efforts to understand the interaction between species distributions and climate and to work out the likely impacts of climate change on biodiversity. However, the models currently employed have severe limitations and make a number of assumptions that reduce their value and effectiveness (Jeschke & Strayer, 2008). Most models are unable to take into account factors such as dispersal capacity, migration processes, biotic interactions, the capacity of species to adapt to climate change and the range of genetic variation in species populations (Heikkinen et al., 2006; Brooker et al., 2007; Thuiller et al., 2008; Buisson et al., 2010) while those that do make simple assumptions about migration such as nomigration or complete migration. Many species migration will be hindered by natural barriers such as mountains or lakes and by large scale landscape developments such as urbanizations, industry and roads which will limit the connectivity necessary for successful range shifts as an adaptation to climate change. The models are rarely tested by independent validation (Jeschke & Strayer, 2008). Moreover, the quality of the niche models depend on the quality and sufficiency of underlying data, and in many cases lack of detailed data on distribution of species is a limiting factor for resolution, coverage or both. Bioclimatic models have also been criticized by Willis & Bhagwat (2009) and Ackerly et al. (2010) for their coarse spatial scale so that they fail to take into account microtopography and their use may therefore exaggerate the scale of loss of species. The latter suggest that ‗Fine-scale spatial heterogeneity may provide a critical buffer at a landscape and reserve scale, enhancing genetic and species diversity and reducing gene and organismal dispersal distances required to offset climate change, at least in the short run‘. On the other hand, in the case of many Mediterranean mountain/alpine species with highly specialized habitat requirements, their limited dispersal capacity and the non-availability of suitable niches are likely to be limiting factors in their survival, no matter how fine the scale of modelling applied. Buisson et al. (2010) propose that forecasts of the impacts of climate change should always carry an assessment of their uncertainty, so that those charged with making management and conservation decisions can do so in the full knowledge of the reliability of the models. A further important consideration, and one that has received less attention as Fitzpatrick & Hargrove (2009) point out, is that the bioclimatic models are usually extrapolated into environments which differ from those that characterize the region in which the models are calibrated. In the case of the Mediterranean basin, new, no-analogue environments will be created as a consequence of the climatic shifts and other elements of global change.


Models must be interpreted on the basis of our knowledge of the biology of the organisms being modelled although for many species such knowledge is often quite limited and it is clear that we need to undertake much more research into the biological characteristics, dispersal capacity and adaptive range of species that are likely to be at risk. Moreover, the long-term human impacts on the vegetation of the Mediterranean have had long-term consequences for the dynamics of the current landscapes which have also to be taken into account in modelling the impacts of climate change (Pausas, 1999). Various studies have been made of the likely impacts of climate change on Mediterranean flora and vegetation (Bakkenes et al., 2002; Thuiller et al., 2005; CEC, 2007; Schröter et al. 2005; Berry et al. 2007a, b) which suggest that many species would have to migrate north or altitudinally to track their climatic envelope. While it is not anticipated that there will be biome shifts, Peðuelas & Boada (2003) have in fact documented such a shift in Mediterranean mountains in recent times: they compared historical data and correlated them with climate data over the last 50 years that showed a temperature increase of 1.4þC and no change in the total precipitation. They found that Quercus ilex progressively replaced heather (Calluna vulgaris) and beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the higher elevations. A number of ecological modeling approaches have been developed that estimate vegetation development (productivity or vegetation type) under climate change. These include statistical species distribution models, gap models, landscape models; biogeochemical models and dynamic global vegetation models. For a discussion of these see Robinson et al. (2008). While we can use various types of model to predict the possible migrations of species to track their new climatic envelopes, what we cannot do with existing modeling approaches is to predict with sufficient accuracy what the new vegetation cover will be nor the overall environmental conditions, in areas impacted by climate change. This applies both to the move-out areas and the move-in areas, a distinction that is not often made but which may be critical in some parts of Europe such as the Mediterranean zone as mentioned above. Since the likelihood of survival and multiplication of migrant species will depend on the environmental context into which they move, not to mention stochastic factors which may intervene, we have to accept that our present understanding of the consequences of climate change is severely limited and sometimes dependent on little more than intelligent speculation. If we add to this the level of uncertainty that still surrounds the details of the extent of climate change and their impact at a local level, much of our planning has to be broadly based rather than site-specific, such as modifying or enhancing our protected area systems, or precautionary such as employing ex situ complementarity (Heywood, 2010) As noted above, it is often asserted that climate change will favour invasive species or increase the risk of invasions but as Hellmann et al. (2008) comment few authors have identified specific consequences. They then propose five potential consequences:  Invasion pathways: altered mechanisms of transport and introduction  Altered climatic constraints  Changes in distribution of existing alien species  Changes in impacts of existing invasive species  Changes in effectiveness of management strategies 56 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Bioclimatic models have been used to project the future ranges of invasive species but are of course subject to the same limitations and constraints as other species (Jeschke & Strayer 2008) Non-modelling approaches Although bioclimatic modeling is the commonest method of suggesting the likely response of species to climate change, the vulnerability of species to climate change can also be assessed on the basis of their biological and ecological characteristics, and other factors, that determine their sensitivity, adaptive capacity and exposure to climate change (Gran Canaria Group, 2006; CBDF/AHTEG 2009) (see Box 2). Box 2 - Criteria for identifying taxa vulnerable to climate change (Gran Canaria Group, 2006) Taxa with nowhere to go, such as mountain tops, low-lying islands, high latitudes and edges of continents; Plants with restricted ranges such as rare and endemic species; Taxa with poor dispersal capacity and/or long generation times; Species that are susceptible to extreme conditions such as flood or drought; Plants with extreme habitat/niche specialization such as narrow tolerance to climate-sensitive variables; Taxa with co-evolved or synchronous relationships with other species; Species with inflexible physiological responses to climate variables; Keystone taxa important in primary production or ecosystem processes and function, and Taxa with direct value for humans or with potential for future use. Species migrations in the Mediterranean region At the core of projections of the future distribution of species in the face of climate change is their migration capacity and the dispersal ability. The ability of species to track their shifting climate space and their ability to adapt to the conditions in the new habitats are critically influenced by the individual dispersal capacity of species (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2008; Massot et al., 2008). However, as Thuiller et al. (2008) comment, although the importance of plant migration in response to global change is widely acknowledged, few modelling studies explicitly include migration processes when simulating geographical plant responses. In practice, our knowledge of the potential migration rate of species is seriously inadequate for most species and this limits our current capacity to predict the impacts of accelerated climate change on the future geographic distribution of species (Midgley et al., 2007). Faced with a changing climate and changing environmental conditions, plant species will react in different ways: they may persist in situ and keep their current range or in the case of short-lived species they may adapt to the new conditions over time through selection of suitable genotypes; or they may respond with range expansions through migration or their distribution area may contract or shift.


 Some species will be able to migrate out of the current Mediterranean zone and track their climatic envelope northwards or altitudinally.  Some species will be able to adapt in situ to the changing climate  Some species will migrate from the southern to the northern shores of the Mediterranean by long-distance dispersal  Some species will not be able to adapt in situ or to migrate and therefore will become locally, or in the case of range-restricted species, totally extinct.  Some existing invasive species will colonize niches left vacant and spread  Some new alien invasive species will successfully occupy vacant niches and spread Although our understanding of the ability of plants to respond to their environment has developed greatly (van Kleunen & Fischer, 2005; Valladares et al., 2007), for most species the precise range of their phenotypic and physiological responses to the present climate, let alone changing climatic conditions, is very limited and much further research is needed to gain a deeper understanding of the adaptation possibilities of individual species in situ to climate change. Also, our knowledge of the amount of genetic variation in their existing populations is generally poor. In addition, there has been an increased interest in the role of epigenetic variation and processes in the ecology and evolution of plant species (Bossdorf et al., 2008; Richards et al. 2010 a,b) and a recent paper has shown that the environment can alter the epigenetic context of individual species of European common marsh orchids and that Darwinian selection acts on epigenetic variation in the same way as on the genetic information, leading to adaptation and divergence between species within a small number of generations (Paun et al., 2010). This has given rise to the hope that some plant species may be able to adapt more quickly to environmental change than previously thought and thus be able to combat rapid climate change. Population epigenetics is however in its infancy and is still a matter of intense debate and one can only speculate about its true significance and potential role in adapting to climate change. The lack of a hinterland will act as a major constraint on the availability of migrants and coupled with the barrier of the Mediterranean Sea to northward migration makes it difficult to imagine what type of vegetation will occupy this space without extensive migration of species from North Africa although some species will probably arrive through long-distance dispersal. The whole issue of long-distance dispersal takes on a new importance when considering the migration of species due to climate change and there had been renewed interest in the potential role of rare long-distance dispersal (LDD) events as drivers of rapid plant migrations (Pearson & Dawson, 2005). It is of course possible that low probability LDD events may allow propagules of some species to reach the southern shores of the Mediterranean within the short timescale envisaged, although there is no guarantee that this will lead to successful establishment or spread as this will depend on habitat availability and its permeability, life history and biological characteristics (Higgins & Richardson, 1999). The vegetation will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species and it is probable that those which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new species will become established. If the gaps created by the migration of species tracking their climate envelopes, are not filled by inward migration, the vegetation will be vulnerable to invasive and weedy species and its is 58 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

probable that at least some of those invasive plants which already occur there will persist or extend their ranges while new ones will become established. On the other hand, as already noted, the impacts of climate change on the invasive potential of species are still poorly understood. The plants and vegetation of Mediterranean Europe will experience unique problems and the region will see a major increase in weedy, alien invasive and pioneer species in coastal and lowland habitats. Some restricted area endemics, especially in mountain habitats, are expected to become extinct but will not be affected by alien invasive species. Consequences of climate change for Mediterranean forests While it is not possible to predict with any degree of accuracy the composition and nature of the new species assemblages that will develop in the new climatic spaces of the Mediterranean, we can gain some idea of the impacts on some of the major vegetation types through tracking the likely movements of keystone forest species such as the oaks and pines. Although Mediterranean forest and woodlands cover only 73 million ha or about 8.5% of the region‘s area (MRFA, 2009), they represent an important component of the vegetation (Palahi et al., 2008) and house a significant proportion of plant and animal diversity, including c.290 species of indigenous trees (Quézel & Médail, 2003). The ways in which global change affects them in the coming decades is therefore a matter of considerable concern. How far forests and their keystone species will be resilient to climate change, especially higher temperatures and increasing aridity, has been studied in a number of instances. Some studies have been made on the effects of climate change on the distribution of Mediterranean forests and their adaptation (see summary by Regato, 2008). A review by Resco de Dios et al. (2007) suggests that ‗Climate change compounded with trends of rural abandonment are likely to diminish forested areas within the Mediterranean basin that will be replaced by fire prone shrub communities. This could be favoured by outbreaks of pathogens, fire and other large scale disturbances. Landscape fragmentation is expected to impede species migration‘. Modelling studies on individual tree species have been carried out, for example in the Iberian Peninsula (Benito Garzñn et al., 2008; Linares & Tiscar, 2010), or in France (Gaucherel et al., 2008). The dynamics of changes in forest tree species ranges are, however, difficult to predict, as Regato (2008) notes, because of lags in adult mortality and the self-regulatory mechanisms of forest populations which may create resistance to range contractions. Also, it should be remembered that the current species distribution ranges may differ significantly from the potential species‘ climate envelope. In such cases they may greater potential for in-situ adaptation to climate change before reaching their migration threshold. Conclusions The Mediterranean basin possesses a unique and diverse climate which is matched by the varied topography of the region. Combined with a long history of human interaction, this has resulted the great diversity and richness of the vegetation that exists today. Although the region had previously not been considered at serious risk from invasion by alien plant species, recent 59 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

evidence has shown such a view is not correct and there is now the concern global change, especially accelerated climate change, will increase the extent of invasions. It is notoriously difficult even in relatively stable conditions to predicting potential invasions but doing so in a context of global change is a challenge whose complexity we are only just beginning to understand. Before we even begin to attempt to do so, we firstly have to try to interpret the evidence of how the climate will change and how it will interact with other factors such as population change and movements and changes in disturbance regimes. Only when we have as good evidence as possible about the movements of climate space can we attempt to project the impacts of these changes on the species and ecosystems. There is still considerable uncertainty in modelling projections of climate change and the use of bioclimatic models to project the future distributions of individual species. Bioclimatic modelling has proved to be a valuable tool in helping project the future distributions of species (including potential IAS) but the limitations of the models need to be acknowledged and it noted that they are usually extrapolated into environments which differ from those that characterize the region in which the models are calibrated. A new no-analogue climate will evolve in the Mediterranean. As a consequence of these new climatic conditions and the barrier that the Mediterranean Sea represents for plant migration, new species assemblages will develop, although their detailed composition cannot be predicted accurately, and are likely to be vulnerable to invasion by expansion of the ranges of existing alien species or by those new species that are able to reach them. This will pose major challenges for the prediction of invasions and the development of strategies to prevent them or mitigate their effects. Until further improvements are made to bioclimatic models and they are validated independently, we need to be cautious about interpreting the results and pay more attention to trying to determine the future climatic and ecological conditions of the areas of concern and the migration and dispersal capacity of both the native species and the potential invaders. References Ackerly DD, Loarie SR, Cornwell WK, Weiss SB, Hamilton H, Branciforte R & Kraft NJ B (2010) The geography of climate change: implications for conservation biogeography. Diversity and Distributions 16, 476–487. Andreu J & Vilà M (2010) Risk analysis of potential invasive plants in Spain. Journal of Nature Conservation 18, 34–44. Aschmann H (1973) Distribution and peculiarity of Mediterranean ecosystems. In: Di Castri F, Mooney HA, (Eds.) Mediterranean Type Ecosystems; Origin and Structure. Springer-Verlag, Berlin & New York. Bakkenes M, Alkemade JRM, Ihle F, Leemansand R, Latour JB (2002) Assessing effects of forecasted climate change on the diversity and distribution of European higher plants for 2050. Glob Change Biol 8, 390–407. Benito Garzñn B, Sánchez de Dios R & Sainz Ollero H (2008) Effects of climate change on the distribution of Iberian tree species. Applied Vegetation Science 11, 169-178. Berry PM, Jones AP, Nicholls RJ & Vos CC (2007a) Assessment of the vulnerability of terrestrial and coastal habitats and species in Europe to climate change, Annex 2 of Planning for biodiversity in a changing climate – BRANCH project Final Report, Natural England, UK. Berry PM, O‘Hanley JR, Thomson CL, Harrison PA, Masters GJ & Dawson TP (2007b) Modelling Natural Resource Responses to Climate Change (MONARCH): MONARCH 3 Contract report. UKCIP Technical Report, Oxford, UK. Bossdorf O, Richards CL & Pigluicci M (2008) Epigenetics for ecologists. Ecology Letters 11, 106–165. Brooker RW, Travis JMJ, Clark EJ & Dytham C (2007) Modelling species‘ range shifts in a changing climate: The impacts of biotic interactions, dispersal distance and the rate of climate change. Journal of Theoretical Biology 245, 59–65.


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Flora of Turkey: Richness, updates, threats Necmi Aksoy Düzce University Forest Faculty, Department of Forest Botany & DUOF Herbarium, Beçiyörükler, Düzce, Turkey, E-mail: [email protected] The flora of Turkey is rich and diverse with over 11 000 flowering taxa recorded in the 9-volume set of Prof. P.H. Davis‘ monumental work and its two supplements. Turkey is situated at the junction of three important phytogeographic regions, namely Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, and Euro-Siberian. The Black Sea‘s coastal areas are in the Euro-Siberian region. Areas surrounding the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Marmara Seas enjoy the characteristics of the Mediterranean regions, and finally, the large part of Turkey stretching from the Central Anatolian Plateau to the borders with Iran and Iraq to the East and Southeast lies in the Irano-Turanian region. Endemic species are largely found in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian regions. The Anatolian flora, especially in the steppe areas, is said to be in an active state of diversification. According to the Flora of Turkey, the flora contains just over 11000 infrageneric taxa, of which 34.5 % are endemic. In the flora of Turkey, percentage endemism is high in some families: Boraginaceae (61%), Campanulaceae (60%), Scrophulariaceae (52%), Rubiaceae (48%), Caryophyllaceae (46%), Labiatae (45%), Leguminosae (40%), Compositae (37%). At generic level, examples of the rate of endemism are: Bolanthus (90%), Ebenus (90%), Alkanna (8l%), Sideritis (78%), Acantholimon (76%), Paronychia (75%), Verbascum and Gypsophila (71%), Paracaryum (70%), Cousinia (68%), Centaurea (65%), Astragalus (63%). The flora of Turkey contains over 11 000 vascular plant taxa, a considerable number of which are used by humans. Non-food uses of plants include medicinal, aromatic, ornamental, pesticides as well as raw materials for making household goods, toys, musical instruments. The flora of Turkey is estimated to contain over 3000 aromatic plants. The wide biodiversity of the flowering plants of Turkey is reflected in the 11-volume set of books titled Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. The second supplement (Vol. 11) reported 532 new taxa for the flora of the region. Recently, publications reported that 48 new recorded and 135 new species are added to the Flora of Turkey and the following genus were recently included : Clastopus, Adenostyles, Araujia, Perilla, Oreopoa, Diplachne, Asperuginoides, Leptaleum, Stroganowia, Loncomelos, Scopolia, Oclopoa, Chamaespartium, Lophanthus, Clerodendrum, Cymbopogon , Schistophyllidium, Sicyos, etc. If the alien and cultivated taxa are included, the number of taxa occurring in the Flora of Turkey then rises to 11 500. Of 3504 endemic plants in Turkey, 12 are known to have been extinct and 3492 (99 %) are still being threatened. The main threats to the survival of Turkey‘s endemic plants are: clearing grounds for fields, overgrazing and reform of barren lands, construction of dams, industrialization and urbanization, exportation and domestic use, plant protection and pollution, tourism, forestation and fires.


Role of soil communities and novel weapons in exotic plant invasion: an update Inderjit Department of Environmental Biology, 2Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems (CEMDE), University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India, Emails: [email protected]; [email protected] A large number of empirical studies are carried out to understand why some exotic plants often form monocultures and suppress native residents while they coexist in species-diverse communities in their native area. Here some recent studies that support the interaction of chemicals produced by exotic plants and soil communities in plant invasions are discussed. There is a need to understand the ‗expanded‘ effects of novel chemicals; for example, novel chemicals-microbial interactions in the non-native ranges that benefit the donor plant and thereby harm the neighbouring plant species. Introduction A question that fascinates most ecologists is why some exotic plants form monocultures in non-native ranges and suppress their neighbours while they coexist in species-diverse communities in their native range (Callaway et al., 2008; Ridenour et al., 2008). A large number of non-exclusive hypotheses have been proposed to explain invasion success of exotic plants in their non-native ranges (Inderjit et al., 2005; Catford et al., 2009). Any discussion on each of the proposed hypotheses is beyond the scope of this article. Recent empirical work has generated some convincing evidence in support of evolution of increased competitive ability (Handley et al. 2008; Hull-Sanders et al., 2007; Feng et al., 2009), endophyte-mediated alteration of soil biota (Rudgers & Clay 2007; Rudgers & Orr 2009), accumulation of soil pathogens (Eppinga et al., 2006; Mangla et al., 2008), impact of local soil communities (Inderjit & van der Putten 2010; Scharfy et al., 2010), novel weapons (Inderjit et al., 2006; He et al., 2009; Thorpe et al., 2009), and improved our understanding of biological invasions. Below I discuss novel chemicals, soil communities, and evolution of increased competitive ability in order to highlight their contribution to exotic plant invasion. Evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) and novel chemicals Exotic plants upon introduction are either partially (enemy reduction; Beckstead and Parker 2003) or completely (enemy release; Keane & Crawley, 2002) released from specialist enemies. Müller-Schärer et al. (2004) described enemy release process as regulatory or compensatory. When a plant has low resistance to specialist enemies in its native range, the loss of its enemies in the introduced range results in direct survivorship; in this case the release is called regulatory release. On the other hand, when the plant in its native range is well defended against specialist enemies by producing defense metabolites, the loss of enemies in non-native ranges would have little consequences to the plant; in this case the release is called compensatory release. Resource allocation of the exotic plant to quantitative defense is expensive, however, plants could evolve 65 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

to reallocate for better growth and competitive ability. This mechanism is known as the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA; Blossey & Notzhold, 1995). Plants are known to release chemicals in the environment that could suppress growth and establishment of neighboring plants (allelopathy). Callaway & Ridenour (2004) examined allelopathy as one of the potential causes of invasion success of exotic plants by taking a biogeographically approach, and termed it as the Novel Weapons Hypothesis (NWH). In this biogeographically approach, the allelopathic potential of the plant in its native range is compared with that they express in the non-native range (Inderjit et al., 2008). Compared to traditional approach to study allelopathy, biogeographically approach considers the possibility of the evolution of allelopathy (Inderjit et al., 2008). Novel weapons hypothesis has a strong support on the evidences that the general effects of Eurasian invader Centaurea maculosa, and chemicals contained in its roots exudates, were more effective against species in invaded region (North America) than in native regions (Callaway & Ridenour, 2004). The major assumption of NWH is that native species are not adapted to novel chemicals brought to non-native range by exotic plants, which is further supported by Grøndahl & Ehlers (2008). These authors studied the effects of 2 terpenes, carvacrol and β-caryolphyllene produced by Tyhmus pulegiodes and T. serpyllum on the growth of neighbouring plant species. In general, local species showed adaptation to these chemicals in the native range and therefore are not sensitive to chemicals and have potential to break down chemicals released by the plant. One of the major criticisms of allelopathy is the lack of field evidence (Inderjit & Weiner, 2001; Inderjit & Callaway, 2003). However, novel weapons hypothesis, however, provide convincing field evidence in the support of novel chemicals playing an important role in invasion success of an exotic plant (see Thorpe et al., 2009; He et al., 2009; Barto et al., 2010a). Allelopathy hypothesis is suggested as a sub-set of the EICA hypothesis (Callaway & Ridenour, 2004; Inderjit et al., 2006) because novel chemicals in the non-native range provide competitive advantage to the exotic plant over the native ones. Callaway & Ridenour (2004) proposed that selection for greater allelopathic output could be an alternative mechanism for the evolution of the increased competitive ability and coined this hypothesis the allelopathic advantage against resident species. These authors speculated that higher allelopathic potential of invaders compared to their native populations could be due to production of higher amounts of potent chemicals and due to sensitive neighbours and soil communities. Müller-Schärer et al. (2004) viewed that invaders generally have not completely escaped from their enemies, and proposed to revise EICA hypothesis to include the role of generalist herbivores. It is important to conduct a rigorous re-examination of C. maculosa invasion in the light of the refined EICA hypothesis proposed by Müller-Schärer et al. (2004), comparing levels of herbivory by generalist and specialist herbivores in the invaded and native range. While examining trade-offs between growth and defense, Ridenour et al. (2008) showed that plants of N. American C.maculosa were larger than plants from native European populations, which supports the EICA hypothesis. However, N. American C. maculosa were better defended against generalist in terms of better resistance and tolerance because invasive populations had tough leaves and more trichomes. Their study showed that EICA may not always lead to trade-offs between growth and defense. 66 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Recently, Feng et al. (2009) examined the reallocation of nitrogen (N) from defense to growth in the invaded ranges of the Ageratina adenophora, a Mexican invader in China and India. Seeds of A. adenophorafrom the native (Mexico) and non-native (China and India) ranges were collected and grown in common-garden experiments. It was found that A. adenophora in nonnatives ranges allocates N to growth but in its native ranges, it allocates Nitrogen to cell wall in order to have better defenses. Moreover, the higher growth rate of this plant in its non-native ranges compared to its native range, is an evidence supporting the EICA. The examination of a presumed increase in chemicals products in the non-native range was not studied for A. adenophora. Toxicity mediated by novel environment The role of novel chemicals in suppressing native resident plants in the non-native range of exotic plants is well discussed in literature but the role of native communities (plants and microbes) in contributing to the allelopathic potential of an exotic plant is not discussed. Exotic plants may bring chemicals that do not exert any toxicity against neighboring plants but native plants and soil communities of the non-native range may transform innocuous novel compounds to toxic compounds. Recently, Bains et al. (2009) have shown that Phragmites australis, an exotic invasive plant in marsh communities in North America, produces higher quantities of gallotannins compared to native, non-invasive populations. These authors have demonstrated that the enzyme tannase produced by native plants and microorganisms have the property to transform innocuous gallotannins into gallic acid, a toxic compound. This is a good example showing the participation of native plants and soil communities in producing novel chemicals which in turn contributed to the invasive success of P. australis. Invasion mediated by soil microbes Recently, Inderjit & van der Putten (2010) discussed the effects of soil microbial communities on exotic plant invasion and the impact of exotic plant invasion on soil communities as well. In addition to the potential of exotic plants to escape soil pathogens (Klironomos 2002) and positive (Callaway et al., 2004) or negative (Knevel et al., 2004) impacts of soil communities on exotic plants, exotic plant could accumulate soil biota that suppress the seedlings of neighboring plant species. While working on the invasion success of Chromolaena odorata, a native of Caribbean and an aggressive invasive weed in the Western Ghats of India, Mangla et al. (2008) has found that rhizosphere soils of C. odorata accumulate high concentrations of a local soil pathogen, which creates a negative impact on the seedlings of native plants. These results support an earlier general hypothesis proposed by Eppinga et al. (2006), a hypothesis known as accumulation of soil pathogens. Whether chemicals exuded by roots of C. odorata favors the accumulation of soil pathogen is not proven experimentlly. Mangla et al. (2008), however, provided some indirect evidence that root leachates of C. odorata promotes higher number of spores of soil pathogens. The negative impacts of L. arundinaceum on native plant species are mediated through a aboveground fungal endophyte, Neotyphodium coenphialum present in the non-native grass Loilium arundinaceum (Rudgers & Orr, 2009; Rudgers et al., 2004). By altering soil biota, endophyte in L. arundinaceum exerts negative impacts on tree species such as Elaeagnus umbellata, Fraxinus pennsylvanica and Platanus occidentalis. Rudgers & Orr (2009) highlighted 67 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

the importance of above- and belowground microbial communities in providing competitive advantage to the non-native grass, L. arundinaceum. Callaway et al. (2008) reported that Alliaria petiolata, an eurasian invader from N. American forests, disrupt the mutualistic associations between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and tree species. These authors found that A. petiolata when was present in N. American soils had negative impact on AMF and the regeneration of native mycorrhizal tree seedlings. Such effects were not observed when A. petiolata grown in native European soils. In contrast, Barto & Cipollini (2010b) found that A. petiolata extract had no impact on AMF colonization of roots or soils, and suggested that potential alleopathic effects of A. petiolata could be due to direct inhibition of plant seedlings and fungus before the formation of symbiosis. Concluding remarks Callaway and his co-workers have proposed the biogeographically approach to examine the dimension in allelopathic studies. This approach has contributed to a better understanding about the ecological and evolutionary aspects of allelopathy in the context of plant invasion ecology. Lankau (2009) examined the glucosinolate content in the Alliaria petiolata of different invasion history in N. America. He observed a significant decline in the production of glucosinolates from A. petiolata over a span of more than 50 years from its invasion, which resulted in the decline of the invasiveness of this invasive plant in N. American forests. Recent studies have shown that enemy release, EICA, plant-soil feedback and novel weapons interact with each other in a complex way (Feng et al., 2009; Inderjit and van der Putten 2010). Moreover, in allelopathy studies, the importance of microbial interactions is underemphasized (see Kaur et al., 2009). In this vein, the scope of novel chemicals/allelopathy should be broadening to identify the chemical-microbial interactions that benefit the focal exotic plant and thereby suppress neighboring native plant species. Other factors such as propagule pressure could bean important factor that can be consistently correlated to the invasive success (Lockwood et al., 2005). Massive seed production appeared to be a requirement for dominance, and in the absence of a massive seedbank, even competition that is potentially assisted by allelopathic chemicals, is inadequate to maintain the dominance of this species. It is important to examine the ways an exotic plant multiplies in the non-native ranges, its potential to take advantage of new resources and conditions compared to local species and its potential to manipulate abiotic and biotic soil factors. Acknowledgements This paper was presented at the 2nd International Workshop on Invasive Alien Plants in the Mediterranean Type of Regions of the World, Trabzon, Turkey, August 2010. I thank Ahmet Uludag and Sarah Brunel to invite me to the workshop. Funding provided by the European Environment Agency (EEA) is gratefully acknowledged. References Bains G, Kumar AS, Rudrappa T, Alff E, Hanson TE & Bais HP (2009) Native plant and microbial contributions to a negative plant-plant interaction. Plant Physiology 151, 2145-2151.


Barto K, Powell JR & Cipollini D (2010a) How novel are the chemical weapons of garlic mustard in North America forest understories. Biological Invasions 12, 3465-3471. Barto K, Friese C & Cipollini D (2010b) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi protect a native plant from allelopathic effects of an invader. Journal of Chemical Ecology 36, 351-360. Beckstead J & Parker IM (2003) Invasiveness of Ammophila arenaria : release from soil-borne pathogens? Ecology 84, 2824-2831. Blossey B & Notzgold R (1995) Evolution of increased competitive ability in invasive non-indigenous plants: a hypothesis. Journal of Ecology 83, 887-889. Callaway RM & Ridenour WM (2004) Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of increased competitive ability. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 436-443. Callaway RM, Cipollini D, Barto K, Thelen GC, Hallett SG, Prati D, Stinson K & Klironomos J (2008) Novel weapons: invasive plant suppresses fungal mutualists in America but not in its native Europe. Ecology 89, 1043-1055. Callaway RM, Thelen GC, Rodriguez A & Holben WE (2004) Soil biota and exotic plant invasion. Nature 427, 731-733. Catford JA, Jansson R & Nilsson C (2009) Reducing redundancy in invasion ecology by integrating hypotheses into a single theoretical framework. Diversity & Distribution 15, 22-40. Eppinga MB, Rietkerk M, Dekker SC, Ruiter PC & van der Putten WH (2006) Accumulation of local pathogens: a new hypothesis to explain exotic plant invasions. Oikos 114, 168-176. Feng YL, Lei Y, Wang R, Callaway RM, Valiente-Banuet A, Inderjit, Li Y-P & Zheng Y-L (2009) Evolutionary tradeoffs for nitrogen allocation to photosynthesis versus cell walls in an invasive plant. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 106, 1853-1856. Grøndahl E & Ehlers BK (2008) Local adaptation to biotic factors: reciprocal transplants of four species associated with aromatic Thymus pulegiodes and T. serpyllum. Journal of Ecology 96, 981-992. Handley RJ, Steinger T, Trier UA & Muller-Scharer H (2008) Testing the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis in a novel framework. Ecology 89, 407-417. He WM, Feng Y, Ridenour W, Thelen GC, Pollock JL, Diaconu A, Callaway RM (2009) Novel weapons and invasions: biogeographic differences in the competitive effects of Centaurea maculosa and its root exudates (±)-catechin. Oecologia 159, 803-815. Hull-Sanders HM, Clare R, Johnson RH & Meyer GA (2007) Evaluation of the evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis: loss of defense against generalist but not specialist herbivores. Journal of Chemical Ecology 33, 781-799. Inderjit & Van der Putten WH (2010) Impacts of soil microbial communities on exotic plant invasion. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25, 512-519. Inderjit & Callaway RM ( 2003) Experimental designs for the study of allelopathy. Plant and Soil 256, 1-11. Inderjit & Weiner J (2001) Plant allelochemical interference or soil chemical ecology? Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution & Systematics 4, 3-12. Inderjit, Callaway RM & Vivanco JM (2006) Plant biochemistry helps to understand invasion ecology. Trends in Plant Science 11, 574-580. Inderjit, Seastedt TR, Callaway RM, Pollock J & Kaur J (2008) Allelopathy and plant invasions: traditional, congeneric, and biogeographical approaches. Biological Invasions 10, 875-890. Inderjit, Cadotte M & Colautti RI (2005) The ecology of biological invasions: past, present and future.Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects (ed Inderjit), pp. 19-44. Birkhauser-Verlag AG, Basel (Switzerland). Kaur H, Kaur R, Kaur S, Baldwin IT & Inderjit (2009) Taking ecological function seriously: soil microbial communities can obviate allelopathic effects of released metabolites. PLoS One 4(3), e4700. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004700 Keane RM & Crawley MJ (2002) Exotic plant invasions and the enemy release hypothesis. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17, 164-70. Klironomos J (2002) Feedback with soil biota contributes to plant rarity and invasiveness in communities. Nature 417, 67-70. Knevel IC, Lans T, Menting FBJ, Hertling UM & Van der Putten WH (2004) Release from native root herbivores and biotic resistance by soil pathogens in a new habitat both affect the alien Ammophila arenaria in South Africa. Oecologia 141, 502-510.


Lankau RA, Nuzzo V, Spyreas G & Davis AS (2009) Evolutionary limits ameliorate the negative impacts of an invasive plant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106, 15362-15367. Lockwood JL, Cassey P & Blackburn TM (2005) The role of propagulepressure in explaining species invasion. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20, 223-228. Mangla S, Inderjit & Callaway RM (2008) Exotic invasive plant accumulates native soil pathogen which inhibit native plants. Journal of Ecology 96, 58-67. Müller-Schärer H, Schaffner U & Steinger T (2004) Evolution in invasive plants and implications for biological control. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19, 417-422. Ridenour WM, Vivanco JM, Feng Y, Horiuchi J & Callaway RM (2008) No evidence for trade-offs: Centaurea plants from America are better competitors and defenders. Ecological Monographs 78, 369-386. Rudgers JA & Orr S (2009) Non-native grass alters growth of native species via leaf and soil microbes. Journal of Ecology 97, 247-255. Rudgers JA, Koslow JM & Clay K (2004) Endophytic fungi alter relationships between diversity and ecosystem properties. Ecology Letters 7, 42-51. Rudgers JA & Clay K (2007) Endophyte symbiosis with tall fescue: how strong are the impacts on communities and ecosystems? Fungal Biology Reviews 21, 107-124. Scharfy D, Gusewell S, Gessner MO & Venterink HO (2010) Invasion of Solidao gigantean in contrasting experimental plant communities: effects on soil microbes, nutrients and plant-soil feedbacks. Journal of Ecology 98, 1379-1388. Thorpe AS, Thelen GC, Diaconu A & Callaway RM (2009) Root exudate is allelopathic in invaded community but not in native community: field evidence for the novel weapons hypothesis. Journal of Ecology 97, 641-645.


Invasive weed threats in Gangetic inceptisol of India and their management R. K.Ghosh, FAPS, FISWS Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, (BCKV)Mohanpur-741252, West Bengal, India, Email: [email protected] Climate change and the import of foodgrains & seeds are the two major causes for the invasion of the many weeds in the Gangetic Inceptisol of India. Holding 2.4% Worlds‘ land area and 10 Bio geographical zones, India has 8% of worlds‘ biodiversity and is 10th among plant rich nations of the World (4th among Countries of Asia). India has 42 Vegetation types, 16 major Forest types, approximately 126,188 species covering all 5 Kingdoms including 9000 higher plant species (flowering plants are 17,000 species). In recent decades the reduction in India‘s plant species is approximately 10 % in flowering plants including more than 150 Medicinal plants. More than 32 weed pests have invaded since the mid 1990s via the import of seed. In India production losses due to pests is 33% and out of this, the major pest weed plant alone causes 37% yield losses. Management of these invasive weed pests is therefore urgently needed in addition to proper management of soil and water resources to increase the food production for India‘s food security. Survey & Surveillance under the National Weed Surveillance Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India revealed that in the anaerobic ecosystems (puddle condition, semi aquatic and aquatic situation) Eichhornia crassipes, Oryza rufipogon, Aneilema vaginata, Panicum repens, Eriocaulon sieboldtianum, Eleocharis congesta, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Scirpus mucronatus, Cyperus microiria, Cyperus serotinus, Cyperus polystschyos, Cyperus fulvo-albescens, Alternanthera philoxeroides etc. and in aerobic ecosystems (no water stagnation condition) Elatine triandra, Phalaris minor, Tithonia rotundifolia, Cynoglossum germinacum, Polygonum plebium, Desmodium triflorum, Trichodesma indicum, Euphorbia heleoscopia, Euphorbia heterophylla, Cardenthera triflora etc. are common invasive weeds. In the non-crop areas, roadsides & wasteland ecosystems Parthenium hysterophorus, Cleome rufidosperma, Solanum incanum, Pergularia daemia, Rouvolfia tetraphylla, Hibiscus subdarifa, Acanthus ilicifolius, Desmodium laxiflorum, Solanum viarum, Solanum miriacanthum, Solanum indisanum, Solanum diphyllum, Miscanthus sacchariflorus etc. have also invaded, some of them now entering crop fields. During 2007-08 five more invasive weeds Cenchrus tribuloides, Ambrosia trifida, Viola arvensis, Cynoglossum officinale and Solanum carolinenses have entered in India with imported wheat food grains. Research on biology of these invasive weeds during the past decade showed the possibilities for their management. Utilizing this invasive weed flora in various agricultural and social purposes including compost making, biopesticides, biogas, biofuel, herbal technology etc. that create employment are so far identified as the best measure in addition to usually applied chemical 71 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

or physical method of weed control. Awareness through public participation including the farmers is the most common strategy for tackling these alien invasive weed pests. Introduction The population of India is estimated to reach 1.2 billion during 2011; 17.7 % more than that of 2001 and the National foodgrains demand based on medium dietary requirement is also estimated as 253 mt. The food production in 2009-10 was only 219.2 mt (ICAR, 2010). Therefore, within just one year 33 mt more production is an arduous task. In such situation the ‗System of Intensification’ or the unique Best Management Practice (BMP) where ‗Rainbow Revolution‘ is followed with the advance bio-products and available resources based technology combining with the wisdom of the age old practices of the art of cultivation (ITK) is the best alternative methodology. The major four components of this technology are Management of improved Seed; Management of Nutrients; Management of Water & Management of Pest in integrated approaches giving priority to Weed Management, and to the major pests causing maximum losses (Ghosh et. al., 2009). In the management of improved seed (meaning more than 99 % germination capability, viable and pure seed) climate change and the import of food grains and seeds are the two major causes for the invasion of many alien plants or pests. The numbers of days of more than 12 mm rainfall have decreased by 78 per cent in the last 53 years (Current Science, August 25, 2005, scientific article of PV Joseph, scientist at the Cochin University of Science and Technology).Weed Species of Quarantine Significance to India according to special provisions for Quarantine weeds [class 3(12)] & Schedule VIII of Plant Quarantine order 2005 showed that already 33 weed species were invaded India (DWSR, 2010). Further Survey & Surveillance under the National Weed Surveillance Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (2007-08-200910) revealed that in the anaerobic ecosystems Eichhornia crassipes, Oryza rufipogon, Aneilema vaginata, Panicum repens, Eriocaulon sieboldtianum, Eleocharis congesta, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Scirpus mucronatus, Cyperus microiria, Cyperus serotinus, Cyperus polystschyos, Cyperus fulvo-albescens, Alternanthera philoxeroides etc. and in aerobic ecosystems Elatine triandra, Phalaris minor, Tithonia rotundifolia, Cynoglossum germinacum, Polygonum plebium, Desmodium triflorum, Trichodesma indicum, Euphorbia heleoscopia, Euphorbia heterophylla, Cardenthera triflora etc. are common invasive weeds. In the non-crop areas, roadsides & wasteland ecosystems Parthenium hysterophorus, Cleome rufidosperma, Solanum incanum, Pergularia daemia, Rouvolfia tetraphylla, Hibiscus subdarifa, Acanthus ilicifolius, Desmodium laxiflorum, Solanum viarum, Solanum miriacanthum, Solanum indisanum, Solanum diphyllum, Miscanthus sacchariflorus etc. have also invaded and some of them are now entering the crop fields. During 2007-08, five more invasive weeds Cenchrus tribuloides, Ambrosia trifida, Viola arvensis, Cynoglossum officinale and Solanum carolinenses have entered India with imported wheat food grains (Annual Report, NIWS, BCKV Centre, 2009-10). The production as well as social losses caused by these invasive weed plants is gradually increasing. Therefore, managing these weed plants is an urgent need for the food security in the world (DWSR, 2009).


Ecology and biology of invasive weed plants The biology studies of some of the invasive weed plants revealed that grain setting in Gangetic inceptisol of Oryza rufipogon is only during June sowing. Phalaris minor in winter is now distributed from wheat field to road side in the North-West of India and also invades Eastern India. Solanum carolinense was found in Southern India during 2009 (Annual Report, NIWS, Bangalaru & Tamil Nadu Centre, 2009). Most of these invasive weed plants contain allelochemicals which may be utilized as biopesticides. Some of these chemicals were already isolated such as Benzoic acid; Cinnamic acid, Phenolic acid, Cumarins, Hydroquinones, Cineoles, Alkaloides, Tannins, Benzoquinones, Thiopenes, Juglone, Gallic acid Dhurin, Oxalates, Glocosides, Trymethyl xanthene, Prussic acid, etc. Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis procera are two very common species of Rooster tree. These are generally found along the roadsides and locally known as Akanda, Mandara, Vellerukka or Ark. These shrubs are also wasteland weeds. Calotropis gigantea is bigger than Calotropis procera. The leaves are simple, opposite, sub-sessile, oblong and acute. Flowers are pink, spotted with purple, buds globose, corolla scales with purple, seeds broadly ovate, flattened, comose (Naidu et al., 2005). This Swallo-wort plant is commonly propagated by seeds which are broadly ovate flattened with silky hairs at the apex, light brown in color and slightly reticulate. Parthenium hysterophorous is an invasive weed commonly found along roadsides. It is locally known as Congress grass. It was first found at Pune, India in 1955 and in 1975 at Dankuni, West Bengal. It is now covering 35 m ha in India (DWSR 2010) and has been termed ‗National weed‘ since 2005-06. It enters crop fields from the roadsides. It is a shrub, commonly completing three life cycles in one year in this region (February, June and October). The plant mainly propagates by seeds. One plant contains 15,000-25,000 seeds which are very light and easily dispersed by air and water. It grows well in moist conditions but cannot tolerate water stagnation. It is very difficult to control unless at a time the eradication of this weed plant is done in all places of a region. The pollen allelopathy, a rare phenomenon inhibiting the germination of the pollen of other species in their respective stigma shown by Parthenium pollen may result in yield loss of crops.. It is reported for out burst of the diseases like tomato leaf curl, bud necrosis of groundnut and sunflower, stem necrosis of groundnut, powdery mildew, collar rot, leaf spot, milly bug and rust of various crops. Recently, Parthenium has been responsible for out burst of bud necrosis of groundnut in Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Karnataka. In India, it is estimated to lower the yield of field crops by 40% and forage crops by 90% in severely infested areas. In Australia, its damage is put at 16 million dollars per annum from pasture and crops. Pollen grains of Parthenium are reported to inhibit fruit set in tomato, bringal, beans, capsicum and maize (DWSR, 2010; Ghosh et al., 2009). Parthenium is also causing health hazards to human and animals


Management of invasive weed plants Research on the management of these invasive weeds revealed that Calotropis plant is used as green manure and for fibre making. Calotropis latex is used for curing swellings and pain. The juice contains Mudarine used as purgative (Ghosh et al., 2007). Calotropin, the extract of roots is also used for fertility control in plants (Naidu et al., 2005). The tribal peoples of Medinipur are using the extracts of Calotropis against scabis and antifungal by mixing with mustard oil and extracts of Heliotropium indicum (Ghosh et al., 2008). The Calotropis raw leaf and stem extracts has been used as herbicide and it has been found that the raw extract applied at 5 ml/ litre of water as pre emergence in Soybean (Ghosh, 2008) and also in Paddy found useful to control grass and broadleaves categories of weeds (Adhoc project under Rastrya Krishi Bikash Yajana, 2010). Young non-flowered Parthenium is useful for compost making and this is the best way of managing this weed (Ghosh, 2009). Use of this young plant as green manure is also very useful to manage this weed as it contains 3.6 % Nitrogen and around 1.0 % Phosphorus and Potash (Dolai et al., 2010). Parthenium contains Sesquiterpene lactones (Ambrosin; Hymenin and Parthenin) besides Phenols and other Phenolic acids. The Parthenium extracts are also useful as bio herbicides, 5% water extract is able to control the grassy weeds. The root powder is used as herbicide to control Cyperus rotundus (Ghosh et al., 2007). A good quality fibre is obtained from its stem fibre. It is used for paper pulp purpose. Pre flowered Parthenium provide a potential source of protein, vitamin A, vitamin E and xanthophylls. It is used in biogas production. The extracts of plant parts may be used as an insecticide to control the cotton insect Spodoptera litura. Procedure of Parthenium compost preparation             

Make a pit of 3 ft depth x 6 ft width x 10 ft length. It should be in open upland place. Cover the base surface and side walls of the pit by stone chips or make soil surface compact to protect the absorption of compost nutrients by the soil surface by using Lime. Use 40 kg soil and 30 kg FYM / Vermicompost in each of 4 layers a pit. Collect young Parthenium plants from nearby areas and spread 50 kg on the surface of the pit in each layer. Use 10 liters of water and spray it on the surface of the layer. Sprinkle 500 g Urea or 3 kg Rock phosphate over this for each layer. Add Trichoderma viridi @ 50 g layer-1 Repeat this type of biomass compact layer till 4 layers. Cover the pit with soil, dung and husk making a 1 – 1.5 ft dome shape. After 4-5 months the well decomposed compost is ready. Sieve final compost with 2 cm x 2 cm mesh for packaging in bags. Apply 3-5 t ha-1 this eco-friendly balanced Parthenium compost. Similar way preparing the field side compost by using the weed plants in the crop, vegetables or orchards and also by using aquatic weeds like Eichhornia crassipes which is abundantly available in India could be done. These composts have no harmful effects 74 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

and are more nutrient rich & less costly than the traditional FYM or even the Vermicompost. Name of the compost Nitrogen % Vermicompost 1.61 FYM 0.45 Parthenium Compost (DWSR) 1.05 Parthenium Compost (BCKV) 1.21 (Ghosh, 2010 and DWSR, 2010)

Phosphorus % 0.68 0.30 0.84 0.89

Potash % 1.31 0.54 1.11 1.34

Awareness Programmes Creating awareness among the peoples including the farmers is the another alternative for mass eradication of these invasive weeds. In India during the last few years many awareness programmes have been conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), the Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), the Directorate of Agriculture in different States, etc. In West Bengal more than 100 such programmes have been conducted per annum by Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV) during the last five years through the Directorate of Extension Education, Krishi Vigyan Kendra and adhoc projects sponsored by Corporates or ICAR. The Weed Science, Department of Agronomy alone has been conducting around 25 such awareness programmes per anuum at various districts of West Bengal since 2006-07 (Ghosh 2005- 10) organized by the author. The benefits of these awareness programmes are reported to be satisfactory. Conclusion In conclusion invasion of plants is a natural phenomenon. Surveys and surveillance are essential to find out about the spreading of these species. Research is to be done to find out how to limit these weeds through their possible uses. Awareness is needed to make known the possible management actions through uses of these species. Lastly, all sectors of the Society – the scientists and officers of institutions, government & NGOs, farmers, students and even the general public should be involved in managing these invasive plants. References

Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), ICAR (2010) Compost making from Parthenium – Technical Extension Bulletin; 2010. Directorate of Weed Science Research (DWSR), ICAR (2010) Biological Control of Parthenium – An Eco friendly Approach; Technical Extension Bulletin; 2010 Dolai AK, Bera S, Jana PK & Ghosh RK (2010) Studies on Prospect of Parthenium as Green Manure and Mulch in different Cropping Sequence in Inceptisol of West Bengal. Paper presented in ―International Conference on Mother Earth- Save it for Future Generations‖; February 13-15, 2010. Organized by Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India. Gr. VI Abstract No. 6.15 Pp 131 Ghosh RK (2005) Invasive weed Parthenium menace and its management at Inceptisol: Paper presented in 2nd International Conference at Bangalore during December 5-7, 2005. Ghosh RK (2005-10) Awareness Programmes on System of Intensification; Awareness Programme on National Parthenium Week. Awareness Programme on State Parthenium Management Week, etc. Ghosh RK, Mondal SS & Maiti S (2007) Modern Weed Science Manual; Published from Department of Agronomy, BCKV.


Ghosh RK, Dolai AK & Pal D (2008) Weed utilization as medicine; Paper presented in the National Symposium on Medicinal Plants; FTC, BCKV; March 2008 Ghosh S (2008) Integrated Weed Management of Rapeseed – Soybean crop sequence; Ph.D. Thesis , Department of Agronomy, BCKV (Unpublished) Ghosh RK (2009) Invited Paper on Weed utilization- Workshop at DWSR, ICAR, Jabalpur October 20-21, 2009. Ghosh RK (2009) Parthenium Compost – an Ecofriendly Balanced Biofertilizer : Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK (2009) Management of Invasive weed Parthenium through Integrated approach: Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK, Bhattacharyya A & Varshney JG (2009) Ecorestoration of Soil and Water, Production of oils and Employment generation by utilizing weed plants. Presentation of Lead Paper in ―National Consultation on Weed Utilization‖, 20-21 October 2009 organized by Directorate of Weed Science Research, ICAR, Jabalpur, M.P. Abstracts Pp 34-35. Ghosh RK (2010) System of Intensification- The Best Alternate Technology for Modern Agriculture : Leaflet published from BCKV in both Bengali and English version. Ghosh RK (2010) Dynamics of Anthrophytes in West Bengal: Management of Invasive weed Parthenium through Integrated approach: Leaflet published from BCKV in English version. Ghosh RK (2010) Published Book Plant Protection Manual -Weed management Chapter ; Directorate of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal Ghosh RK, Sharma L, Barman S & Dolai AK (2009) System of Intensification: The Alternate Approach for Increasing Production of Field Crops. Journal of Crop and Weed 5(2), 63-67. Joseph PV (2005) Published paper by the Scientists at the Cochin University of Science and Technology; Current Science, August 25, 2005 National research Centre for Weed Science (NRCWS), ICAR (2008) Making Pathenium Compost– Technical Extension Bulletin 35; 2008


Niche modeling in invasive plants: new insights to predict their potential distribution in the invaded areas Ro Bustamante1,2, PC Guerrero1,2, FT Peða-Gñmez1,2 1 Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile. 2 Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity. E-mail: [email protected] The explosive spread of some invasive plant species worldwide is an issue of major concern for biodiversity conservation. The prediction of future distribution of invasive plants as well as the causes of spread are essential for the prioritization, the early detection and the control of this global threat. Niche-based models have proven to be useful to address these questions. In this chapter, we provide the conceptual basis of the niche modeling approach; we briefly discuss the methods of common use and the strategies of frequent use in invasion ecology as well as some limitations. We present an example of the niche modeling of an herbaceous plant originating from California and a successful invader in Mediterranean ecosystems. Finally, we present some caveats about the potentialities and limitations of this approach.

Introduction Biological invasions represent a growing threat to the conservation of biodiversity (Pimentel 2002). A general feature of species invasion is that once exotic species establish into a new environment, it is very difficult to eradicate and/or predict its spread. These difficulties are critical in the case of some invaders whose spread encompasses in some cases entire continents (Elton, 1958; Garcìa-Ramos & Rodrìguez 2002; Brooenniman et al., 2007). The understanding of the causes of these geographical expansions as well as their ecological consequences is a central issue in ecology and conservation biology. Niche-based models have proven to be useful in predicting future distribution of invasive plants which is essential for priorization, early detection and control. In this essay, we examine the conceptual bases of niche-based modeling; we provide one example of niche modeling using Eschscholzia californica, a perennial herb originating from California (California poppy) and a successful invader across Mediterranean ecosystems. We then discuss the potentialities as well as the limitations of this approach to predict geographic distributions of invasive species. The niche and the biotope The niche is a central concept in ecology and evolution (Wiens et al., 2005; Pearman et al., 2008). The definition, formerly proposed by Hutchinson (1957), can be summarized as an ―ndimensional hypervolume, every point in which correspond to a state of the environment which would permit a species to exist indefinitely‖. Two components are recognized within this concept: the fundamental niche, i.e. the hyper-volume of one species in absence of biotic/abiotic constraints and the realized niche i.e. the resulting hyper-volume including ecological 77 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

interactions. The fundamental niche is greater than the realized niche, given that negative interactions are predominantly important in natural communities (Hutchinson, 1957). Although the multivariate niche proposed by Hutchinson is an abstract concept, ecologists early recognized a reciprocal correspondence between the niche and the physical space in which species live (Grinnell, 1917; Hutchinson, 1978). More recently, this correspondence was formalized asserting a reciprocal duality between the niche and the biotope (Cowell & Rangel,2009); the biotope being the geographical space where individuals, populations or species occur, defined by the suitable configuration of the environmental variables, relevant for their fitness. Basically, the duality refers to a reciprocal correspondence between each point in the hyper-volume niche of one species and one or more points in the geographical space (the biotope), thus giving rise to the spatial distribution of the species. Thus, according to this duality, niche theory is contributing to identify to what extent changes of the biotope (habitat fragmentation, deforestation and climatic change) is contributing to shape the geographical distribution of a species. The niche-based modeling The reciprocal duality between the niche and the biotope constitutes the conceptual basis of the niche-modeling approach. The main goal of this approach is to search for predictive quantitative models based on the correlation of environmental data with species occurrences (Thuiller et al., 2007). In this approach, the biotope is represented as the area and the empirical points of occurrences characterized by a vector of n niche variables. Currently, climatic variables are available for these purposes at global scale (Hijman et al. 2005), thus, they are useful to model the ―climatic niche‖ and the biotope worldwide. The duality allows the projection of each point within the climatic niche onto the geographic space. As a single point within the niche corresponds commonly to many points in the biotope, it is possible to project the potential geographic distribution of a species beyond the observed occurrences, assuming no biotic or dispersal constraints. The niche modeling assumes that the distribution of species at geographic scales depends mostly on climatic factors (Pearman et al., 2008). Indeed, the climatic niche is constructed with the occurrences of species (the raw data from which we put the models to work), thus representing the portion of space that includes the climatic conditions sustaining survival and reproduction minus the sites where occurrences are prevented due to negative interactions and/or dispersal limitation. The more the biotic and dispersal limitations become less important, the more the climatic niche will resemble the fundamental niche. Niche modeling and invasive species The niche modeling has been a useful tool to predict the spread of invasive species (Bradley BA & Mustard, 2006; Beaumont et al., 2009; Broennimann et al., 2007; Broennimann & Guisan, 

Duality refers to phenomena having a twofold nature and characterized by states that are mutually exclusive. The duality is also a principle that allows that one concept defined in one dominium be transported to other dominium; this operation may be reciprocal (if dual of A is B, then the dual of B is A).


2008; Fitzpatrick et al., 2007; Kadoya et al., 2009). Since species invasions in global and regional scales are thought to be regulated by climatic conditions (Guisan & Zimmermann 2000; Pearson & Dawson 2003; Thuiller et al., 2005), these models are mostly applied in the assessment of the invasion risks across the new invaded areas (Bradley & Mustard 2006), and also attempt to anticipate species invasions in a context of global change (Hughes 2003; Peterson et al., 2002; Pearson & Dawson, 2003; Root et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004; Hijmans & Graham 2006; Bradley et al. 2009). Different strategies have been proposed to predict the potential distribution of invasive species: (i) to predict the invasion by means of the projection of the original niche to potentially invaded areas. This strategy assumes niche conservatism i.e. the tendency of the invasive species to maintain ancestral ecological requirements (Wiens & Graham 2005). This assumption may not necessarily hold true for some species for which niche evolution is well documented (Broenniman et al., 2007). (ii) to predict the invasion by projecting a ―regional niche‖ to potentially invaded sites constructed with the pooled occurrences collected across native and invaded ranges (Broennimann & Guisan 2008; Beaumont et al., 2009). This strategy is more accurate than strategy (i) because it encompasses more information for the prediction but it shares the assumption of the niche conservatism. (iii) to compare the projected distributions in the invaded area from the ―native niche‖ with the projected distribution in the same area from the ―introduced niche‖. This strategy assumes the possibility of niche evolution; if the niche is conserved, then no discrepancies exist between comparisons; when distributions do not coincide between each other, then evolutionary phenomenon is a possible option (Fitzpatrick et al., 2007; 2008). More recently, these reciprocal comparisons have been improved assessing quantitative evaluations of niche similarity (when the niches of two species are more similar than expected by chance) and niche equivalency (when the niches of two species are identical) (Warren et al., 2008). Niche modeling of Eschscholzia californica: Chile versus California Eschscholzia californica Cham. (Papaveraceae), is an endemic plant, originating from western North California and is regarded as a successful invader in other Mediterranean zones of the world such as Central Chile, Southafrica and medierranean basin, Europe (Stebbins, 1965; Leger & Rice, 2007). It is a perennial, self-incompatible and insect-pollinated plant (Cook, 1962). Seed dispersal is explosive, spreading seeds up to 2 m away from the mother plant. This plant is a successful colonizer across a wide range of environmental conditions either in native and introduced ranges, often occupying open, naturally disturbed environments and the edges of the roads (Cook, 1962; Leger & Rice, 2003). In Chile, the introduction of E. californica probably occurred from multiple introductions during the mid-1800s to early 1900s. It was introduced into botanic gardens in coastal and inland cities (Frias et al., 1975; Arroyo et al., 2000), and it is also likely that it was accidentally introduced through the commercial importation of alfalfa seed (Hillman & Henry, 1928). In Central Chile, E. californica is a very common plant. Although it is known to occur punctually at the northernmost of Chile at 18þS (3000 m.a.s.l.), the main distribution range is between 18þ to 38þ latitude S and from 0 to 2200 m.a.s.l. in Chile (Arroyo et al., 2000). A 79 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

remarkable phenotypic variation across a variety of environments have been document, product of local adaptation (Leger & Rice, 2007). Of the five Mediterranean-type climate regions of the world, central Chile and California have the highest similarity in climates and geomorphology (Mooney et al., 1977; di Castri, 1991; Sax, 2002; Jimenez et al., 2008). Both regions also show a parallel latitudinal-climatic gradient, with higher precipitations and lower temperatures at higher latitudes, which shape the patterns of distribution of natural vegetation vegetation (Mooney et al., 1977; Sax, 2002; Jimenez et al, 2008). Furthermore, coastal and interior mountain ranges and central valleys are remarkably comparable between Chile and California, having equivalent local climatic effects (Mooney et al., 1977). Under this climatic similarity, it is expected that Eschscholzia californica would established successfully in Central Chile with no further evolutionary change. Occurrence data from California were obtained from the ―Consortium of California Herbaria‖ and from CALFLORA. Occurrence data from Chile were obtained from the herbarium of the University of Concepcion (CONC) and the National Natural History Museum (SGO). We gathered additional occurrence data from field excursions conducted across Central Chile (Spring to Summer 2009). The occurrences were associated with temperature and precipitation variables, obtained from BIOCLIM (Hijmans et al. 2005, Hijmans & Graham 2006). The variables selected in this case were: BIO1, BIO5, BIO10, BIO11, BIO12, BIO15, BIO18, BIO19. For climatic niche comparison between Chile and California, we conducted a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Broennimann et al., 2007; Fitzpatrick et al. 2007), using the occurrence data and the climatic variables obtained from BIOCLIM. Basically, the PCA summarizes the most important climatic variables that better explain the occurrences; thus, using the values of occurrences associated to the Principal Components, it is possible to compare statistically the climatic niche between regions (Graham et al. 2004; Broennimann et al., 2007; Fitzpatrick et al. 2007). For the niche projection into the biotope we used MAXENT (Philips et al 2006), a machinelearning algorithm that models the species potential distribution using the occurrences and the environmental predictors obtained from BIOCLIM. In different tests, MAXENT has revealed better results than comparative methods and is relatively insensitive to a low number of occurrences which may be the case in some studies (Elith et al. 2006; Hernandez et al. 2006; Pearson et al., 2007). Basically, MAXENT finds a distribution of probability occurrences that satisfies the constraints imposed by environmental variables and occurrence data (Phillips & Dúdik 2008). In order to do that, the software selects the distribution that maximizes the entropy, in this case, the uniform distribution. The spatial resolution of maps displaying the potential distribution is 1 x 1 km2. MAXENT also allows to test the models by the calculation of the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) which represents the relationship 

BIO1: mean annual T, BIO5: maximum T, warmest month; BIO10: maximum T, warmest quarter, BIO11: Mean T, coldest quarter, BIO12: Annual PP, BIO15: PP seasonality, BIO18: PP warmest quarter, BIO19: PP coldest quarter. (T: temeperature; PP: precipitation)


between the ability of the model to predict occurrences given that they effectively occur versus the ability to predict occurrences given that they do not occur (Phillips et al., 2006). For good models, the slope of this relationship must be higher than 0.8. The current geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica was compared in Chile with the projected distribution. Specifically, we compared the distribution model projected in Chile from the climatic niche described for California (Californian niche) against the distribution model projected in Chile from the climatic niche described for Chile (Chilean niche). In order to do that we used the statistic proposed by Warren et al. (2008): 1 H ( p x , p y )   ( p x ,i  p y ,i ) 2 . In this case, px,i (or py,i) H ( px , p y ) , 2 i denotes the probability distribution assigned to species i onto the coordinate (x,y) from the distribution model projected from the Californian and from Chilean niche, respectively. This statistic ranges from 0 (no similarity) to 1 (total similarity). The differences between distribution models were statistically tested by randomnization procedures using the software ENM Tools (Warren et al. 2010). If the niche of Eschscholzia californica is conserved, then both distribution models should be significantly similar; if niche shift has occurred, then the distribution models should be tend to be dissimilar each other. I ( px , p y )  1 

Niche comparison The eight selected climatic variables were reduced into two Principal Components Principals: PC1, explained approximately 75% total variance of data, thus representing mainly precipitation; PC2, represented aprox 15% total variance and represented temperatures. A graphic representation of the niche space indicates that the occurrences of E. californica in California encompassed a larger portion of the niche space while in Chile, they are restricted to the more mesic and coldest portion of the niche space; globally, the Chilean niche is nested within the Californian niche (Figure 1), particularly concentrated in the more mesic and coldest part of the environmental gradient. This result is presumably the consequence of a non-random arrival of E. californica propagules that shared similar climatic requirements. In fact, the geographic projection of the Californian occurrences that were inside the Chilean niche, indicated that they are located exclusively at the coastal range of California (Peða et al. unpublished data) which suggests that the introductions were multiples and occurred exclusively from coastal populations. Given that the Chilean niche occurs almost completely inside the Californian niche, this nestedness is also an evidence of niche conservatism i.e. the set of invaders that arrived to Chile maintained their original requirements without further shift in the invaded range. Genetic analysis and interregional comparisons will be appropriate to shed further light on these questions.


Figure 1 - Climatic niche space of Eschscholzia californica for California (Californian niche, open dots) and Chile (Chilean niche, black dots) obtained from the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The first two axes of the PCA represent variation of precipitations (Principal Component 1) and temperature (Principal Component 2), respectively. The two ellipsoids include the 95% confidence intervals for California and Chile. Projections of E. californica in Chile The geographic distribution of E. californica in Chile projected from the Chilean niche and the Californian niche are shown in (Figure 2A and 2B). The Californian niche projected a larger distribution area (234798 km2) than the Chilean niche (area: 79809 km2) (Figure 2a and 2B). In fact, the Californian niche projected a potential distribution to coastal deserts in Chile and to the Patagonian Argentina, but with fairly low occurrence probabilities (P(O) < 0.3) (Figure 2B). However, both projections concentrate the highest occurrence probabilities (P(O) ≥ 0.50) at the coastal range of central Chile (aprox. 31þ to 36þ latitude S; Figure 2A and 2B). Statistical comparison indicated that the estimated similarity index between the two projected distribution (I = 0.559) is higher than the critical value (I crit = 0.558), which indicates that the two projected geographic projection are significantly similar each other (Figure 3).


Figure 2A - Geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica in Chile projected from the Chilean niche. Grey tonalities represent different occurrence probabilities. Black dots represent the occurrence data for the construction of the model.


Figure 2B - Geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica in Chile projected from the Californian niche. Grey tonalities represent different occurrence probabilities. Black dots represent the occurrence data for the construction of the model.


BACKGROUND SIMILARITY TEST 35

30

25

20

15

FREQUENCY (N)

10

5

0 0,5493

0,5507 0,5500

0,5521 0,5514

0,5536 0,5529

0,5550 0,5543

0,5565 0,5558

0,5572

SIMILARITY INDEX (I)

Figure 3 - Similarity index (I) to compare the geographic distribution projected from the Californian niche and the geographic distribution projected from the Chilean niche. This histogram was obtained comparing the similarity between 400 pairs of pseudo-replicated distributions obtained from re-sampling methods (Warren et al. 2008). The black arrow represents the estimated similarity index (I = 0.5559) between the Chilean and the Californian distribution. Broken line shows the critical value (I = 0.5558) that integrates the 95% of the total probability distribution. It is interesting to note that the geographic distribution of Eschscholzia californica projected from the Californian niche, extends to the northern desert of Chile and to the Patagonia region of Argentina. The projection to the northern Chile may be explained because in California this occupies desert ecosystems (Clark, 1978). We have preliminary evidence which indicates that this species really occurs at San Carlos de Bariloche (Argentinian Patagonia) (Bustamante pers. obs.) a fact that supports the projection of the Californian niche to these regions. These results may have profound implications for the potential spread of E. californica as the Andean Range should act as a biogeographic corridor rather than a barrier at intermediate altitudes, thus allowing the spread of this species beyond Andean ranges. Caveats The use of ecological niche models will increase in the future because they are based on a well accepted theoretical background (niche theory). They are also based on occurrence data which are relatively easy to gather relative to other measurements of plant performance such as 85 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

reproductive outputs, survival or density. An additional advantage is that the global climatic information and appropriate software to conduct niche modeling are available (for free) in the web (www.worldclim.org). However, there are some conceptual/methodological limitations that should be considered during the use this correlative approach. Firstly, niche may evolve during the invasive process, thus projected distribution may be underestimated drastically if we assume niche conservatism. Secondly, biotic factors may be as important as climatic factors to drive the geographic spread in invasive plant; this information is often unavailable to be included in these models and therefore a strong effort should be made to fill this missing issue. Thirdly, human activities impose notable changes in the landscape, not always considered in niche modeling of invasive species, even though, humans are a major vector in species spread. Thus, it is mandatory to get detailed spatial data describing the human footprints across landscapes (disturbances, roads, cities, population density). Fourthly, niche-based models are sensitive to the number of climatic variable selected: too many variables can over-fit the models and therefore fail to predict the full invasive potential of a species, but too few can leave out relevant climatic variables where a species could have shifted or expanded. Acknowledgements This study was supported by project FONDECYT 1100076 to RO Bustamante and project ICM P05 – 002; Pablo Guerrero is a fellow of CONICYT (D-21070301, AT-24090076, 75100024) and Fulbright (15103515). WE acknowledge the assistance and help of Lua Alves and Juan Pablo Martinez for the data analysis and help during the execution of this study. References Arroyo MTK, Marticorena C, Matthei O & Cavieres L (2000) Plant invasions in Chile: present patterns and future predictions. In Invasive Species in a Changing World (eds Mooney HA & Hobbs RJ), pp 385–421. Island Press, Washington DC. Beaumont LJ, Gallagher RV, Thuiller W, Downey PO, Leishman MR & Hughes L (2009) Different climatic envelopes among invasive populations may lead to underestimations of current and future biological invasions. Diversity and Distributions 15, 409-420. Bradley BA & Mustard JF (2006) Characterizing the landscape dynamics of an invasive plant and risk of invasion using remote sensing. Ecological Applications 16, 1132-1147. Broennimann O & Guisan A (2008) Predicting current and future biological invasions: both native and invaded ranges matter. Biology Letters 4, 585-589. Broennimann O, Treier UA, Müller–Scharer H, Thuiller W, Peterson AT & Guisan A (2007) Evidence of climatic niche shift during biological invasion. Ecology Letters 10, 701 – 709. Cook SA (1962) Genetic system variation and adaptation in Eschscholzia californica. Evolution 16, 278–299. Clark C (1978) Systematic Studies of Eschscholzia (Papaveraceae) I. The origin and Affinities of E. Mexicana. Systematic Botany 3, 374-385. Colwell RK & Rangel FR (2009) Hutchinson‘s duality: the once and future of niche. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science 106, 19651 – 19658. Di Castri F (1991) An ecological overview of the five regions of the world with a mediterranean climate. In Biogeography of Mediterranean invasions (eds Groves RH & Di Castri F), pp 3 – 16. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Elith J, Graham CH, Anderson RP, Dudı´k M, Ferrier S, Guisan A, Hijmans RJ, Huettmann F, Leathwick JR, Lehmann ALJ, Lohmann LG, Loiselle BA, Manion G, Moritz C, Nakamura M, Nakazawa Y, Overton JMcC, Peterson AT, Phillips SJ, Richardson KS, Scachetti - Pereira R, Schapire RE, Soberñn, J, Williams S, Wisz MS & Zimmermann NE (2006) Novel methods to improve prediction of species distributions from occurrence data. Ecography 29, 129 - 151.


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Stebbins GL (1965) Colonizing species of the native California flora In: The Genetics of Colonizing Species (eds Baker HG & Stebbins GL). Academic Press, New York. Thuiller W, Richardson DM, Pysek P, Midgley GF, Hughes GO & Rouget M (2005) Niche-based modelling as a tool for predicting the risk of alien plant invasions at a global scale. Global Change Biology 11, 2234–2250. Thuiller W, Richardson DM & Midgley GF (2007) Will climate change promote alien plant invasions? In Ecological studies (eds Nentwig W), pp. 197–211. Springer Berlin, Berlin. Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BFN, Ferreira de Siqueira M, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, van Jaarsveld AS, Midgely GE, Miles L, OrtegaHuerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL & Williams SE (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427, 145–148. Warren DL, Glor RE & Turelli M (2008) Environmental niche equivalency versus conservatism: quantitative approaches to niche evolution. Evolution 62, 2868-2883. Warren DL, Glor RE & Turelli M (2010) ENMTools: a toolbox for comparative studies of environmental niche models. Ecography 33, 607- 611. Wiens JJ & Graham CH (2005) Niche conservatism: integrating evolution ecology and conservation biology. Annual Review Ecology Evolution and Systematics 36, 519 – 536.


Bern Convention on invasive alien plants, the Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants Eladio Fernandez-Galiano The Council of Europe, 67075 Strasbourg Cedex, France, E-mail: [email protected]

The Council of Europe was founded in 1949 and seeks to develop throughout Europe common and democratic principles based on the European Convention on Human Rights and other reference texts on the protection of individuals. The Council of Europe is composed of 47 member countries and one applicant country. The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats was adopted in Bern in 1979. It counts at present 44 Contracting Parties, one of which is the European Commission. The Convention has a three-fold objective: - To conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats - To promote co-operation between states - To give particular emphasis to endangered and vulnerable species and endangered natural habitats. The Bern Convention gathers Ministries of Environment and is managed by a Conference of the Parties called ―Standing Committee‖ which has met 20 times since the entry into force of the Convention in 1982. Activities on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) started in 1984 with the launch of a general recommendation for member countries. Specific recommendations were then adopted on the control of Caulerpa taxifolia, on the control of the Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis, on the introduction of the American cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus sp.) into Europe, on the control of the Grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and other alien squirrels into Europe, on the eradication of vertebrates, etc. In 2002, the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species was adopted aiming to provide more guidance to countries to draw up and implement a national strategy on IAS. In November 2008, the ―Code of conduct for Horticulture and Invasive Alien Plants‖, project developed in partnership with EPPO, was launched.


EPPO activities on Invasive Alien Plants, Sarah Brunel The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, 21 Bld Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France. E-mail: [email protected]

The European and Mediterranean Plant Organization (EPPO) and the Council of Europe have conjointly drafted a Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for European and Mediterranean countries, which was published in 2009. In Europe, it is estimated that 80% of the invasive alien plants are voluntarily introduced for ornamental purposes, and international trade is increasing yearly. This major pathway must be addressed urgently to prevent entry and spread of invasive alien plants, as at present, few legislation and management programmes are in place. Voluntary measures to tackle the problem and raise awareness among the horticultural sector and the public are therefore considered a priority. This Code of conduct provides essential information for Governments and the horticultural and landscape sectors on regulation concerning invasive alien plants, plant waste disposal, labelling of plants, proposing alternative plants, publicity, etc. This new and promising initiative now requires promotion and implementation within countries.


Role of the European Food Safety Authority in risk assessment of invasive species potentially harmful to plants Sara Tramontini1, V. Kertesz1, E. Ceglarska1, M. Navajas2, G. Gilioli2 1

European Food Safety Authority, Risk Assessment Directorate, I-43100 Parma, Largo Palli Natale 5A, Italy 2 European Food Safety Authority, Scientific Panel on Plant Health. E-mail: [email protected]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) provides independent scientific advice and transparent communication on risks relating to the safety and security of the food chain in the European Community. The EFSA Scientific Panel on Plant Health addresses the increasing demand of EU risk managers for scientific advice on risks posed by organisms harmful to plants and plant products. Advice is published as scientific opinions which provide a basis for consideration of phytosanitary measures to protect against the introduction and spread of harmful or invasive species in the European Community, under Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Since its inception in 2006, the Panel has delivered forty-five scientific opinions on the risks posed by species of invasive plants, invertebrate pests and pathogens, and pathways for pest movement. In addition, two guidance documents have been published: the first one on the evaluation of pest risk assessment and the second on the harmonized process for pest risk assessment and the identification and evaluation of pest risk management options. A new mandate for the preparation of a third guidance document on the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of plant pests (invertebrates, diseases and plants) has recently started. The approaches and methodologies currently under discussion in the EFSA ERA Working Group for the evaluation of the potential impact of invasive species to the EU environment will be presented. An important development foreseen will be the opportunity for collaboration between the Working Group and the scientific world engaged in the preparation of environmental risk assessment related to the introduction of exotic plants in the EU Mediterranean area.


Exploring options for an early warning and information system for invasive alien species in Europe R Scalera1 and P Genovesi1 1

Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN/SSC), Email: [email protected] In order to respond adequately to the threat of alien species in Europe, an effective early warning and rapid response (EWRR) system should be based on a framework of policies and activities. These include measures to detect the occurrence of new propagules and invaders, supported by activities to diagnose new species correctly and acquire all related information. Such information represents a necessary basis for science-based risk assessments that evaluate the severity of the threat and consequently identify the best options for managing the species. Each element of the framework should be under the responsibility of one or more competent authorities acting at the European, national or local level. The procedure and protocols for an optimal circulation of information can vary according to the species in question, the region targeted and the available knowledge and tools (including legal instruments, when available). However, the efficiency of the system is guaranteed by an optimal and rationalised circulation of information among all involved actors through an effective European information system. For this reason, a key element for adequate coordination of all the activities in a regional EWRR is the establishment of a dedicated European technical scientific body. Such a body should ensure prompt and transparent access to high level scientific knowledge and expertise on the different aspects of the EWRR system, with the primary task of implementing and maintaining a European information system on alien species. Five possible options for establishing a dedicated technical scientific body are identified, implying varying levels of commitment by EU institutions and Member States (including differing budgetary and personnel needs). A dedicated structure could take the form of a scientific panel, an observatory, or a centralised agency at the pan-European level. A further alternative is a simple network of experts and/or scientific institutions from individual European countries.

Introduction A priority at the EU level is the development of an early warning and rapid response (EWRR) system aimed at ensuring a transparent, prompt and reliable flow of information needed to support Member States (MSs) in identifying and undertaking appropriate responses to new biological invasions. In fact, several studies have shown that until a comprehensive EU strategy on IAS will be available, the European capacity to respond to such threat will be limited (see Genovesi et al., 2010, Shine et al., 2010, Hulme at al., 2009). The urgency to tackle biological invasions has been formally recognised by the European Commission (EC) in its recent 92 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Communication ―Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020‖ (COM(2011) 244 final). According to the target 5 of this Communication ―By 2020, Invasive Alien Species and their pathways are identified and prioritised, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and pathways are managed to prevent the introduction and establishment of new IAS‖. In addition, in its Communication ―Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 and beyond: sustaining ecosystem services for human well–being‖ (COM(2006) 216 final) the EC stressed the need for coordinated action to reduce substantially the impact of IAS on EU biodiversity. Similarly, in its Communication ―Towards an EU Strategy on Invasive Species‖ (COM(2008) 789 final), the EC has committed to develop a policy on the issue, as well as to establish an early warning system. These commitments have been endorsed also by the Council of European Ministers in the Conclusions adopted at their 2953rd meeting ―Council Conclusions on a midterm assessment of implementing the EU Biodiversity Action Plan and Towards an EU Strategy on Invasive Alien Species‖ (Luxembourg, 25 June 2009). Indeed, also the G8 Environment, in 2009, has stressed the urgent need to combat invasive species, calling the world community to establish a global early warning system. In this context, a European Environment Agency (EEA) report titled ―Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe‖ has been recently published by Genovesi et al. (2010). This study, which has been also used as a basis for the present work, describes the EWRR as a framework aimed at responding to biological invasions through a coordinated system characterised by a specific workflow of key activities. Such activities include the detection of the occurrence of new propagules and invaders, supported by activities aimed at a sound diagnosis of the new species and at the acquisition of all related information. This should be followed by science based risk analysis aimed at the evaluation of the severity of the threat and consequently at the at the resolution best suited for their management, and at the enforcement of such measures. In practice, the EWRR ―workflow‖ includes 6 key steps, which are linked to each other in the following order: 1) surveillance and monitoring activities, 2) data processing (including diagnosis of invading species), 3) assessment of risks (and/or quick screening), 4) identification of appropriate management response, 5) reporting to competent authorities, 6) enforcement of management response and monitoring/assessment of success of measures carried out. Each component should be under the responsibilities of competent EU, national or local authorities, and the efficiency of the system is guaranteed by an optimal and rationalised circulation of information and following a clear shared protocol of actions, setting up procedures which can vary according to the species and region targeted, and the available knowledge and tools (both technical and legal). In any case, in order to guarantee a EU-level leading role in establishing and coordinating a common information system to support early detection and effective action against newly recorded invasive species (before they spread beyond a point at which eradication is no longer possible) a EU dedicated structure on invasive alien species should be established. Such dedicated structure could have the form of a scientific panel, an observatory, or a centralised 93 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

agency at the European level. In alternative, a simple network of experts and/or scientific institutions from single European countries could be established. Whatever the form, it is essential that the above mentioned activities representing the ideal workflow for a sound early warning and information system are implemented in a coordinated efficient way. Indeed, an effective EWRR system acting at the EU level can be established only after the implementation of the following preliminary steps: 1) Establishment of an EU technical structure, dedicated to invasive alien species, capable of guaranteeing (among other tasks) the coordination of the foreseen activities. 2) Development and maintenance of a EU information system on invasive alien species, also facilitating the access to high level scientific expertise. 3) Development of a system capable of ensuring the circulation of information to the competent national/local authorities regarding the data collected (e.g. as a results of the surveillance and monitoring activities) and analysed (e.g. as a consequence of the quick screening/risk analysis), as well as the recommended response actions (e.g. management measures). 4) Establishment of a mechanism to monitor the prompt and correct implementation of the measures for contingency planning and rapid response as recommended by the EU technical structure to the competent national/local authorities. The EU technical structure dedicated to invasive alien species With regard to the establishment of a dedicated EU structure on alien species, the EEA report (Genovesi et al., 2010) contributed to the identification of five options, which take into account different levels of commitment by EU institution and Member States, and which also reflects differential budgetary and personnel requirements. Such options are the result of an evaluation of costs and benefits made on the basis of similar panels of experts, observatories and agencies already established and acting at the pan-European level, and that are characterised by the same kind of needs as invasive alien species (e.g. EPPO, NOBANIS, EFSA, Joint Research Centre JRC). The essential role of such a technical body would be to provide a European-wide central scientific body, with access to high level scientific expertise on the different aspects of a EWRR, and with the key task of implementing and maintaining a European information system on alien species. It must be stressed that a EU structure on alien species would not only support an EWRR system, but would also provide the technical basis for other crucial aspects of a EU strategy and policy on biological invasions, such as the development of regional black or white lists of regulated pests, the support to decision making on trade regulations, the development and update of indicators, etc. The details of the different options 0, A, B, C, D and E are discussed below. Option 0: Do nothing In this case, the development of an early warning system or of a part of its components is left to the responsibility of the national and local authorities of the interested countries. Therefore it does not require any EC support. This option is the least costly but also the least effective because of the total sum of the costs incurred by each single country in order to tackle the 94 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

problem of IAS. To ensure the needed performances the cost to support single early warning systems in all MSs is likely to exceed 10 million €/year. This would be much higher than the cost of establishing a EU centralised framework able to support MSs (which would significantly reduce the costs of national activities by gradually increasing synergies among countries, as shown by the other options below). This option might be apparently the least onerous for the EU institutions, but would lead to a number of major shortcomings:  Limited coordination, limited harmonisation and risk of inconsistencies among actions undertaken by different countries;  No significant progress from the present – unsatisfactory – level of action;  Inadequate action by even a single country would put at risk the entire community, including other more active countries;  The lack of mandatory commitment might prevent the effective establishment of a comprehensive network, with the inherent risk of failure of the entire strategy and compliance with the provisions suggested by the recent EC communications;  Lack of adequate exploitation of the successful results achieved through the resources so far invested by the EC and/or MSs for developing projects such as DAISIE, NOBANIS, PRATIQUE, etc. Option B: Non-institutional EU panel of experts (DAISIE-NOBANIS approach) This option foresees the establishment of a technical/scientific panel of experts and institutions and/or government agencies (such as the DAISIE consortium and the NOBANIS network). It is therefore an independent non-institutional initiative, not necessarily supported by national authorities. The structure would be very simple and low cost, easy to manage and would mostly act by maximising the use of existing technical instruments. The panel would be only an advisory body, with no regulatory role, therefore the enforcement of measures is entirely left to the voluntary commitment of countries. On the basis of the experience by members of the DAISIE consortium, it is estimated that the panel should be coordinated by one chair and one program officer working full time, and should be composed by a team with expertise on the key aspects of biological invasions, and with ad hoc coordinators for each taxonomic group (i.e. 10 experts covering main taxonomic groups, and with competence across management techniques). Some additional part-time specialists should be employed by the scientific institutions forming the consortium, under the supervision of taxonomic coordinators. Periodic meetings (1-2/year) should be foreseen. Depending on the availability of funds, basic duties of the panel would be to:  Maintain and update a freely accessible portal and database;  Regularly update information for the database;  Circulate general information on invasive species to all involved/competent actors;  Provide advice and information to national authorities and management bodies to assist in the identification of new species, assessment of risks, identification of possible responses;  Raise awareness and improve national response efficacy by circulating information among national authorities and the general public. The costs for the creation of the network of experts (employment of part time scientific staff and central coordination staff), organisation of meetings and maintenance/updating of the inventory is estimated at 500 000 €/year. 95 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Basically, the panel would depend on the commitment of the involved partners, with the concrete risk of lack of continuation due to uncertainty in resources allocation. The financial resources could be partly covered for a limited number of years with existing EU financial instruments (i.e. LIFE+), and/or with contributions from authorities and institutions of single states (e.g. as in NOBANIS) and private sponsors. However, this would not guarantee the activities in the medium-long term, and the lack of a legal basis and political mandate would reduce the efficiency of the internal organisation of work, as well as the impact of the work in terms of early warning and rapid response. Option C: EU observatory based on clear political mandate (NISC approach) This option foresees the establishment of a permanent Observatory on Invasive Species (OIS) through a formal policy decision by EC and/or MSs. The decision could be taken within the adoption of a EU policy on invasive alien species, and would therefore not necessarily require a complex decision process. The main task of this sort of intergovernmental body (like in EPPO), would be to coordinate and assist MSs in enforcing policies and measures consistent with EC general directions, without a binding role on national actions. However, the limited institutional role may facilitate – although not guarantee – improved enforcement of measures by national authorities. For this purpose, the OIS should host a EU information system on invasive species to support decision making and management. The OIS should be led by a steering committee or council to define a program of activities and ensure implementation, and should include a core management team of 5-7 full time specialists, (with expertise covering the most abundant/problematic taxonomic groups) plus some additional staff for IT support and secretariat work (2 full time positions). Work structure could include the organisation of technical/scientific panels (i.e. taxonomy, risk assessment) and of ad-hoc thematic working groups. Funding and structures should be provided in order to guarantee long term activities such as:  Hosting and maintaining a freely accessible portal and database on IAS and relative experts, constantly updated;  Establishing a voluntary reporting mechanism by MSs - based for example on memorandums of understandings signed by OIE and MSs - on new detected incursions, enforced response activities, etc.;  Providing assistance for identifying newly recorded taxa, if required;  Performing quick screening of risks when appropriate, and developing alarm lists, watch lists, etc.;  Performing formal risk analysis when appropriate (in coordination with relevant European bodies such as EFSA or the EEA if needed);Collecting and disseminating information on specific management techniques;  Developing technical recommendations to countries and European institutions;  Circulating general information on invasive species. Considering the limited staff, the OIS could be hosted by an already existing technical or scientific institution (such as JRC, EEA or EPPO) to reduce the costs for infrastructure. The overall budget should be of about € 2 million (of which € 500 000 for the maintenance of a dedicated information system). The budget may be covered through national voluntary contributions (as in the EPPO system) with additional financial support from either the EC or the hosting country. 96 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The presence of specialised permanent staff would guarantee a major improvement in the technical capability to deal with the complex tasks of an EWRR framework. Continued financial support would ensure the sustainability of the results and the possibility to make best use of the available information systems and tools in the medium term. In addition, a more solid structure would enable the OIS to provide more solid technical support to MSs and more efficient coordination with existing EU or European institutions (EPPO, EFSA, etc.) Option D: EC Agency with legal mandate and financial continued support (ECDC approach) This option aims at the establishment of a Community Agency through a founding regulation, based on a new or revised EC legislation (e.g. with an approach similar to that used to found the European Centre for Disease Control - ECDC). The EU Agency on Invasive Species (EAIS) should promote enforcement of legal provisions on the issue, coordinating national actions and assisting MSs in the enforcement of policies on the issue, by supporting the detection of new incursions of alien species, assessing the inherent risks, identifying appropriate responses. The EAIS should be governed by a management board, laying down the general guidelines and adopting the work programmes, including available resources and political priorities. The executive director would be responsible for all activities of the agency and the proper implementation of its work programmes. The Agency should be supported by a scientific committee made up of leading experts on the issue, covering the main taxonomic groups of interest. In total, the structure should consist of 10-15 scientific experts, and 3-5 IT experts (in total about 30-40 people, including administrative staff). The EAIS should be an independent scientific body, working in close collaboration with the EC, the national authorities and other competent bodies (EPPO, EFSA, European Maritime Safety Agency - EMSA, etc). Moreover the agency should work in compliance with other community and European alert systems (e.g. animal health, food safety, EPPO, etc) and should ensure open consultation with key stakeholders. EAIS should host the European information system on invasive species, and therefore should be provided with adequate and secured funds and structures to make best use of such an agency, and to enhance linking with other existing European and global tools. The role of the EAIS should be partly regulatory, for example producing opinions on proper responses to be adopted by MSs. For this reason a standardised and transparent mechanism to process the information on the basis of rigorous scientific criteria should be ensured. The main possible tasks of EAIS would be:  Hosting and maintaining a freely accessible portal and updated database;  Collecting information from single experts/institutions/MSs;  Establishing a reporting mechanism (similar to the EPPO one, but covering also taxa other than plants and plant pathogens) on new detected incursions, enforced response activities, etc;  Providing assistance for identifying taxonomy of specimen;  Maintaining and constantly updating an experts registry;  Performing quick screening and risk assessments when appropriate;  Performing independent evaluation of risk analysis carried out by otherauthorities;  Accessing and disseminating information on management techniques;  Developing technical recommendations, in the form of formal opinions, to MSs and European institutions; 97 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

 Developing and circulating to MSs and competent authorities alarm lists, watch lists, etc.;  Coordinating the initiatives regarding the implementation of measures of broader interest/impact with other relevant institutions such as EFSA, EPPO, EMSA, etc.;  Promoting and supporting campaigns of eradication/control in emergency cases;  Circulating general information on invasive species. The need to create a European agency has been stressed by Hulme et al., (2010). This paper called on Europe to establish a new European agency (European Centre for Invasive Species Management; ECISM) based on the experience of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). ECDC had an initial budget of € 4.8 millions, that has grown to € 90 millions in 2010; EAIS budgetary level may be comparable to the costs foreseen for the initial phase of ECDC, with a permanent staff of about 30-40 people, organisation of working groups, and maintenance and updating of the information system, requiring a total budget significantly smaller than the average budget of other European agencies. On the basis of these considerations, the estimated budget of EAIS would thus be between 3 and 6 million €/year. As for all Community Agencies, EAIS should be financed by a Community subsidy (part of the costs may be also covered by hosting MS). Efficacy of the EAIS partly depends on the legislative approaches that will be adopted by the EU (implementing the Strategy on IAS). However, it is clear that the institutional role would enable the effective improvement in enforcing actions by national and European authorities. Moreover the establishment of specialised staff would ensure best use of synergies and technical ability in terms of EWRR. Indeed, permanent financial support would ensure the possibility to make best use of the available information systems and tools in the long term. It would also enable best internal coordination, networking and internal synergy. Increased synergy with other European institutions and structures would be also guaranteed as well as an improved interaction with other involved sectors (trade, tourism, agriculture, etc.). Option E: creating a EU biosecurity body As suggested by the experience of other countries and regions of the world (i.e. New Zealand) the most cost-effective option to reduce impacts of IAS is a framework merging sectors of the most relevant EU authorities involved in the issue, throughout a coordinated and comprehensive biosecurity policy centralised at the EU level. Such an ambitious approach would require a complex redesigning of the entire EC legal aquis, by re-designing of the entire existing legal framework regulating the different involved sectors (agriculture; plant, animal and human health; etc), with significant effects also in terms of national legislations. In addition, there are financial considerations that are worth mentioning. In fact, based on the figures available for New Zealand, where the biosecurity policy costs about 0.13% of the national GDP, and for Australia, where in 2007-2008 the quarantine framework has been estimated to account for about 0.07% of the national GDP (budget for the biosecurity activities in Australia approximately = AU$544 millions; overall AU$ 793.4 billions) we can hypothesise that a EU biosecurity framework would require a budget in the order of magnitude of € 10 billions. Though apparently expensive, the rationale for considering such an option is that the costs for a EU biosecurity policy are well below the economic impacts caused by invasive species in the region (estimated to be over € 12 billions/year; Kettunen et al., 2009). Moreover the budget needed to implement this biosecurity policy would not be an additional expense for Europe, but would largely rely on a optimised 98 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

reallocation of the budget currently available in the health, agriculture and trade sectors (i.e. by promoting synergies and avoiding inconsistencies). An EU information system for early warning In order to guarantee a successful implementation of a sound EWRR system it is fundamental to develop and maintain a joint information system coordinated at both the EU and the national/local level to collect, analyse and exchange information on invasive alien species and related management strategies, so as to react to biological invasions more rapidly and effectively at the regional level. Such an information system should be characterised by a number of technical/scientific tools which should be available to the competent authorities to support the decision process for rapid detection and early warning of new invasions. Such decision support tools can be distinguished into the following main categories: 1) Databases and inventories 2) Experts register 3) Species identification tools 4) Alarm lists Additional tools which are fundamental for the implementation of a EWRR system are black and white lists (for a more detailed description of such tools see Shine et al., 2010), the legal instruments needed/available at the EU and local level, as well as all current financial tools. The information system and its components listed above need to be designed in a way that secures distributed efforts from all MSs and incorporates a coordinating function. A basic requirement is that the central coordinating body (i.e. the dedicated structure described below, possibly supported by an expert steered group) guarantees that all MSs participate in all aspects of developing and maintaining such a system (e.g. similarly to EEA and EIONET programme), so as to guarantee its long term sustainability. Many information tools that have already been developed in Europe and the rest of the world could provide support to the activities reported above, from species identification, to management options, to access to expertise. It is therefore crucial that any EU information system is linked to other existing information tools. Here follows a brief description of the 4 main decision support tools listed above. 1) Databases and inventories The capacity to identify, prevent and mitigate IAS threats depends on accurate and updated information that is easily accessible at the right scale. This requires the creation/maintenance of a single EU portal for IAS information/interoperability of national IAS databases and inventories. Among the main information mechanism on IAS currently available at the regional level, the most comprehensive and updated are DAISIE and NOBANIS (see Conclusions §35 of the above mentioned 2953rd Environment Council meeting: ―establishment and maintenance of a comprehensive inventory of IAS which could be based on the DAISIE list of alien species in 99 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Europe and other existing European inventories and mechanisms such as NOBANIS‖). A new database should be implemented, based on a common and agreed data shell, and on the integration of the information already made available by the DAISIE and NOBANIS projects. 2) Experts register Decision making requires access to the most advanced scientific expertise on very different aspects, from the species taxonomy and biology (also for species not yet recorded in Europe), to management alternatives, to legal aspects. In this regard it is important to ensure the rapid involvement of key experts, to be contacted not only in Europe but also in the rest of the world. Contact details of experts should be readily available to competent authorities and all EWRR involved actors at national and regional levels (e.g. customs and quarantine services), i.e. by means of a comprehensive and updated expert registry. Such a contact list could be further developed and updated on the basis of the registry already produced by the DAISIE project. 3) Species identification tools Correct taxonomic diagnosis of species is essential to respond to biological invasions. In this respect, the information system shall contain or include references/links to the most advanced tools to assist species identification. Species profiles should be populated with detailed descriptions, possibly including dichotomous keys, photographs, illustrations, etc. To enhance response to invasions, the information system should integrate information on the most effective and/or practicable management options to target new invaders. 4) Alarm lists Central to an EWRR system is the prompt detection and identification of newly arrived alien species, and of the characterisation of alien species that are already present in Europe, but have not yet become invasive and/or widespread. A comprehensive and regularly updated species alert list (including information to be readily available for highest-risk IAS about host commodities; source regions; seasonal/environmental factors important for their introduction and establishment; and actual/potential pathways for their introduction) should be available to EU and national/local authorities. Coordinated surveillance and monitoring activities Monitoring and surveillance are fundamental activities to promptly report all records of alien species and to guarantee rapid response actions to prevent the establishment of newly-introduced IAS. Surveillance includes activities aimed at promptly identifying alien species new to the country and therefore is a pivotal element of prevention of further establishments. Dedicated surveillance programs should be established at entry points (i.e. point of import) where border controls and quarantine measures should be implemented in order to prevent or minimise the risk of introduction of alien species that are or could become invasive, or in particularly vulnerable areas, such as islands. Surveillance programs need to be implemented on a regional scale of action in order to guarantee an optimal efficacy. In this regard, it is important to launch a European surveillance system, policy involving all MSs, based on agreed priorities and common reporting standards, with the task of optimising use of existing capacity, involving key societal 100 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

sectors, promoting standardised procedures to collect, analyse and promptly circulate information on new incursions. An alarm list of key invasive species at risk of arrival can help to prioritise areas for surveillance. Monitoring programmes aim to acquire a better understanding of the ecology, distribution, patterns of spread and response to management of IAS, which are key elements to strengthen the capacity to predict the consequences of alien species introductions. Therefore monitoring programmes provide critical information to support IAS prevention, mitigation and restoration programmes and as such a stronger scientific basis for decision-making and allocation of resources. Thus it is clear that the ability of institutions and national governments to effectively respond to new incursions of alien species can be improved only by increasing the number of monitoring programs dedicated to invasive alien species. Monitoring programmes already exist in EU countries, e.g. further to the implementation of the Habitats and Birds directives. With regard to the alien species issue, it is necessary to bridge the gaps in taxonomy and environments not covered by existing programs, and ensure integration/coordination with other existing monitoring programs already focusing on native species. IAS-specific monitoring actions need to be prioritised, i.e. based on categorisation of threats, mapping of high-risk areas for incursions (scope for EU involvement in delimiting surveys). EU financial tools (LIFE+, Research Framework Programmes, etc) should support projects that respond to these criteria. An effective implementation of the surveillance and monitoring activities needs to rely on a clear definition of roles and responsibilities (focal points/competent authorities). For this reason, clear protocols for the identification of ―who is in charge of doing what‖ have to be developed, so as to prevent flaws in the information flow and allow a sound response to face the threat of new alien species entering a country. Notification and reporting procedures (what, how, to whom) could be based on the experience from other existing programmes (e.g. see the Habitats and Birds directives, Bern Convention, EPPO, etc.). In order to enable better coordination among national surveillance and monitoring efforts, national or taxonomic databases (e.g. DAISIE, NOBANIS) should be regularly updated with the information collected throughout surveillance and monitoring activities. It should be possible/necessary to link to existing monitoring programmes and indicators to acquire information available from other sources and ensure coherence with other policies (e.g. agriculture, transport, etc.). Risk analysis or quick screening? The data and information collected following the implementation of the surveillance and monitoring activities, need to be duly analysed and circulated to the competent authorities. For this reason, another fundamental element of the EWRR system is the risk analysis. The risk analysis represents the necessary step that builds on the information collected by the EU dedicated structure on a target alien species (before or soon after its introduction) and that leads to a decision on the actual measures which should be undertaken as a response action so as to 101 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

prevent its introduction or its permanent establishment (e.g. eradication, control, regulation of trade, etc.). The assessment of the risks connected to the introduction of an alien species can be done at different levels of accuracy, depending on the objectives of the assessment: when deciding how to respond to a new incursion, a quick screening of the risks connected to the introduced species is in general more than sufficient to identify the proper response (Genovesi et al., 2010). When the exercise aims to prioritise action, or to support regulations of trade, then a full and comprehensive risk analysis is required (Genovesi et al., 2010). Therefore, whenever a new incursion is detected, a quick screening of the potential risks (based on available records of invasiveness in other situations, available information on ecological characteristics, etc.) should be promptly done, so as to provide a sufficient basis to decide how to react (for example in the case of detection of an organism included in the list of species with records of invasiveness elsewhere in Europe, eradication measures should be undertaken without further investigations). Basic elements to take into account when performing a quick screening on a species include: distribution (already widespread, present and invasive, localised, etc), species status (invasive in other European contexts, not yet present in Europe and invasive elsewhere, considered as low risk, etc) and biology (native range with similar climatic conditions to Europe, high spread potential, etc). The evaluation process should be as transparent as possible and based on concrete and documented but rapidly accessible information. In contrast, a risk analysis – in accordance with the IPPC terminology - is the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an alien species will become invasive and, if so, how it should be managed. A risk analysis includes both risk assessment and risk management. The risk assessment is the comprehensive evaluation of the likelihood of entry, establishment or spread of an alien species in a given territory, and of the associated potential biological and economic consequences, taking into account possible management options that could prevent spread or impacts. The risk management is the evaluation and selection of options to reduce the risk of introduction and spread of an invasive alien species. Elements to be considered in a risk analysis include: objectives of the assessment, history of invasiveness of the taxon elsewhere, analysis of known pathogens or parasites, assessment of suitability of environmental conditions for persistence, probability of establishment and spread anywhere in the area of concern, potential impacts and available mitigation options. The result of a risk analysis should be given a formal/legal value so as to guarantee a consistent follow up (inclusion in black lists, endorsement of management measures, including control, eradication, regulation of trade, monitoring of introduced populations, etc.). In fact, the efficacy and consistency of a sound risk analysis (and quick screening) would be guaranteed only if done at a EU regional level (though considering the local situations and conditions) and the results jointly endorsed by all interested countries. A local approach might limit the actual impact of this exercise and would negatively affect any follow up in terms of response actions. Some European countries have already started regulating the movement/introduction of species on the basis of the results of detailed risk analysis. Therefore, a good number of best 102 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

practices are already available to this regard (e.g. EPPO, EFSA, UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs - DEFRA, etc.). Contingency planning and rapid response Once a new incursion is detected, and associated risks are preliminarily screened, it is crucial to decide promptly what measures have to be implemented (either eradication, control, containment or no action), what techniques have to be applied and who should enforce them. It is difficult to predict with any certainty the length of the critical period during which eradication is feasible after a species being introduced/detected in a new area. In fact, there is only a limited period of time in which eradication is a practicable option, before the invasive species reaches a certain level of population and/or range expansion. However, in order to reduce as far as possible the time between documenting an introduction and implementing a response, a clear allocation of roles and powers and the development of contingency plans for eradicating newly detected alien species should be guaranteed. To this purpose, all competent authorities (including local authorities and protected area authorities) should have sufficient powers to remove IAS or alien species with a high potential to become invasive, in accordance with national law and policy. The use of emergency orders should be also considered where urgent eradication action is needed. Contingency plans (preidentification of appropriate response) should be also considered so as to be ready to apply for eradicating groups of species with similar characteristics (e.g. plants, invertebrates, marine organisms, fresh-water organisms, fresh-water fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, large mammals) and streamline the authorisation process for rapid response. Resource constraints make prioritisation necessary. Therefore mechanisms should be established in order to identify clear prioritisation of Community involvement, for example, the EC should be responsible (financially and technically) for the implementation of measures for major pests (listed in a EU black list), while for other pests the responsibility should be left to national/local authorities. For this reason, adequate funds and equipment for rapid response to new invasions as well as resources to train relevant staff to use the selected control methods, should be available. Follow up A final but essential element of the EWRR is reporting by the authorities in charge of the enforcing response actions. Such reporting addresses the progress of management measures and assesses their impact once the task is considered complete. Such reporting can allow a follow-up by the European technical structure and the European institutions, to inform other countries of the efficacy of the management options applied and to aid preparation should similar incursions occur elsewhere. This part of the communication flow is crucial to enable independent technical evaluation of the activities and a more transparent supply of information on progress to the entire community of states and stakeholders. 103 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Acknowledgements We would like to thank all our friends and colleagues who provided valuable information and comments for the present work, among which Sarah Brunel, David Roy, Wojtek Solarz, plus many experts, particularly from the EEA, ISPRA, EPPO and the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN/SSC. This work is based on the results of a study financed by the EEA (Contract No. 3606/B2008/EEA.53386). Reference Genovesi P, Scalera R, Brunel S, Solarz W & Roy D (2010) Towards an early warning and information system for invasive alien species (IAS) threatening biodiversity in Europe. European Environment Agency, Tech. report 5/2010. 52 pp. Hulme PE, Nentwig W, Pysek P, & Vilà M (2009) Common market, shared problems: time for a coordinated response to biological invasions in Europe? In: Pyšek, P. & Pergl, J. (Eds) (2009): Biological Invasions: Towards a Synthesis. Neobiota 8, 3–19 Hulme PE, Pysek P, Nentwig W & Measures P (2010) Will Threat of Biological Invasions Unite the European Union? Science, 4-5. Kettunen M, Genovesi P, Gollasch S, Pagad S & Starfinger U (2009) Technical Support to EU Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Assessment of the impacts of IAS in Europe and the EU. Institute for European Environmental Policy, London and Brussels. Shine C, Kettunen M, Genovesi P, Essl F, Gollasch S, Rabitsch W, Scalera R, Starfinger U, ten Brink P (2010) Assessment to support continued development of the EU Strategy to combat invasive alien species. Draft Final Report for the European Commission. Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels, Belgium.


European Environment Agency: Activities addressing invasive alien species Ahmet Uludag European Environment Agency, Kongens Nytorv 6, 1050 Copenhagen, Denmark E-mail: [email protected]

The European Environment Agency (EEA) assists the European Union and its Member States in designing effective tools to improve the environment, integrating environmental considerations into economic policies and moving towards sustainability. One key EEA task is coordinating the European environment information and observation network. In this context, EEA prepares reports, organizes outreach activities and develops tools and systems to assess the environment, mitigate harm and sustain ecosystem health. Invasive alien species (IAS) play an increasingly important role in EEA activities. IAS are considered the second most important threat to Europe‘s biodiversity after habitat fragmentation. Historically, EEA reports on the state of the environment have provided indications of IAS impacts on Europe‘s environment. The most recent report on the pan-European environment, the 2007 ‗Europe‘s Environment- The fourth assessment‘, provided more detailed information. IAS are among the indicators of threats to biodiversity in the SEBI 2010 (Streamlining European Biodiversity Indicators) indicator set. IAS are expected to acquire a more prominent role in future reporting processes. There is a political will to establish an early warning and rapid response system (EWRR) in Europe, as apparent in the European Commission‘s Communication COM(2008) 789 Final and Council conclusions in 2009 (2988th Environment Council meeting, conclusions on international biodiversity beyond 2010). On that basis, EEA is supporting efforts to establish an active and effective EWRR covering all EEA member and associate countries.


Results of the survey on invasive alien plants in Mediterranean countries Giuseppe Brundu 1, Italy, Guillaume Fried 2, France, Sarah Brunel 3 1

Department of Botany, Ecology ang Geology, University of Sassari, Italy E-mail: [email protected] (Presenting author) 2 Laboratoire National de la Protection des Végétaux, Station de Montpellier, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, France. E-mail : [email protected] 3 The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, 21 Bld Richard Lenoir, 75011 Paris, France. E-mail: [email protected]

A major step in tackling invasive alien plants consists of identifying those species that represent a future threat to managed and unmanaged habitats. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization reviews and organizes data on alien plants in order to build an early warning system. A survey has been launched prior to the workshop through the internet to any expert of the Mediterranean countries on plant considered invasive, elaboration of lists and sources of information used on the topic as well as eradication actions undertaken. The survey has received a good participation as about 30 answers were received from Armenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, as well as from California. Although in recent years there have been efforts to produce Europe-wide databases of invasive alien plants, these data sets have to main limits, i.e. they need continuous updating and they do not take into considerations many of the Countries facing the Mediterranean basin. The lists of invasive alien plants provided by the respondents will be aggregated to produce a overview of plants considered invasive in Mediterranean countries, although such meta list is not intended to be exhaustive. Within the EPPO framework, a prioritization system is being developed to select species that represent emerging threats and require the most urgent pest risk analysis to implement preventive measures and to perform eradication and management measures. So far, previous surveys and rapid assessments of spread and impact have allowed identification of emerging invasive alien plants for Mediterranean countries: Alternanthera philoxeroides (Amaranthaceae), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Asteraceae), Baccharis halimifolia (Asteraceae), Cortaderia selloana (Poaceae), Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae), Fallopia baldschuanica (Polygonaceae), Hakea sericea (Proteaceae), Humulus japonicus (Cannabaceae), Ludwigia grandiflora and L. peploides (Onagraceae), Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrocharitaceae), Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae), Myriophyllum heterophyllum (Haloragaceae), Pennisetum setaceum (Poaceae), Pistia stratiotes (Araceae), Salvinia molesta (Salviniaceae) and Solanum elaeagnifolium (Solanaceae). Applying the prioritization process to the new meta list produced through the survey may allow identifying new emerging invasive alien plants. All respondents are invited to be associated to such task. The extraction of the information provided in the survey will also allow the elaboration of an inventory of plant eradication actions. Sharing knowledge and promoting existing initiative shall raise awareness on eradication, which although very effective remains too scarcely used in European and Mediterranean countries. 106 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Molecular research as tool for managing biological invasions: Acacia saligna as a case study GD Thompson1*, JJ Le Roux1, DU Bellstedt2, DM Richardson1, JRU Wilson1,3 1

Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. 2 Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, 7602, South Africa 3 South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. *Corresponding author: GD Thompson, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Natural Sciences Building, Private Bag X1, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, 7602, South Africa. [email protected] Molecular ecological approaches can inform ecologists about the introduction dynamics of invasive species, and potentially provide insight into effective management. Australian acacias are a widely distributed group of woody invaders of economic importance that are well represented in South Africa (RSA). We chose the Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. L. Wendl. species complex (four proposed subspecies native to Western Australia) as a case study, and used microsatellites to compare native and invasive populations. Our results suggest the presence of a novel genetic entity that has likely arisen due to cultivation of the species in RSA. Our findings provide support for A. saligna’s history of multiple introductions to RSA. Novel genotypes in the introduced range have often been linked to increased fitness in other invasive plant species; and may be incompatible with a single, specific natural enemy. We suggest that multiple introductions of biological control agents from across A. saligna‘s native range may enhance control via improved host specificity to the novel entity of A. saligna present in RSA. Introduction Determining how and why some species become major invaders can allow prediction of future invasions based on common ‗invasive‘ characteristics (Kolar & Lodge, 2001). Biotic characteristics and interactions (e.g. life history traits, intra-specific diversity and hybridization, Novak & Mack, 2005); and/or abiotic characteristics (e.g. invasion history, mode and purpose of introduction, Lockwood et al., 2007) can provide an indication of the invasive potential of a species. For instance, the introduction history of a species could influence the amount and structure of genetic diversity introduced to the new range (Le Roux et al. 2011). In the case of cryptic species, their introduction dynamics would significantly affect their invasive intraspecific diversity, the opportunity for intra-specific hybridization (e.g. Tamarix spp., Gaskin & Schall, 2002) or the development of novel genotypes or hybrids (e.g. Schinus terebinthifolius, Williams et al., 2005). Molecular research has been used as a tool for managing biological invasions to, among other things: reconstruct invasion histories (e.g. Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Bock et al., 107 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

2011); assess the role of sexual versus clonal reproduction in invasive spread (see Okada et al., 2009); identify source populations (e.g. Baker & Dyer, 2011) and allocate resources to prevent further introductions (e.g. Frankham et al., 2005; Tang et al., 2009; Le Roux et al., 2011). The most common management recommendation in the recent literature has been to limit the dispersal of the introduced species, irrespective of the genetic signature (high, low or no genetic diversity) in the introduced range (Appendix, Gaskin et al., 2009; Okada et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Tang et al., 2009; Bock et al., 2010; Baker & Dyer, 2011; Hsieh et al., 2011; Le Roux et al., 2011; Mendes et al., 2011). This was the case across a range of organisms (plant or insect) and breeding systems. However, a number of studies on invasive plants have suggested that high genetic diversity acts a driver of invasive success as a result of the large genetic base on which local selection can act (Ellstrand & Schierenbeck 2000, Mack et al., 2000; Lavergne & Molofsky, 2007). The literature shows that understanding the dynamics of species invasions, including the mode, pathway, site, source and number of introductions (Simberloff, 2009) has the potential to significantly enhance management approaches. Australian acacias and their molecular ecology There are 1,012 recognised Australian acacias (species in subgenus Phyllodineae that have Australia as part of their native range), of which around a third have been introduced to countries outside of Australia (Richardson et al., 2011). Several Australian Acacia species invade Mediterranean-type regions of the world, where they displace native biodiversity and considerably alter ecosystem structure and function (Macdonald et al., 1988, Richardson and Rejmánek, 2011). There are fourteen invasive acacias in South Africa (RSA) that have considerable negative effects on native biodiversity (van Wilgen et al., 2011; Wilson et al., 2011 this volume). To obtain a global overview of these fourteen acacias, we collated records from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2010, http://www.gbif.org) and digitised their distributions at a global scale (Fig. 1a); and at a national scale in RSA (Fig. 1b). The global distributions clearly show that the Australian acacias that occur in RSA, also occur in several other Mediterranean-type regions around the globe (Fig. 1a). Invasive acacias in RSA represent a novel system where several different species have been introduced to a single region, ranging in number, timing, and mode of introduction (see Poynton, 2009; Roux, 1961; Shaughnessy, 1980; van Wilgen et al. 2011). Their reason for introduction can be linked to the number of introductions and the species‘ invasive range size, i.e. silvicultural species are most commonly introduced on multiple occasions and are often widely dispersed. In addition, numerous microsatellite markers have been developed for acacias (A. saligna, A. mangium) (Butcher et al., 2000; Millar & Byrne, 2007) and their relatives (P. lophantha; Brown et al., 2011) and may be transferable to other species in the genus. Microsatellite markers enable fine-scale genetic processes to be quantified and compared at spatial scales. This provides opportunities to compare the genetic differences between the native and introduced range of Acacia species to their introduction dynamics, invasive intra-specific diversity and genetic population structure. In addition, several concepts in invasion biology can be concurrently tested including: novel genotypes, multiple introductions (or propagule pressure), and increased genetic diversity as stimuli of invasive success (Le Roux and Wieczorek, 2009). Thus, acacias in RSA provide an appropriate biological system to test the influence of a species‘ introduction history on its genetic signature in the introduced range. 108 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 1 - Global distribution of fourteen Acacia species classified as major invaders in South Africa (van Wilgen et al., 2011) based on records from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2010, http://www.gbif.org). Their distributions are represented (a) at a global scale in their native (green circles) and introduced ranges (red circles), and (b) in their introduced range in South Africa. Occurrences for A. saligna in South Africa are represented by red crosses. In order to select an Australian acacia species for a population genetic study, we collated information on the introduction history of the fourteen invasive acacias in RSA, and their 109 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

anthropogenic uses (Table 2). Generally, the introduction history of a species can be associated with a distinct genetic signature, and the latter can be used as a proxy for introduction history for those species with poor historical records. The primary purpose of introduction of the fourteen major Acacia invaders to RSA varies from silviculture to dune stabilisation. Table 2 lists the fourteen major invaders, their purpose and date of introduction (Poynton, 2009), their invasive range sizes in quarter-degree grid squares (QDGS) (Henderson, 2001; Wilson et al., 2007) and whether they were introduced on multiple or single occasions (Poynton, 2009). Despite the fact that Acacia saligna occupies a relatively small range in RSA (160 QDGS, Appendix), it is still considered one of the most problematic, and highly abundant (see Fig. 1b, red crosses) invasive plant species in the Cape Floristic Regions (Macdonald & Jarman, 1984; Nel et al., 2004; Yelenik et al., 2004; Richardson et al., 1992). Table 2 - Fourteen major invasive Acacia species occurring in South Africa. Details of the introduction histories are given as the purpose and year of introduction, as well as their invasive range size in South Africa. Multiple Invasive Speciesφ Reason for introduction Date introductions † range size* Acacia baileyana ornamental 1919 yes 87 Acacia cyclops dune stabilisation 1835 yes 167 Acacia dealbata silviculture 1858 yes 256 Acacia decurrens silviculture 1880 yes 101 Acacia elata ornamental 1904 yes 38 Acacia implexa unknown c. 1880 unknown 3 Acacia longifolia dune stabilisation 1827 yes 95 Acacia mearnsii silviculture 1858 yes 432 Acacia melanoxylon silviculture 1848 yes 138 Acacia paradoxa unknown c. 1850 unknown 1 Acacia podalyriifolia ornamental 1894 yes 56 Acacia pycnantha dune stabilisation, tanbark 1865 yes 35 Acacia saligna dune stabilisation, tanbark 1833 yes 160 Acacia stricta unknown unknown 2 ? Note: * Invasive range size is a crude estimate, and is based on the number of quarter-degree grid cells occupied by each species (Henderson et al., 2001; Wilson et al., 2007). One quarter-degree grid cell is equal to approximately 25 km2. φ van Wilgen et al., 2011. ý Poynton, 2009. Acacia saligna As a case study, we chose the Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. L. Wendl. species complex because it has been introduced on multiple occasions and has been widely dispersed in RSA (Henderson, 2001). Genetic research has been conducted in the native range (see George et al., 2006; Millar et al., 2008) providing the molecular markers for further research in RSA and other Mediterranean-type climates. Several management approaches for Acacia saligna are currently in place in RSA, including mechanical (Holmes et al., 1987), chemical and biological control 110 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

(Wood & Morris, 2007). For a general review on Australia acacia management see Wilson et al. (2011). The A. saligna species complex (four subspecies) is native to Western Australia (WA) (Maslin, 2004) and contributes to the invasion of several million hectares of RSA by invasive woody species (van Wilgen et al., 2001). It is also considered invasive in several other Mediterranean regions including California, Israel, Italy, France, Greece, Portugal and Spain (ILDIS, 2010). The taxonomy of the A. saligna species complex is complicated (Le Houerou & Pontanier, 1987; Maslin & McDonald, 2004; Millar et al., 2008; Millar et al., 2011). Furthermore, field identification of the subspecies of A. saligna by both managers and scientific researchers is problematic as only a few distinguishing morphological features are present (Maslin & McDonald, 2004). We aim to use population genetics to determine the number of genetic lineages and spatial genetic structure of A. saligna in RSA and native WA. In doing so we would like to reconstruct A. saligna‘s known introduction history, identify possible source populations, and assess intraspecific diversity in RSA. Materials and Methods Phyllode material was collected from individuals of A. saligna from across native Western Australia (WA) and invasive RSA. A total of 12 populations were sampled, 8 populations from WA, and 4 populations from RSA. Genomic DNA was extracted following the methods of Millar et al. (2008). Ten nuclear microsatellite loci previously developed for A. saligna (Millar & Byrne, 2007) were PCR-amplified following methods described by Millar and Byrne (2007). Microsatellite loci were genotyped, and the allele sizes were visualized and scored using GENEMAPPER version 3.4 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, USA). GENALEX v 6.2 (Peakall & Smouse, 2006) was used to permute a co-variance standardized Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) to determine the extent of population genetic structure between native and invasive populations. We used FSTAT 293 (Goudet, 2001) to test for statistical differences in genetic diversity indices: allelic richness (RS), unbiased gene diversity (HS) between native and invasive ranges. RSA individuals were assigned to the reference populations linked to each subspecies identified in the native range by Millar et al., (2011) using Bayesian methods in STRUCTURE v 2.3.2 (Pritchard et al., 2000; Falush et al., 2007). We assumed independence among loci, allowed admixture and computed 100,000 iterations, following a burn-in period of 10,000 for each value of K (number of populations) (Pritchard et al., 2000). Delta K (ΔK) was calculated according to the method of Evanno et al. (2005). Results Using the reference populations from Millar et al. (2011), Bayesian methods did not assign any introduced South African populations to any native populations collected in the study (Fig. 2). Furthermore, Bayesian methods clustered all native populations into three groups, consistent with the genetic groups identified in Millar et al. (2011) (Fig. 2). At the population level, and consistent with the Bayesian analysis, the PCoA indicated that all native and invasive 111 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

populations were grouped into four separate groups (Fig. 2a). The first two axes of the PCoA explained 66% of the total genetic variance, with PC1 explaining 43% and PC2 explaining 23% of the variation, respectively. The PCoA identified 1 invasive cluster, and 2 native clusters (Fig. 2a). The first cluster comprised all invasive populations from RSA (diamonds, Fig. 2a). The second cluster comprised 4 native populations: 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies lindleyi (triangles, Fig. 2a) and 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies stolonifera (squares, Fig. 2a). The third cluster comprised 4 native populations: 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies saligna and 2 populations representative of A. saligna subspecies pruinescens (circles, Fig. 2). Analyses of genetic diversity showed that Western Australia had marginally higher allelic richness and gene diversity (2.048 and 0.474 respectively) compared to RSA (1.981 and 0.477 respectively, Fig 2b). Discussion The fourteen major Acacia invaders considered here cover a large area in RSA and several other Mediterranean-climate regions. The largest introduced range size in RSA is for those species that were introduced for silviculture, supporting the conjecture that economically valuable species are usually introduced on multiple occasions, locations, and in high numbers (propagule pressure). Species that were introduced for dune stabilisation and not simply for economic purposes (i.e. A. cyclops, A. longifolia, and A. saligna) are also subject to several management approaches, and this may also account for smaller range sizes compared to those species introduced for silviculture (e.g. A. dealbata and A. mearnsii). Comparative analyses of native and invasive populations of A. saligna show that invasive populations are comprised of genetic entities different to those present in the native range. Further that the introduced range has lower levels of genetic diversity compared to the native range. This suggests that A. saligna‘s history of multiple, sympatric introductions may have potentially facilitated novel genetic combinations over the ca. 170 years since its introduction; and that founder events followed by drift may have altered the species‘ invasive genetic diversity and structure. Indeed, reduced levels of genetic diversity in introduced populations of A. saligna in RSA have been reported compared to Australian populations (Le Roux et al., 2011). We speculate that genetic drift, followed by intensive cultivation of the species in RSA has facilitated the evolution of the novel genetic entity in RSA. These results are consistent with A. saligna’s history of extensive and widespread cultivation and planting in RSA. Management implications Correct identification of the subspecies of A. saligna is necessary to collate prior species knowledge for the development of management strategies. Generally management plans treat an introduced species as a single genetic entity (Regan et al. 2005) i.e. possessing similar genetic diversity to the native range. Considering A. saligna‘s problematic field identification (at the subspecies level), reduced levels of genetic diversity, and the presence a novel genetic entity in RSA, implications of our findings for management should be considered. The success of biological control programmes is largely dependent on the host-specificity of biological control agents (Blossey & Nötzold, 1995; Schaffner, 2001; Goolsby et al., 2006b). A number of studies have employed molecular methods to identify damaging natural enemies by 112 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

matching native and introduced populations of a weed at a subspecific level (e.g. shoot bud gall on Melaleuca quinquenervia, Giblin-Davis et al. 2001; a rust on blackberry Evans et al. 2005). Novel hybrids are problematic as they have no co-evolutionary history with potential control agents (insects or diseases).

Figure 2 - Clustering of native and introduced populations of Acacia saligna using a) covariance standardized Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA); and b) the geographical distribution of the same populations assigned to genetic groups using Bayesian methods in their native range in Western Australia and their introduce range in South Africa. Bayesian methods identified four separate genetic clusters in the native and introduced range: three in Western Australia (circles, triangles and squares), and one in South Africa (diamonds). Introduced populations displayed reduced levels of genetic diversity (allelic richness and gene diversity) compared to the native range. 113 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Acacia saligna has been subject to several types of management in RSA (Rouget et al., 2003; Richardson & Kluge, 2008). A gall-forming rust fungus, Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) McAlpine, and a seed-eating weevil, Melanterius servulus (Impson et al., 2004) have proved useful in controlling A. saligna’s spread (Wood & Morris, 2007). Considering the novel entity of A. saligna present in RSA, it is unlikely that the current native control agents will be sufficiently host-specific to RSA populations of A. saligna i.e. it is unlikely that any native biological control agent will be effective against a novel form of A. saligna (e.g. Casuarina spp., Gaskin et al., 2009). Other cases of new genotypic combinations in invasive species coupled with multiple introductions and its implications for biocontrol have been documented (e.g. Goolsby et al., 2006a; Gaskin et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009). Given the novel entity of A. saligna in RSA, and the diversity of Uromycladium species in A. saligna’s native range (Old et al., 2002); we speculate that multiple introductions of U. tepperianum (increased genetic diversity) to RSA may provide increased host specificity, and increased overall control efficacy. From a mechanical and chemical control perspective, management should consider the strong propensity of the native intra-specific variants of A. saligna towards vegetative reproduction via suckering. Our study, and numerous others (Gaskin et al., 2009; Okada et al., 2009; Prentis et al., 2009; Rollins et al., 2009; Tang et al., 2009; Bock et al., 2010; Baker & Dyer, 2011; Hsieh et al., 2011; Le Roux et al., 2011; Mendes et al., 2011) have shown the value of molecular research in the development of management strategies for invasive species. The molecular tools developed for A. saligna, and the genetic information presented herein may prove to be useful in other regions where A. saligna (or other invasive plants) is known to occur, e.g. in the Mediterranean. Acknowledgements The authors would like to sincerely thank the European Weed Research Society who funded the travel for G.D. Thompson to attend the workshop in Trabzon, Turkey. We would also like to acknowledge the DST-NRF Centre for Invasion Biology, the Working For Water Programme, and Stellenbosch University for financial support for this research. References Baker SA, RJ Dyer (2011) Invasion genetics of Microstegium vimineum (Poaceae) within the James River Basin of Virginia, USA. Conservation Genetics. Bock DG, Zhan A, Lejeusne C, MacIsaac HJ and Cristescu ME (2011) Looking at both sides of the invasion: patterns of colonization in the violet tunicate Botrylloides violaceus. Molecular Ecology, 20, 503-516. Brown GK, Gardner MG (2010) Isolation, characterisation and transferability of microsatellites for Paraserianthes lophantha, Cape Wattle (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae): a significant weed worldwide. Muelleria, 29, 87-92. Blossey B & Nötzold R (1995) Evolution of increased competitive ability in invasive non-indigenous plants: a hypothesis. Journal of Ecology, 83, 887-889. Butcher P, Decroocq S, Gray Y, Moran G (2000) Development, inheritance and cross-species amplification of microsatellite markers from Acacia mangium. Theoretical Applied Genetics, 101:1282-1290. Ellstrand NC and Schierenbeck KA (2000) Hybridization as a stimulus for the evolution of invasiveness in plants? PNAS, 97, 7043-050. Evanno G, Regnaut S & Goudet J (2005) Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: A simulation study. Molecular Ecology, 14, 2611-2620. Evans KJ, Jones MK and Roush RT (2005) Susceptibility of invasive taxa of European blackberry to rust disease caused by the uredinial stage of Phragmidium violaceum under field conditions in Australia. Plant Pathology, 54, 275-286.


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Millar MA, Byrne M & O‘Sullivan W. (2011) Defining entities in the Acacia saligna (Fabaceae) species complex using a population genetics approach. Australian Journal of Botany, 59, 137-148. Millar MA & Byrne M (2007) Characterization of polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers for Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl. (Mimosaceae). Molecular Ecology Notes, 7, 1372-1374. Millar MA, Byrne M, Nuberg I & Sedgley M (2008) A rapid PCR-based diagnostic test for the identification of subspecies of Acacia saligna. Tree Genetics and Genomes, 4, 625-635. Nel JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Mgidi TN, Mdzeke N, Le Maitre DC, Van Wilgen BW, Schonegevel L, Henderson L and Neser S (2004) A proposed classification of invasive alien plant species in South Africa: Towards prioritizing species and areas for management action. South African Journal of Science, 100, 5364. Novak SJ & Mack RN (2005) Genetic bottlenecks in alien plant species: Influence of mating systems and introduction dynamics. Species invasions: Insights into ecology, evolution and biogeography (ed. by Sax DF, Stachowicz JJ & Gaines SD), pp. 201-228. Sinauer, USA. Old KM, Vercoe TK, Floyd RB, Wingfield MJ, Roux J, Neser S (2002) Acacia spp: FAO/IPGRI technical guidelines for the safe movement of germplasm no. 20. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. Okada M, Grewell BJ and Jasieniuka M (2009) Clonal spread of invasive Ludwigia hexapetala and L. grandiflora in freshwater wetlands of California, Aquatic Botany, 91, 123-129. Peakall R & Smouse PE (2006) Genalex 6: Genetic analysis in excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research. Molecular Ecology Notes, 6, 288-295. Poynton, RJ (2009) Tree Planting in Southern Africa, Volume 3. Acacia and other species. Pretoria: Department of Forestry. Prentis PJ, Sigg DP, Raghu S, Dhileepan K, Pavasovic A and Lowe AJ. (2009) Understanding invasion history: genetic structure and diversity of two globally invasive plants and implications for their management. Diversity and Distributions, 15, 822-830. Pritchard JK, Stephens M & Donnelly P (2000) Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics, 155, 945-959. Regan HM, Ben-Haim Y, Langford B, Wilson WG, Lundberg P, Andelman SJ & Burgman MA (2005) Robust decision-making under severe uncertainty for conservation management. Ecological Applications, 15, 1471-1477. Richardson DM, Carruthers J, Hui C, Impson FAC, Miller JT, Robertson MP, Rouget M, Le Roux JJ and Wilson JRU (2011) Human-mediated introductions of Australian acacias—a global experiment in biogeography. Diversity and Distributions, 17, 771-787. Richardson DM & Rejmánek M (2011) Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species – a global review. Diversity and Distributions, 17, 788-809. Richardson DM & Kluge RL (2008) Seed banks of invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa: Role in invasiveness and options for management. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 10, 161-177. Richardson DM, Macdonald IAW, Holmes PM & Cowling RM (1992) Plant and animal invasions. In: Cowling, R.M. (ed) The ecology of fynbos: Nutrients, fire and diversity, pp. 271-308. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Rollins LA, Woolnough AP, Wilton AN, Sinclair R and Sherwin WB (2009) Invasive species can't cover their tracks: using microsatellites to assist management of starling (Sturnus vulgaris) populations in Western Australia. Molecular Ecology, 18, 1560-1573. Rouget M, Richardson DM, Cowling RM, Lloyd JW, Lombard AT (2003) Current patterns of habitat transformation and future threats to biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biological Conservation 112, 63 - 85. Roux ER (1961) History of the introduction of Australian Acacias on the Cape Flats. South African Journal of Science, 57, 99 -102. Schaffner U (2001) Host range testing of insects for biological weed control: how can it be better interpreted? BioScience, 51, 951-959. Shaughnessy GL (1980) Historical ecology of alien woody plants in the vicinity of Cape Town, South Africa. University of Cape Town, Cape Town. Simberloff D (2009) The role of propagule pressure in biological invasions. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 40, 81-102.


Tang SQ, Wei F, Zeng, LY, Li XK, Tang SC, Zhong Y and Geng YP (2009), Multiple introductions are responsible for the disjunct distributions of invasive Parthenium hysterophorus in China: evidence from nuclear and chloroplast DNA. Weed Research, 49, 373-380. van Wilgen BW, Dyer C, Hoffmann JH, Ivey P, Le Maitre DC, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Wannenburgh A & Wilson JRU (2011) A strategic approach to the integrated management of Australian Acacia species in South Africa. Diversity and Distributions, 17, 1060-1075. van Wilgen BW, Richardson DM, Le Maitre DC, Marais C & Magadlela D (2001) The economic consequences of alien plant invasions: examples of the impacts and approaches to sustainable management in South Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 3, 145-168. Williams DA, Overholt WA, Cuda JP and Hughes CR (2005) Chloroplast and microsatellite DNA diversities reveal the introduction history of Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius) in Florida. Molecular Ecology, 14,3643-3656. Wilson JR, Kaplan HJ, Mazibuko D, de Smidt J, Zenni RD and van Wyk E (2011) Eradication and monitoring of Australian acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR program. This volume. Wilson JRU, Gairifo C, Gibson MR, Arianoutsou M, Bakar BB, Baret S, Celesti-Grapow L, Dufour-Dror JM, Kueffer C, Kull CA, Hoffmann JH, Impson FAC, Loope LL, Marchante E, Marchante H, Moore JL, Murphy D, Pauchard A, Tassin J, Witt A, Zenni RD & Richardson DM (2011) Risk assessment, eradication, containment, and biological control: global efforts to manage Australian acacias before they become widespread invaders. Diversity and Distributions, 17, 1030-1046Wilson JRU, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Procheş S, Amis MA, Henderson L & Thuiller W (2007) Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Diversity and Distributions, 13, 11-22. Wood AR & Morris MJ (2007) Impact of the gall-forming rust fungus Uromycladium tepperianum on the invasive tree Acacia saligna in South Africa: 15 years of monitoring. Biological Control, 41, 68-77. Yelenik SG, Stock WD & Richardson DM (2004) Ecosystem level impacts of invasive Acacia saligna in the South African fynbos. Restoration Ecology, 12, 44-51.


Appendix - Summary of recent literature combining molecular ecology and invasive species management. * Citations: 1) Mendes et al., 2011; 2) Hsieh et al., 2011; 3) Baker & Dyer, 2011; 4) Le Roux et al., 2011; 5) Bock et al., 2010; 6) Rollins et al., 2009; 7) Prentis et al., 2009; 8) Okada et al., 2009; 9) Gaskin et al., 2009; 10) Tang et al., 2009. Organism *

Form

Native range

Pittosporum undulatum 1

tree

south-east Australia

insect, agricultural pest

Possibly India

Microstegium vimineum 3

grass

Asia

Anigozanthos sp.4

herb

Western Australia

Botrylloides violaceus 5

marine invertebrate

Northwest Pacific, Japan

Sturnus vulgaris 6

bird

Eurasia

Macfadyena unguis-cati and Jatropha gossypiifolia 7

plants

Neotropics

Bemisia tabaci

2

Introduced range Arores Archipelago, Portugal

Marker

Introduced genetic Management recommendation signature

ISSRs

High diversity

genetic Develop commercial use for species to reduce its spread.

Relatively low cpDNA, genetic diversity Global SSRs and low population structure Variable- high and eastern United AFLPs low genetic States diversity South Africa

cpDNA

Limit dispersal of the species among greenhouses in the region Focus on limiting dispersal between populations in close proximity due to diffusive spread of the species.

Genetic diversity Trade in South Africa should be based on genome restricted, subject to the outcome of sizes detailed risk assessments.

Coasts of North America, Low genetic cpDNA, Limit dispersal of asexual Australia, Italy, diversity but high SSRs propagules via aquaculture practices. UK, Ireland, population structure Netherlands Long-term genetic monitoring to High genetic assess dispersal, changes in Global SSRs diversity population size and effectiveness of control. M. unguis-cati: locally adapted M. unguisnatural enemies should make the cati (single best control agents. Global SSRs haplotype); J. gossypiifolia: high genetic J. gossypiifolia high diversity suggests selection of biogenetic diversity control agents will be complex


Ludwigia hexapetala and L. grandiflora 8

aquatic plant

South Mexico and South America

California, United States

AFLPs

Casuarina sp. 9

tree

Australia

Florida, United AFLPs States

Parthenium hysterophorus 10

herb

Tropical and subtropical America

China, Australia, India, Africa

cpDNA

No genetic Target vegetative diversity due to growth clonal reproduction

dispersal

and

Novel hybrids have no Hybridisation coevolutionary history with any giving rise to novel insects or diseases, which may be hybrids problematic for biological control efforts. International and domestic High genetic quarantine to prevent new diversity introductions, hybridisation and /or gene flow.


Prioritization of Potential Invasive Alien Plants in France Guillaume Fried LNPV, CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, E-mail : [email protected] Given the number of alien species already present in France and the time needed to conduct a full pest risk analysis (PRA), a prioritization process appears to be a useful tool for a preliminary selection step. Existing screening processes often lack considerations about the technical feasibility of control and the current distribution of the species which are necessary to make a decision concerning eradication. The author therefore applied the latest version of the Prioritization Process developed by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO PP) on a selection of 303 alien species occurring in France or already invasive in neighboring countries. In a first step, this process classifies species into four categories: species not considered invasive, species on an observation list, potential invasive species and invasive species. A second step was to select those which are priority for a PRA from those already identified as potential and invasive species. This paper compares the results with those provided by the risk assessment system developed by Weber & Gut (Journal for Nature Conservation 12 (2004) 171-179). This latter identifies three risk classes according to species scores based on their attributes and their environmental impact: low (3-20), intermediate (21-27) and high risk (28-39). Overall both methods yield similar results except for agricultural weeds which are not taken into account by Webber & Gut. Solidago canadensis (38), Acacia dealbata (36), Baccharis halimifolia (31) or Reynoutria japonica (34) were identified among the species with the highest risk. These species are also considered invasive by the EPPO PP but they are already too widespread for the outcomes of the PRA to be worthwhile. The advantage of the EPPO PP is that it makes it possible to identify among species with high impact, emergent invasive (or potential invasive) species for which preventive action will be most profitable in France, e.g. Alternanthera philoxeroides, Eriochloa villosa, Humulus japonicus, Myriophyllum heterophyllum. Introduction The management of invasive alien plant species usually focuses on species already widely distributed, with negative impacts on ecosystems (e.g. in France: Ludwigia grandiflora, Reynoutria japonica, Ambrosia artemisiifolia). This is of course necessary, but not sufficient since new plant species are regularly introduced with the globalization of trade. In order to tackle the fraction of the new introduced species that have a high probability to become widely established and invasive, we need to develop a more global strategy including early detections and preventive eradications in parallel to regular management actions. One important part of such preventive strategies includes Weed Risk Assessments (WRA) which are science-based risk analysis tools for determining the weed potential of new species 120 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

introduced or detected on the territory. To develop an effective WRA-based strategy, we should first have a clear understanding of all alien species established on the national territory and be able to rapidly detect new arrivals on this territory. This means developing a national inventory of alien species that should be regularly updated (Genovesi & Shine, 2002) as well as an early detection system. Lists of alien plant species in France To date, despite a lot of existing information on invasive alien species e.g., the review of the current state of knowledge by Muller (2004), there is no comprehensive list of alien plants in France. Yet, these national inventories are widely recognized as providing a crucial source of information and are an important tool for invasion research and management (Cadotte et al. 2006; Richardson & Pyšek 2006). Lists focusing on the most relevant species have nonetheless already been compiled at the national level (Aboucaya, 1999) or for several French administrative regions (see the full list in Table 1). More recently, the DAISIE project has identified nearly 1,300 introduced and 700 established plant species in France (Lambdon et al., 2008). These various lists define several categories of alien species: casual versus established species, major invasive species, potential invasive species or species only requiring monitoring (observation list), with sometimes finer subdivisions within these broad categories (Lacroix et al., 2007). As a consequence, the current criteria used to define invasiveness are far from homogeneous. This situation clearly shows the need to build a standardized approach, to be used as a basis for producing reference lists of non-native plants in order to highlight the species that need priority actions. Risk analysis as tools for preventive actions In Europe, plant protection services in line with the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) activities, have historically used Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) to identify the probability of introduction, establishment and impact of pest species (insects, diseases) in a defined area, and if necessary, PRA defines what are the most appropriate measures of preventive control. Since 2002, EPPO has extended the use of the PRA scheme to study invasive plants (Schrader et al., 2010). However, regarding the number of potentially invasive species already present on the European continent (or absent but with a high probability of being introduced), it is not possible to perform a full PRA for all these species as the scheme is long and very detailed. For this reason, EPPO is currently developing a tool for quick and transparent prioritization (EPPO Prioritization Process for Invasive Alien Plants, abbreviated EPPO PP in the following text) in order to i) provide a clear overview of invasive and potentially invasive alien plants present in 50 European and Mediterranean countries in the EPPO region, ii) establish priorities among the species requiring a PRA. During the last 15 years, other risk assessment tools have been more specifically developed for invasive plants: - The Australian Weed Risk Assessment (Phelloung, 1995), one of the first and still the most acknowledged and used throughout the world (Gordon et al., 2008). The assessment of a species is probably shorter than with a PRA but still relatively long to be used as a quick assessment tool.


Table 1 - Numbers of alien, established and invasive species reported in the recently published regional floristic atlases, regional floras or other available publications about invasive species in France. Established Invasive taxa taxa

Regions

Alien taxa1

Auvergne

~ 614 (24%) ~ 205 (8%)

Basse-Normandie

287 (18%)

Bourgogne

-

125 (7%)

Bretagne

-

-

- Côte-d‘Armor

-

-

- Finistère

380 (34%)

- Ille-et-Vilaine

200 (15%)

- Morbihan

344 (20%)

191 (11%)

-

-

-

103 (9%)

Corse Drôme

404 (17%) 72 (3%)

153 (6%) 74 (3%)

Franche-Comté

-

-

Île-de-France - Essonne

-

-

Centre - Loiret

- Eure-et-Loir

12 * (0.5%) 56** (2%) 11* (0.7%) 16** (1%) 36 (2%) 17* 21** 8* (0.7%) 12** (1%) 13* (1%) 21** (2%) 9* (0.7%) 16** (1%) 9* (0.7%) 18** (1%) 7* (0.5%) 15** (1%) 30 (1%) 16 (0.7%) 38* 49** 23 (2%) 8* (0.6%) 45** (3%) 10* (0.9%) 12** (1%)

Total number of taxa2

References

2560

Antonnetti et al. (2006)

1847

Provost (1993) ; Zambettakis & Magnanon (2008) Bardet et al. (2008)

-

Magnanon et al. (2007)

1150

Philippon et al. (2006)

1129

Quéré et al. (2008)

1373

Diard (2005)

1694

Rivière (2007)

1620

1382

Pujol et al. (2007)

2397 2385

Jeanmonod & Gamisans (2007) Garraud (2003)

-

Ferrez (2006)

1215

Arnal & Guittet (2004)

1366

Dupré et al. (2009)

1089

Filoche et al. (2006)

129 (9%)

65 (5%)

269 (25%)

127 (12%)

1253

351

60

-

Brunel & Tison (2005)

-

-

-

-

Lacroix et al. (2007)

360 (19%)

204 (11%)

-

1850

Dupont (2001)

- Sarthe

364 (24%)

173 (11%)

1525

Hunault & Moret (2009)

- Mayenne

105 (7%)

1441

David et al. (2009)

Seine-SaintDenis Mediterranean area Pays de la Loire LoireAtlantique et Vendée

10* (0.7%) 12** (0.8%) -

1

Alien species gathers all introduced species including established species, casual aliens and subspontaneous species, 2 the total number of taxa includes both introduced and native taxa *: invasive species, ** : potential invasive species, -: no data available. -

In the United States, precise tools for assessing environmental impacts have been developed during the 2000s (Warner et al., 2003, Morse et al., 2004, Randall et al., 2008). Conducting such an analysis however needs a lot of information about the impact on ecosystem processes or about recent population dynamic which are often not available for emergent species.


-

For Central Europe, Weber & Gut (2004) have developed a much shorter assessment (twelve questions). Andreu & Vila (2009) have tested it for Spain and found very similar results compared to the Australian WRA.

In France, a specific risk assessment or an adaptation of an existing tool is still lacking. To date, the Plant Health Laboratory (LNPV) is involved in the development of the EPPO PP while the Federation of National Botanical Conservatories (FCBN) has tested the Weber & Gut risk assessment in order to update the list of species regulated by the Environmental Code (prohibition of sale and introduction into the wild). Currently this list only contains two species: Ludwigia grandiflora and Ludwigia peploides. Seventy-three species have been assessed and could potentially be added in the next years after negotiations with the different stakeholders. Aims of the study The first aim of this work was to use a first check-list of the most relevant alien plant species in France, in order to identify emergent invasive species which are priority species for several kinds of actions according to the threat they represent to natural and semi-natural ecosystems or to agricultural activities. At the national level, the present study is a part of a longer-term project which intends to i) inventory the comprehensive list of all nonindigenous plants recorded in France and ii) build a transparent and standardized protocol that can be used to decide which species of this list are invasive and which should be subject to management measures. With this end in mind, the present study has the objective to test and to compare the two methods of prioritisation already in use, i.e. the EPPO PP and the risk assessment of Weber & Gut (2004) for central Europe. Finally, at the European level, this study aims to validate the EPPO PP by applying it to a large list of alien species which has been, at least partially, previously classified by expert judgement (Aboucaya, 1999).

Material & Methods Species assessed A plant data set gathering 370 species of various statuses was pre-selected to be tested through the 2 prioritization methods: - The initial list included 217 alien species present in France and identified by Aboucaya (1999) as major invasive species (61 taxa), as potential invasive species to monitor (65 taxa) or as presenting less risk (91 taxa part of an observation list). - this initial list has been updated with a data set containing 91 species reported in more recent check-lists published at the regional scale (see Table 1). - species acknowledged as invasive at the European scale by EPPO have been added : 15 species out of the 21 of the EPPO Alert List, 2 out of the 9 species of the EPPO A2 list (species of serious phytosanitary concern which are recommended for regulation by EPPO) and 1 out of the 38 species of the EPPO List of invasive alien plants. - species which are already invasive in neighbouring countries but not yet present in France were also added, based on the following published lists: o Italy : Celesti-Grapow et al. (2009), o Spain : Dana et al. (2004), o Belgium : Invasive Species in Belgium (2010), o Switzerland : Swiss Commission for Wild Plant Conservation CPS/SKEW (2006). 123 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Description of the risk assessment methods used All the 370 species were assessed using the EPPO Prioritization process (Brunel et al., 2010) while 288 species for which sufficient information is available were also evaluated with the risk assessment developed by Weber & Gut (2004) for Central Europe (abbreviated W-G WRA in the remainder of the document). It contains twelve questions dealing with : the area of origin, range size in the risk area, invasiveness elsewhere, mode of reproduction and dispersal, plant height and life form, population size and type of habitat invaded. As the W-G WRA was developed for continental areas, question 11: ―Habitats of species. Allocate species to one of the following. If more than one statement applies, take the one with the highest score. Riparian habitats (3), Bogs/swamps (3), Wet grasslands (3), Dry (xeromorphic) grasslands (3), Closed forests (3), Lakes, lakeshores, and rivers (3), Other (0)” was adapted to the French conditions, adding ―Dunes and coastal cliffs‖ as a relevant habitat. For more details on the latter protocol, please refer to the corresponding publication. The EPPO PP consists in eleven questions including key aspects as invasiveness elsewhere in the world, climate match, spread capacity, impact on agriculture and environment. The first part of the process aims at classifying plants into several categories. According to the possible combination of scores for spread potential and adverse impact, three outcomes are possible (Figure 1).

Adverse impacts

Spread potential

Low

Low Minor concern

Medium Minor concern Observation list

High Observation list Observation list

Medium

Minor concern

High

List of Observation List of (potential) (potential) list invasive plants invasive plants

Figure 1 - Matrix of spread potential and adverse impacts of assessed species with the corresponding outputs. If the species qualifies as an invasive alien plant of major concern through this first set of questions, the second section of the process then investigates the efficiency of international measures (to be justified through a pest risk analysis) to prevent the entry and spread of the species and whether the species still has a significant suitable area for further spread (in order to exclude species which are already too widespread and can no more be controlled at low cost). For the most important questions (climate matching, spread potential and impacts), a level of uncertainties is defined. This relativizes the risk and identifies points where research efforts must be driven.



In the latest version of the EPPO PP (Brunel et al., 2010), species with medium spread and high impact are on the observation list, in order to select only the most invasive species.


Source of data The necessary information for the species were obtained from various sources. The status of the species in France (only cultivated, casual, established) was obtained from Kerguélen (1993) updated by Bock (2005) and from various recent floristic atlases (Table 1). Geographical distribution data for Europe was obtained from the DAISIE website. I only considered the number of countries where the species are clearly established (excluding casual and unknown occurrences). Native areas of alien species were checked with the online database from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland (http:// www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/tax/index.html), as well as from recent standard European floras (e.g. Flora Iberica, Flora d‘Italia, Flora Helvetica, Nouvelle Flore de Belgique, etc.). Climatic match was determined by considering the origin of the species, its current distribution and the World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification (Kottek et al., 2006). The potential area for further spread was determined according to current distribution in France or elsewhere in the world and the extent of the remaining suitable climates and habitats in the area under consideration. Status of the species as a weed elsewhere was taken from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW) (Randall, 2007). As the GCW probably exacerbates invasiveness, the author decided that to be considered as invasive elsewhere, a species has to combine at least three of the following qualifiers: ―agricultural weed‖, ―environmental weed‖, ―noxious weed‖, ―sleeper weed‖ and ―weed‖. Species traits (life form, seed number and viability, vegetative reproduction, dispersal mode) were extracted from various publications (species fact sheets, previous weed risk assessments in other countries). Data on habitats and the ecology of the species and local abundance were taken from recent regional floristic atlases (Table 1) and other botanical publications. Frequency and impact in cultivated fields was taken from Jauzein (1995) and Mamarot (2002) while herbicide resistance was checked with Heap (2010). Concerning the population density in natural and semi-natural habitats as well as the impact in agricultural lands, if the species under assessment is not present in France, I used data within the European range or within another area where the species has been introduced with a similar climate to France. The uncertainty associated to these questions was ranked as medium if data was taken from another European country, or as high if data was taken from a country with similar climate elsewhere in the world. This also introduces a distinction between invasive species (with observed impacts in France) and potential invasive species (not yet present in France but already invasive under similar ecological conditions). Results & Discussion Global results The list of invasive species resulting from the EPPO Prioritization Process and the scores from the W-G WRA are given in Appendix. Out of the 370 species assessed with the EPPO Prioritization Process, 127 were classified as invasive or potentially invasive species, of which 32 were identified as priorities for PRA, 232 species were of minor concern and placed on the observation list and 8 species were not considered as invasive or potentially invasive. 125 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The scores of the 288 species assessed by the W-G WRA ranged from 12 to 38, with 95 species presenting a high risk, 147 species presenting an intermediate risk (further observation needed) and 30 species having only a low risk. Comparison of the two methods of prioritization Comparing the previous classification of alien species based on expert judgments (Aboucaya, 1999), a substantial agreement with EPPO Prioritization Process (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.75) and the Weber & Gut Protocol (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.73) was found. Table 2 shows that the agreement between the EPPO Prioritization Process and the Weber & Gut Protocol is also good (Cohen‘s Kappa = 0.75). For example, among the 32 species which are priority for a PRA according to EPPO PP, 24 have also a high risk and 8 an intermediate risk according to the W-G WRA. Table 2 - Comparison of the classification of the 280 alien species as either invasive or not by the EPPO Prioritization Process and by the Weber & Gut Risk assessment. Weber & Gut WRA EPPO PP Lists High Risk Intermediate risk Low Risk Total 8 Priority for a PRA 24 32 32 Invasive Species 59 91 107 24 Observation List 18 149 3 5 Not Invasive 8 Total 101 150 29 280 The differences between the two methods can be explained in two ways. Most of the 40 species that were only identified as invasive by the EPPO PP (Table 2), are agricultural weeds with economical impact on crop production (e.g., Abutilon theophrasti, Bidens subalternans, Conyza spp., Panicum spp., Xanthium spp.). The W-G WRA (and the previous national and regional check-lists, Table 1) only aims at identifying species at risk for biodiversity: the scores of agricultural weeds are therefore low because they are mostly annuals and species restricted to man-made habitats (on average, these traits lead to - 5 points). This is also true for small annual species whose impacts are probably less than perennial or woody invasives but can nevertheless be reported as forming dense monospecific stands threatening native vegetation like Eragrostis pectinacea in sandy areas of the Loire valley (Dupont, 2001) or Claytonia perfoliata in coastal sand dunes (Quéré et al., 2008). On the other hand, the 18 species that were only identified as invasive by the W-G WRA are species that do not yet have an invasive behaviour in France. If a species is already present in France, the EPPO PP mainly relies on its effective impact in natural or seminatural habitats and pays less attention to its behaviour elsewhere. For example Eupatorium adenophorum is established in riparian habitats in Corsica without forming dense populations (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007). According to the intrinsic biological traits of this species (vegetative reproduction, life form, plant height and seed dispersal), the W-G WRA has identified it as presenting a high risk, which is consistent with the invasive behaviour of this plant in Spain (however, if the EPPO PP was applied at the EPPO region scale, it would also have ranked this species as invasive). This illustrates the greater predictive power of the W-G WRA more suitable for species that are not yet present. So, the W-G WRA appears as a good complement to the EPPO PP, particularly in order to identify future potential weeds. 126 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The observation list obtained through the EPPO PP The observation list contains 232 species. The mean score of the species on the observation list with the W-G WRA was 24.2 but it ranged from 12 to 32, with 18 species recognised as being potentially invasive (score>28), meaning that some species have intrinsic traits that confer them the ability to spread and invade. Lag phase can sometimes last several decades before an introduced species suddenly occupies a wider range of habitats and/or become invasive (Kowarik, 1995). Two broad groups of species can be distinguished: those which are confined to ruderal and man-made habitats environments (epoecophytes) and those that are already established in natural or semi-natural habitats (hemi- and holo-agriophytes). The first group contains a significant proportion of annuals typically found in disturbed areas: Bidens bipinnata, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis mexicana, Euphorbia maculata, Veronica persica. They are of minor concern as they are well controlled in cultivated crops. For some species considered as invasive in previous lists, like Nicotiana glauca (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007) or Araujia sericifera (Brunel & Tison, 2006), there are some uncertainties: they are forming dense stands but the naturalness of the invaded habitats is not certain. I have taken the decision to downgrade such species to the observation list, paying closer attention to the nature of the invaded habitats. Special attention must also be given to Conyza floribunda, which is reported as a ruderal species over most of the territory but seems able to penetrate into natural habitats in areas where it is currently expanding, e.g., in Normandy (Zambetakkis & Magnanon, 2008) and in the Côtes-d'Armor (Philippon et al., 2006). The second group gathers species that have already crossed the environmental barriers. Among these species, some have been eliminated because of their low dispersal ability, due for example to few or no production of viable seeds, coupled with a lack of long-distance dispersal mechanisms (Elaeagnus x submacrophylla, Spiraea spp.). Other species have not (yet) been observed to form dense monospecific populations: Amelanchier spicata, established in oak forests on acid soils in Burgundy (Bardet et al., 2008), Arctotheca calendula, Aptenia cordifolia or Tetragonia tetragonoides, which are established in coastal sand dunes. Finally some species are considered as well integrated in their new habitat, e.g., Juncus tenuis or Eleocharis bonariensis (Dupont, 2001). Some of the 18 species on the observation list that should be put under particular surveillance are highlighted here as they are already serious plant invaders in neighbouring countries and as their score with the W-G WRA was superior to 27, meaning that they present a high risk: Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) King & H. Rob. [syn: Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.] (WG-WRA Score: 32): established along rivers in Corsica (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007) and in the Alpes-Maritimes department (Carles & Thébaut, 2010). In the South of Spain and in the Canary Islands, this species is spreading and forms dense stands along rivers and in riverine forests (Dana et al., 2004). It has a prolific asexual seed production (apomixis) which can reach 60 000 seeds/m² (Weber, 2003). Asclepias syriaca L. (WG-WRA Score: 34), established since at least the mid 19 th century (Garraud, 2003) in the Center and the South of France. Most of the time the species is only reported as escaped from gardens where it is cultivated. In the South of the Rhone Valley, it can however exhibit an invasive behaviour in riparian habitats, without forming populations exceeding 80% coverage, the stands can however reach high densities. 127 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C.Wendl. (WG-WRA Score: 30), established in the Esterel mountains both in the Var and the Alpes-Maritimes departments. It is invasive in Portugal, mainly in disturbed habitats (roadsides) but also in undisturbed shrublands. It is cold, drought and wind resistant. It is adapted to fires which lead to mass release of seeds and stimulates germination. This is why Hakea sericea could rapidly become dominant in the Pine forests of the Esterel mountains which are prone to regular fires during summer. Delairea odorata Lem. [syn.: Senecio mikanioides Otto ex Walp.] (WG-WRA Score: 29). It is cultivated and sometimes escapes from gardens in Bretagne, locally in the Finistère department, it can form dense stands several meters high, smothering trees and shrubs (Quéré et al., 2008). It is also established on the coastal areas of Provence. The plant spreads by vegetative growth, the stolons fragment easily and can quickly produce new plants. Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. (WG-WRA Score: 29) is considered invasive in dunes, rock outcrops, grasslands and woodlands in Belgium where its clonal growth could lead to dense populations that are likely to overgrow and outcompete native species and accelerate the colonisation of open habitats by woody vegetation. In France, this species is largely cultivated and well established in different kind of habitats: dunes in the North of France (Toussaint et al., 2008), hedges and cool temperate forests in Burgundy (Bardet et al., 2008), edges of grasslands (Antonnetti et al., 2006); however no dense stands have been yet reported in these habitats. The List of Invasive Species obtained through the EPPO PP One hundred and twenty seven (127) species have been identified as invasive or potential invasive species by the EPPO PP. This list can be subdivided according to the extent of the invaded territory and according to the type of impact (environmental or economical). Forty widespread invaders are already widely dispersed in all or several biogeographical regions of France (e.g., Reynoutria japonica, Acer nedundo, Senecio inaequidens) while 77 regional invasive species that are still restricted to only one biogeographical region, in either atlantic (Polygonum polystachyum, Rhododendron ponticum, Spartina alternifolia), continental (Cotoneaster horizontalis, Rudbeckia laciniata) or Mediterranean climates (Acacia dealbata, Lonicera japonica). Ninety-six species are environmental weeds exhibiting, at least in one locality, large, dense and persistent populations in natural or semi-natural habitats with can have a cover at least 80 %. 30 species represent a major concern for agricultural activities (6 species are both agricultural and environmental weeds: Artemisia verlotiorum, Galega officinalis, Lindernia dubia, Phyla filiformis, Phytolacca americana and Sicyos angulatus). The mean score with the W-G WRA was 29.8, ranging from 21 to 38. The species with the highest score was Solidago gigantea (38) which combines high dispersal capacity, efficient vegetative reproduction and dense stands in wet meadows. Other environmental weeds with high scores include some aquatic invasive species that fragment easily and can rapidly cover entire water bodies: Azolla filiculoides Lam. (34), Elodea nuttalii (Planch.) H.St.John (34), Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & Burdet (33), Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) P.H.Raven (36) and Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc (34). Some trees like Acacia dealbata (36), Prunus serotina (35), Ailanthus altissima (33) or Acer negundo (32) also achieve high scores. 128 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Table 3 - List of invasive and potential invasive plants with high priorities for a PRA in France ranked according to their score with the W-G WRA. Species Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.f. Rosa rugosa Thunb. Senecio angulatus L.f. Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl.

Origin2 Am. E. As. S. Afr. Aust.

Area3 [M]AC A M M

Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne

Aust.

A[C?]

Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) R.Br. Afr., Arab. Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms S.Am.

M MA

Elide asparagoides (L.) KerguŢlen

S. & E. Afr.

M

Pistia stratioides L. Sesbania punicea Benth.

S. Am. S. Am.

MA M

Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd.

Aust.

M

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) S. Am. Griseb. Cyperus esculentus var. Am. leptostachyus Böck.1 Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. E. As. Periploca graeca L.

E. Med.

Salpichroa origanifolia (Lam.) Baill. Senecio deltoideus Less. Sicyos angulatus L. Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.

S. Am. S. Afr. N. Am. Am.

Acacia retinodes Schltr.

Aust.

Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray Phyla filiformis (Schreider) Meikle Akebia quinata Decne. Setaria faberi F.Herm. Hypericum majus (A. Gray) Britton

Am. S. Am. T. As. T. As. N. Am.

Habitat I4 Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E Coastal dunes and sandy shores E Coastal shrublands, roadsides, wastelands E Heathlands, coastal scrub and beaches, forests E Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies, edges E of ponds, lakes. Wastelands, roadsides, torrents of river [E] Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies [E] Roadsides, wastelands, riversides, edges of E scrublands Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E Riparian habitats, wetlands, ruderal habitats E Riparian habitats, woodlands, grasslands, E coastal dunes and scrub

Score 34 33 32 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 29

[M]A

Rivers, lakes, ponds, and irrigation canals

[EA] 29

AC

Maize fields, riparian habitats

AE

29

M[AC] Riverbeds, alluvial deposits rich in nutrients E[A] Riparian habitats, Populus alba forests, sand M E dunes MA Coastal dunes, ruderal habitats E M Wet areas E MA Maize fields, riparian habitats AE M Wastelands [potentially in all cultivated fields] [A] Mediterranean woods, ruderal habitats, coastal M E sands [M]AC Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies E M Damp meadows, edges of ponds E [M]A Riparian habitats [E] [M]A[C] Roadsides, highways, potentially maize fields [A] C Wetlands, edges of ponds E

29

[MA]

Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies

[E]

33

[M] [A] [MAC] [MAC]

Riparian habitats, forest edges, woodlands Estuaries, interdital marine habitats Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies Riparian habitats, maize fields

[E] [E] [E] [AE]

32 30 29 28

[C]

Forest fringes, riparian habitats in floodplains

[E]

26

[C]

Maize fields, hedgerows, riversides

[A]

24

29 29 29 29 28 27 27 26 25 25 23

Alert List (species not yet established in France) Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch.

S. Am.

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi As. Spartina densiflora Brongn. S. Am. Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx. N. Am. Apios americana Medik. N. Am. Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. & N. Am. A.Gray Eriochloa villosa (Thunb.) Kunth E. As. 1

Cyperus esculentus var. esculentus is native at least in the mediterranean part of France. The variety leptostachyus Boeck is native from America and naturalized in the South-West; the variety sativus Boeck is naturalized around horticultural farms. 2 Abbreviations used for area of origin : Afr.=Africa, Am.=America, Arab.=Arabic Peninsula, As.=Asia, Aust.=Australia, E.=East, N.=North, S.=South, W.=West, Med.=Mediterranean, 3 Three main biogeographical areas have been distinguished : M. for Mediterranean, A. for Atlantic (oceanic) and C. for continental. Letters between brackets means that the species is not (yet) recorded in the corresponding area but this area is however at risk. 4 Impact of the species: A.=Agricultural impact, E.=Environmental impact. Letters between brackets mean that the species has not yet had an impact.


One original component of the EPPO PP is to take into account species which threaten agricultural activities. Most alien weeds are just considered as one more weed, without particular difficulties in managing them in a context of intensive practices based on the use of herbicide. Agricultural weeds included in the present list of Invasive species are those that are reported to form dense stands within fields despite a classical weed control program. These species generally require specific measures due to a lack of control of the available herbicides and/or due to other weedy traits like an effective vegetative reproduction. Most of these species occur in maize fields (Amaranthus spp., Panicum spp., Sicyos angulatus) or in Mediterranean vineyards (Bidens subalternans, Conyza spp.). Some species are of concern in pastures due to their toxicity for cattle (Galega officinalis) or because they are not grazed and thus decrease the quality of forage (Phyla filiformis). Invasive Species requiring a PRA Among the list of Invasive species, 25 species that still have a limited distribution compatible with a possible eradication or containment at low cost were identified. Seven species not yet established in France but invasive in neighbouring countries were also identified as potentially invasive in France. These 32 species have therefore the highest priority for a national PRA in France. Table 3 shows that aquatic and riparian habitats as well as the Mediterranean area are the most threatened. Aquatic species Wet biotopes are considered as more vulnerable to invasions than dry biotopes. Two third of the species with high priority (Table 3) are affecting riparian habitats, damp meadows or aquatic habitats. PRAs at the EPPO scale have already been performed for three out of the six species invading static or slow-flowing water bodies: Crassula helmsii, Eichhornia crassipes and Hydrocotyle ranunculoides. All three species are now on the EPPO A2 List (regulation as quarantine pests is recommended). Crassula helmsii invades edges of ponds in less than 20 locations in Bretagne and Normandie. Eradication is still possible and is under development at least in Finistère (Quéré et al., 2008). Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratioides are only casual aliens in France. Episodic blooms of Pistia stratioides have already been recorded in the South-West (Jalle de Blanquefort) during the 2003 summer (Dutartre, pers., comm., 2010). In the South and the South-West of France, Eichhornia crassipes has no stable populations. The monitoring of habitats at risk should continue for these two species. In Corsica, an invasive stand of E. crassipes had been detected in lagoon basins, near the Figari airport, and is currently under eradication (Jeanmonod & Schlüssel, 2008). Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray. was first observed in France in 2005 invading 15 km along the Burgundy canal near Dijon (Dutartre et al., 2006). More recently, it was also recorded in two locations in the « Canal du Midi » near Toulouse (Enjalbal, 2009). However, the EPPO PRA does not conclude that there is a clear risk. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. is localized along the Garonne and Tarn rivers in the South-West without yet exhibiting an invasive behaviour (Georges, 2004). It should be closely monitored because it has recently been observed spreading on the Arno River in Italy (Brunel et al., 2010). Mediterranean region The impact of Acacia dealbata is well known (even if this species is still widely sold and planted in areas at risk). Some other Acacia sp. (A. longifolia, A. retinodes, A. saligna) are still of limited distribution in the Var department and in Corsica. According to their impact in other Mediterranean areas (e.g. Portugal), Acacia sp. should be eradicated where and when possible and should be used anymore in plantations. Several Senecio sp. also represent a risk, 130 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

particularly Senecio angulatus which already forms dense stands in coastal scrublands or in wet habitats. Alert List An awareness campaign could be implemented in order to prevent the introduction of species not yet established in France. Among species used in aquaria, Myriophyllum heterophyllum and Salvinia molesta should be prohibited or at least, a warning label should alert people not to discard these species in natural areas. Both species can invade static or slow flowing waters and can rapidly reach high coverage. Salvinia molesta is a free floating perennial fern, probably of hybrid origin. It is sterile and spreads by vegetative growth and fragmentation. It is one of the most invasive aquatic plants in tropical and southern Africa, in tropical Asia and Australasia (Weber, 2003). In Europe, it is already invasive in Italy: it has covered the entire water surface (around 1.7 ha) of a lake in less than three months (Giardini, 2004). Myriophyllum heterophyllum has been recorded in Germany and Austria and has shown invasive behaviour where it has been introduced in western North America (Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board Website, 2010). Several species used as ornamentals should also be subject to preventive measures (these species should no longer be available for purchase in garden centers or nurseries, or at least advices on their proper use and disposal should be provided). This is the case for two vine species not yet established in natural areas in France: Echinocystis lobata and Pueraria lobata. Echinocystis lobata is an annual fast-growing species, covering large areas in floodplains, riparian habitats and forest fringes in a large part of Central Europe (Germany, Poland). Its spatial occupation competes with native species (Klotz, 2007). Pueraria lobata is a perennial native from eastern Asia. It is invasive in Italy and in the south of Switzerland. It has negative effects on crop production, forestry production and the natural environment, as it smothers existing flora. The severity of its impact has justified its addition to the EPPO A2 List in 2006. Several Spartina sp. are already serious invaders in estuaries all along the French Atlantic coast. Another species, Spartina densiflora is invasive in Portugal and Spain but is not yet recorded in France. As for other invasive Spartina, invasions by S. densiflora may deeply change the structure of foreshores previously occupied by annuals Salicornia sp. These dense clones may also slow the flow of water, and thus increase the rate of sedimentation. Introduction of contaminated seeds is harder to prevent. Maize fields are the most at risk for the establishment of new alien weeds due to several favourable conditions (empty ecological niche for summer annuals, irrigation, Etc.). Therefore, the national arable weed monitoring implemented in France (Biovigilance Flore network, see Fried et al., 2007) should particularly look after Apios americana, already invasive in Italy and Eriochloa villosa, invasive in North America and spreading rapidly in Central Europe. Conclusions & Perspectives The first aim of this work was to identify priority species to perform national PRAs on and to raise awareness on those species that can still be subject to early detections and preventive eradications. As a secondary outcome, this study provided an observation list and a list of invasive species which are both ranked according to spread potential and effective impact 131 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

reported in France. Such lists can have many possible uses. I propose some examples here and the LNPV strongly encourages their development. Actions to develop on the ranked lists of invasive species Prioritized lists of invasive species can provide information for the development of appropriate regulations and voluntary restrictions on intentional plantings. To date, only two species are regulated in France: the sale, purchase, use and introduction into the wild of Ludwigia grandiflora and Ludwigia peploides is forbidden by the Order of May 2, 2007 (Articles L. 411-3 and R. 411-1 to R. 411-5 of the Environmental Code). Many other invasive species have the same level of impact and should also be added to the list of regulated species. With this end in mind, the French national botanical conservatories have used the WG WRA to assess and to rank a list of 73 species (unpubl. doc.). Nurseries and garden centers that want to develop environmental-friendly actions can use this list to remove invasive plants from their catalogues (for more details, see the EPPO Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants). Unlike other countries such as Belgium or Switzerland, France has no Black List of invasive species. Even if such a list has no regulatory or legal value, it can have an authoritative value and provide useful information for people in nearby countries or in more distant areas with similar climates who want to identify species with a high likelihood of spread and impacts. Thus, prioritized lists of alien species can be a useful tool to exchange information with other countries in the framework of an early detection system at the European scale. Land managers facing numerous invasive species in nature reserves can also use such categorized lists to determine priorities for control programs. Last but not least, this work also highlights species for which further research is needed to determine their spread capacity and the exact nature of their impact. Toward an invasive plant risk assessment council This list is still a working document that will need to be validated by a committee gathering other partners such as, regional experts from national botanical conservatories and scientists working on plant invasion in France. Moreover, it is important to note that prioritisation of alien plants is not a static process. When new information becomes available, species will be re-evaluated especially if new data could influence the ranking of the species. This invasive plant risk assessment committee that could be established, could also validate a specific risk assessment method for identifying invasive species in France and oversee the future work on the inventory of non-native plants in France. References Aboucaya A (1999) Premier bilan d‘une enquête nationale destinée à identifier les xénophytes invasifs sur le territoire métropolitain français (Corse comprise), in Les Actes du colloque « Les plantes menacées de France », Brest, 15-17 octobre 1997. Numéro special de la Société Botanique du Centre-Ouest 19, 463482. Andreu J, Vilà M (2009) Risk analysis of potential invasive plants in Spain. Journal for Nature Conservation 18, 34-44 Antonetti P, Brugel E, Kessler F, Barbe JP & Tort M (2006) Atlas De La Flore D'Auvergne. Conservatoire botanique national du Massif central, Chavaniac-Lafayette (FR). Arnal G, Guittet J (2004) Atlas de la flore sauvage du département de l‘Essonne. Biotope, Mèze (Collection Parthénope) ; Muséeum national d‘Histoire naturelle, Paris (FR).


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Appendix - Prioritized list of invasive and potentially invasive species in France Species in bold are species which have been identified as priority for a national PRA 1 Indicates the region at risk: M=mediterranean, A=atlantic, C=continental. Letters between brackets means that the corresponding regions is not yet invaded but is at risk. 2 Score obtained with the W-G WRA: 3-21: low risk, 21-27: intermediate risk, 28-39: high risk 3 Type of impact: A=agriculture, E=environment. Letters between brackets means that the impact is only potential. 4 Agriophyte are species which occur in natural or semi-natural habitats while epocophytes are species restricted to disturbed habitats. Species name

Reg.1

Main habitats

Score2 I3

Status4

Widespread invasive species (impact are reported in all three biogeographical regions of France) Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) P.H.Raven

MAC


36

E

Agriophyte

Reynoutria japonica Houtt.

MAC

Riparian habitats, roadsides, wastelands

34

E

Agriophyte

Ludwigia grandiflora (Michx.) Greuter & Burdet

MAC


33

E

Agriophyte

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle

MAC

Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats

33

E

Hemiagriophyte

Acer negundo L.

MAC

Alluvial forests

32

E

Agriophyte

Elodea canadensis Michx.

MAC


32

E

Agriophyte

Elodea nuttalii (Planch.) H.St.John

MAC


32

E

Agriophyte

Paspalum distichum L.

MAC

Wetlands : riversides, riverbeds

32

AE

Agriophyte

Senecio inaequidens DC.

MAC

Ruderal habitats, pastures, dunes, rocks

31

E

Hemiagriophyte

Buddleja davidii Franch.

MAC

Ruderal habitats, riversides, forests

31

E

Hemiagriophyte

Reynoutria x bohemica Chrtek & Chrtkova

MAC


31

E

Agriophyte

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

MAC

Ruderal habitats, forest, calcareous or sandy grassland

31

E

Agriophyte

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

MAC

Arable fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds

30

A(E) Epoecophyte

Bidens frondosa L.

MAC

Riverbeds

30

E

Agriophyte

Phytolacca americana L.

MAC

Ruderal habitats, maize fields, riparian habitats, forest logging

29

AE

Hemiagriophyte

Impatiens glandulifera Royle

MAC

Riparian habitats, forest edges

29

E

Agriophyte

Lemna minuta Kunth

MAC


29

E

Agriophyte

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist

MAC


27

A

Epoecophyte

Abutilon theophrasti Medik.

MAC

Maize fields, wet wastelands, sandy river banks

25

A

Epoecophyte

Panicum capillare L.

MAC

Maize fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds

25

A

Epoecophyte

Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.

MAC

Maize fields, ruderal habitats, riverbeds

25

A

Epoecophyte

Panicum miliaceum L.

MAC

Maize fields, ruderal habitats

25

A

Epoecophyte

Amaranthus retroflexus L.

MAC

Cultivated fields, wastelands, ruderal habitats

25

A

Epoecophyte

Amaranthus hybridus L.

MAC

Cultivated fields, wastelands, ruderal habitats

23

A

Epoecophyte


Invasive species with impacts in one or two biogeographical regions in France (widespread species but still lacking in a large area of the country) Solidago gigantea Aiton

MC

Ruderal habitats, damp meadows, disturbed forest

38

E

Agriophyte

Solidago canadensis L.

MC

Ruderal habitats, damp meadows, disturbed forest

36

E

Agriophyte

Azolla filiculoides Lam.

MA(C)

Aquatic habitats : stagnant rivers, ponds, waterways

34

E

Agriophyte

Helianthus tuberosus L.

M(A)C

Alluvial floodplain, riverbed and riparian habitats

34

E

Agriophyte

Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.

(M)AC


34

E

Agriophyte

Reynoutria sachalinensis (F.Schmidt) Nakai

(M)AC


34

E

Agriophyte

Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.f.

[M]AC


34

E

Agriophyte

Aster x salignus Willd.

M(A)C

Wetlands

33

E

Agriophyte

Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn.

MA

Wetlands, sandy soils, dunes

32

E

Agriophyte

Baccharis halimifolia L.

MA

Ruderal habitats, wetlands, saltmarshes

31

E

Agriophyte

Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E.Br.

MA

Coastal sand dunes and cliffs, salt marshes

31

E

Agriophyte

Lagarosiphon major (Ridl.) Moss

(M)AC


31

E

Agriophyte

Pistia stratioides L.

MA


30

E

Agriophyte Hemiagriophyte

Cyperus esculentus var. leptostachyus Böck.

AC

Maize fields, riparian habitats

29

A

Sicyos angulata L.

MA

Maize fields, Riparian habitats

29

AE

Agriophyte

Egeria densa Planch.

(M)AC


28

E

Agriophyte

Amorpha fruticosa L.

MC

Riparian habitats, alluvial forests, coastal estuaries, dunes

27

E

Agriophyte

Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.Walker

MA(C)

Wastelands, Roadsides, ruderal habitats, riversides

27

A

Epoecophyte

Cabomba caroliniana A.Gray

[M]AC


27

E

Agriophyte

Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell

(M)AC

Edges of ponds, sandy riverbanks

26

E(A) Agriophyte

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist

MA(C)


25

A

Epoecophyte

Regional invasive species (whose impacts are restricted to one biogeographical area) : more or less widespread in one region or very localized Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte

M(AC)

Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats

36

E(A) Agriophyte

Acacia dealbata Link

M(A)

Riparian habitats, wastelands, open forests

36

E

Agriophyte

Rudbeckia laciniata L.

C

Damp meadows, riparian habitats

36

E

Agriophyte

Aster lanceolatus Willd.

(A)C

Ruderal habitats, wetlands

35

E

Agriophyte

Prunus serotina Ehrh.

(A)C

Forests on acid soils

35

E

Agriophyte

Paspalum dilatatum Poir.

M(AC)

Riversides, wet meadows, ruderal habitats

34

E

Agriophyte

Prunus laurocerasus L.

A(C)

Wastelands, forests, human-modified forests, riparian habitats

33

E

Agriophyte

Lemna turionifera Landolt

A(C)

Aquatic habitats (eutrophic quite and warm waters)

33

E

Agriophyte


Spartina x townsendii n-var. anglica (C.E.Hubb.) Lambinon & Maquet

A

Coastal (intertidal zone)

33

E

Agriophyte

Rosa rugosa Thunb.

A

Coastal dunes and sandy shores

33

E

Agriophyte

Spartina alterniflora Loisel.

A

Coastal (intertidal zone)

33

E

Agriophyte

Aster novi-belgii L.

(A)C

Ruderal habitats, wetlands

32

E

Agriophyte

Cotula coronopifolia L.

M(A)

Saline and freshwater marshes, swampedges, streambanks

32

E

Agriophyte

Helianthus x laetiflorus Pers.

M

Riverbeds, wastelands.

32

E

Agriophyte

Senecio angulatus L.f.

M

Coastal shrublands, ruderal habitats

32

E

Agriophyte

Cotoneaster dammeri C.K. Schenid.

C

Dry calcareaous grasslands

32

E

Agriophyte

Cotoneaster horizontalis Decne.

C

Dry calcareaous grasslands

32

E

Agriophyte

Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) R.Br.

M

Ruderal habitats, torrents of rivers, wetlands

31

E

Agriophyte

Carpobrotus aff. acinaciformis (L.) L.Bolus

(M)

Coastal sand dunes and cliffs, salt marshes

31

E

Agriophyte

Fallopia baldschuanica (Regel) Holub + F. aubertii

M(AC)

Riparian forests, riverbeds, dunes, ruderal habitats

31

E

Agriophyte

Lonicera japonica Thunb. ex Murray

M(A)

Wet forests, riparian habitats

31

E

Agriophyte

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.

M(AC)

Arable fields, ruderal habitats

31

A

Epoecophyte

Acacia saligna (Labill.) H.L.Wendl.

M

Grassland, coastal scrub and beaches, forests

31

E

Agriophyte

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

m

Dry grasslands, garrigue, rocks, ruderal habitats, dunes

31

E

Agriophyte

Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne

A(C)

Static or slow-flowing freshwater bodies, edges of ponds, lakes

31

E

Agriophyte

Parthenocissus inserta (A.Kern.) Fritsch

M(AC)

Riparian habitats, ruderal habitats, hedges

30

E

Agriophyte

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.

M

Dry grasslands, garrigue, rocks, ruderal habitats, dunes

30

E

Agriophyte

Aster squamatus (Spreng.) Hieron.

M(AC)

(Damp) wastelands, riparian habitats, (damp) cultivated fields

30

E

Agriophyte

Vitis riparia Michx.

M

Riparian habitats, alluvial forests

30

E

Agriophyte Agriophyte

Sesbania punicea Benth.

M

Riparian habitats, wetlands, ruderal habitats

30

E

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

M(A)


30

E

Agriophyte

Elide asparagoides (L.) KerguŽlen

M

Ruderal habitats, riparian habitats, edges of scrublands

30

E

Agriophyte

Oenothera glazioviana Micheli

m

Wastelands

30

E

Hemiagriophyte

Periploca graeca L.

M

Riparian habitats (Populus alba forest), dunes

29

E

Agriophyte

Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc.

M[AC]

Riverbeds, alluvial deposits rich in nutrients

29

E

Agriophyte

Cyperus eragrostis Lam.

M(A)

Riparian habitats and wetlands

29

E

Agriophyte

Heteranthera reniformis Ruiz & Pav.

M

Rice fields

29

A

Epoecophyte

Yucca filamentosa L.

M

Sand dunes, rocky shorelines

29

E

Agriophyte

Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd.

M

Riparian habitats, coastal dunes and shrubland

29

E

Agriophyte

Salpichroa origanifolia (Lam.) Baill.

M(A)

Coastal dunes, ruderal habitats

29

E

Agriophyte

Senecio deltoideus Less.

M

Wetlands

29

E

Agriophyte

Pyracantha pauciflora (Poir.) M.Roem.

M

Wastelands, human-modified forests

29

E

Agriophyte


Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.

[M]A

Rivers, lakes, ponds irrigation canals, riparian habitats

29

E

Agriophyte

Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

M(A)

Ditches, sand dunes, salt meadows

29

E

Agriophyte

Yucca gloriosa L.

M

Dunes

29

E

Agriophyte

Tradescantia fluminensis Vell.

M

Riverbeds, fresh rocks.

28

E

Agriophyte

Rhus typhina L.

C

Riparian habitats, forests clearings, dry grasslands

28

E

Agriophyte

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.

M

Wastelands, potentially arable fields

28

A

Epoecophyte

Impatiens parviflora DC.

(MA)C

Moist to wet forests from floodplains to beech forests

27

E

Agriophyte

Xanthium italicum Moretti

M(AC)

Cultivated fields, riparian habitats, beaches

27

A

Epoecophyte

Acacia retinodes Schltr.

M

Forests, ruderal habitats, coastal sand dunes

27

E

Agriophyte

Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier

(MA)C

Wastelands, riparian habitats, damp meadows, forest margins

27

E

Agriophyte

Bidens subalternans DC.

M

Cultivated fields, ruderal habitats

26

A

Epoecophyte

Bunias orientalis L.

(A)C

Ruderal habitats, crop edges, pastures and damp meadows

26

A

Hemiagriophyte

Cytisus striatus (Hill) Rothm.

M(A)

Scrublands, roadsides

26

E

Agriophyte

Oxalis pes-caprae L.

M

Ruderal habitats, riverbeds, dunes, shrublands

26

E

Agriophyte

Phyla filiformis (Schreider) Meikle

M

Damp meadows

26

E

Agriophyte

Rhododendron ponticum L.

A

Deciduous forests

26

E

Agriophyte

Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees

A

Sandy soils in wastelands, along riverbeds, arable fields

26

E

Agriophyte

Medicago arborea L.

M

Coastal shrublands

25

E

Agriophyte

Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. subsp. pycnocoma (Steud.)

M(C)

Arable fields, ruderal habitats

25

A

Epoecophyte

Akebia quinata Decne.

[M]A

Riparian habitats

25

E

Agriophyte

Setaria faberi F.Herm.

[M]A[C]

Roadsides, highways, potentially maize fields

25

A

Epoecophyte

Agave americana L.

M

Coastal cliffs, dunes, rocky places, distubed sites.

25

E

Agriophyte

Galega officinalis L.

(MA)C

Fresh grassland & pastures, ruderal habitats, river alluvium

25

AE

Hemiagriophyte

Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch

M

Rice fields

25

A

Epoecophyte

Echinochloa phyllopogon (Stapf) Koso-Pol.

M

Rice fields

25

A

Epoecophyte

Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd.

M

Rice fields

24

A

Epoecophyte

Hypericum majus (A. Gray) Britton

C

Etanges exondés

25

E

Agriophyte

Impatiens balfouri Hook.f.

M(AC)

Riparian habitats, alluvial forest, ruderal habitats

24

E

Agriophyte

Aristolochia sempervirens L.

M

Riparian woods

24

E

Agriophyte

Bothriochloa barbinodis (Lag.) Herter

M

Vineyards, ruderal habitats

24

A

Epoecophyte

Rumex cristatus DC.

M

Riparian habitats, damp arable fields

21

E

Agriophyte

Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora (Lemoine) N.E.Br.

A

Dunes, heathlands, grasslands, riparian habitats, ...

21

E

Agriophyte


Modeling range changes of invasive alien and native expanding plant species in Armenia George Fayvush & Kamilla Tamanyan Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Armenia, Acharyan str. 1, Erevan 0063, Armenia, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] The article shows the research results of the spread of four invasive alien and four native expanding plants in Armenia (Ailanthus altissima, Echinocystis lobata, Impatiens glandulifera, Robinia pseudoacacia, and Astragalus galegiformis, Clematis orientalis, Silybum marianum, Tanacetum vulgare). Based on the current distribution of these species, the forecast of their further spread was considered using the DIVA-GIS and Bioclim software, with different climate change scenarios. Maps show the current distribution of the investigated species, with forecasted changes of their distribution. Temperature increase will allow the majority of species currently occupying insignificant territories in the lower mountainous belt to expand their distribution and habitat ranges considerably. The forecasted decrease in the quantity of precipitation will not hinder this process. These 8 species represent as a whole a threat to natural ecosystems and biodiversity, it is hence necessary to design and implement preventive measures. Introduction Armenia is a South Caucasian republic, neighbouring Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran. It is a landlocked country with a total area of 29,740 km2, at a distance of about 145 km from the Black Sea and 175 km from the Caspian Sea. It is mountainous country, having its lowest point at 375 m above sea level and culminating at 4095 m, with an average altitude of 1850 m. Variations in altitude have important effects on the climatic and landscape zones, and consequently on the vegetation of the country. In Armenia practically all main climate types from dry subtropical to cold alpine are observed. Rainfall is distributed unevenly with an average of 592 mm, in Ararat valley and Meghri region it is only 200-250 mm, while more than 1000 mm are recorded at the highest altitudes. The flora and vegetation of Armenia are very rich and diverse. More than 3600 species of vascular plants are present (123 of them are narrow local endemics), and all main vegetation types of the Caucasus are registered (excluding vegetation of wet subtropics). Changes (e.g. changes in the use of the landscape, road constructions, urbanization, etc.) are occurring fast and are seriously threatening both environment and accordingly human living conditions and the biodiversity including plant species and ecosystems as a whole. Current preliminary list of invasive alien and expanding species involves more than 100 taxa (Fayvush, 2008; Tamanyan, 2008). We have included in this list: (1) four species which are ab origine in Armenia, which in the last years enlarged considerably their range in Armenia and that 139 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

are known as invasive alien species in different countries of the World; and (2) four invasive alien species, which occurred in Armenia in the last 5 decades. We modeled potential shifts of distribution of 8 plant species according to different scenarios of climate change using the softwares DIVA-GIS and Bioclim. Those 8 species where chosen as a first examples, the work with other species will be continued. The main criterion for them was rather small area of current distribution and some time evidences of its enlargement in the last years. Modeling climate change in Armenia The climate change in the territory of Armenia is mostly conditioned by the influence of Global climate change. Climatologists have estimated possible temperature changes and amount of precipitation in the republic territory for the case scenarios of the greenhouse gas A2 and B2 emission for the period of 2030, 2070 and 2100 using MAGICC/SCENGEN (5.3v2) and PRECIS softwares. It was shown that by the end of 21st century the average temperature depending on the scenario can increase from 4,8 to 5,7 ˚С. Moreover the highest increase of the temperature is expected to be in the spring-summer period in the Southern and Central regions of the republic; the temperature increase in the North and East will be mild. The precipitation change forecast remains greatly indefinite – its decrease is supposed to be 1-27%. In the meantime a decrease of precipitation is expected in the summer period. In the fall-winter-spring period precipitation decrease is expected in foothills, but slight increase is expected in mountains (Second National report on Climate Change, 2010). Climate forecasts allow supposing the shift of the current ecological conditions up to 300-400 meters in the mountain profile and to the increase of the aridity both the whole republic territory and especially its foothills and lower regions. The climate change here will also allow disturbances in the sustainable natural ecosystems. Modeling the change of the spread of invasive alien and expanding plant species All ecosystems of Armenia have been under anthropogenic influence for millennia, but in earlier times low human population and traditional regulated use of natural resources maintained the balance of ecosystems. Over the last 1000 years human impact on the land increased, mainly through deforestation and increased grazing pressure. The problems intensified since 1920 over recent years due to unprecedented population growth and urbanisation. The main consequence was loss of natural woodlands, grasslands and wetlands due to agriculture and overgrazing, urbanisation and road building, drainage and flooding, and afforestation. During last years (since 1992) the economic and energy crisis mainly endangered Armenia‘s forests. Poor forest management combined with illegal wood cutting for fuel and construction has damaged about 10% of the total forest area. At the same time, overgrazing has destroyed the grasslands surrounding the villages and degraded the formerly unspoilt pastures of remote mountains. Unfortunately, negative influence on the natural ecosystems continues to be the case nowadays. If at least some semblance of the order exists in Armenia in the forestry sector, the development of the mineral resource industry related to the open-cast mines of the natural mineral resources, infrastructure development and building of enormous number of accessory communications leads to degradation and full destroying of the natural ecosystems. 140 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The Global climate change has its effect on occurring processes and also facilitates the spread of invasive alien species, changing existing ecosystems and creating new ecological niches which are becoming easily occupied by the species with large ecological amplitudes. In the meantime, the threat for many plant species consists in climate change itself – as changed conditions will not allow them to find appropriate niches and will lead to their total disappearance. The new edition of the Red Book of Armenia (2010) includes 452 species of plants, which are under threat due to the various reasons. For approximately one third of them climate change is the threat for their existence. Regarding invasive alien species having large ecological amplitude and easily adjusting to the new conditions, climate change will enlarge the possible area of distribution of many thermophilic invasive alien plants, which grow at present on restricted territory of the lower mountain belt in Armenia.. Here we present results of modeling the change of the spread of 8 invasive and expanding plant species. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle is a very aggressive invasive species originating from Asia. It was introduced in 1940s for planting in settlements of Armenia. Then it escaped and in 1970s was found in disturbed and seminatural areas in neighborhood of different cities and towns. The distribution of this species in Armenia is shown in figure 1. These territories are still of limited distribution. The black territories show a possible spread of A. altissima to additional natural habitats. Ailanthus is quite hygrophilous, and forecasts of climate change only suggest increase of precipitation amounts in some alpine regions which are not suitable for the species. Supposed natural habitat will be relatively restricted, although forecasted change of the climatic conditions will allow this species to enlarge the area of distribution on humid habitats. Astragalus galegiformis L. is an expanding species, native to Armenia and the Caucasus. The distribution and possible spread of this species is shown in figure 2. Only two populations of this species were known before the 1980s – in forest edges and along streams of mountain river in the Northern Armenia. The habitats that this species colonize (roadsides, abandoned fields, disturbed habitats as well as meadows and steppes) have largely expanded in last years, and new populations of the plant have been found forming mono-dominant communities. Climate change modeling shows that this species will expand the current occupied habitats even more and will occupy larger areas. The conditions will become favorable for this species practically in the whole territory of the republic and in case of the spread of the seeds to further distance, the distribution of this species will appear to be much larger. It is necessary to note that this forecast has already started to be confirmed, as during field surveys in 2009 and 2010 new large populations of the species were found. The quality of pastures penetrated by this species is decreasing very rapidly. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. – this Mediterranean species was known as weed on the territories of Georgia and Azerbajdzhan. In the first time it was found in 1967 in the South Armenia along roadside. Since then its range enlarged, and new populations were found in North and South Armenia (fig.3). Now it grows not only in disturbed areas, along roadside, in abandoned fields and in orchards, but also in natural communities – steppes and shibliak. Further spread of this species is forecasted. 141 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 1 - Distribution of Ailanthus altissima in Armenia (white-colored area – current situation, black – predicted distribution)

Figure 2 - Distribution of Astragalus galegiformis in Armenia (white triangles – habitats known before 1980th, black-colored areas – current situation, grey shaped territory – predicted distribution) 142 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 3 - Distribution of Silybum marianum in Armenia (white-colored areas – current situation, black – predicted distribution)

Figure 4 - Predicted distribution of Robinia pseudoacacia in the Caucasus according to Kikodze et al., 2009) 143 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Robinia pseudoacacia L. originates from North-America and was used in artificial plantations in Armenia very broadly, especially along roads. At present it shows a weak invasive potential, but grows along streams and on wetlands in North and South-East Armenia. Kikodze et al. (2009) forecast the spread of this species in Armenia in the Ararat valley (fig.4). The present study disagrees with the forecast of Kikodze et al. (2009) in this part of the country since it is supposed that precipitation will decrease in most of Armenia, while this species is relatively hygrophilous. The current habitats invaded by this species and forecasted further spread are shown in the fig. 5. It supposes further spread of the species only in the North and South-East of the country where insignificant change of precipitation is expected. Clematis orientalis L. – native expanding species (it is known from Armenia, the Caucasus, Anatolia and Central Asia) was considered a rare species in Armenia (was even included in the Red book of Armenia, 1989). This plant currently spreads intensively in the central and southern parts of Armenia, showing a strong expanding potential. The habitats it colonizes which were known before 1990 and predicted distribution are shown on the map (fig 6). This liana used trees and shrubs mainly along rivers as natural habitat. Now besides that number of populations and area of distribution of this species are increased, the number of plants in known populations is extremely high, and sometimes it covers the ground along road and river sides.

Figure 5 - Current and predicted distribution of Robinia pseudoacacia in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution) 144 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 6 - Current and predicted distribution of Clematis orientalis in Armenia (white triangles – habitats known before 1990, black – predicted distribution) Tanacetum vulgare L. is wide distributed in Temperate Eurasia, including the Caucasus, but was recorded in a few number of collections from disturbed habitats from northern part of Armenia (fig7). During the last years new big populations have registered in the North and South of Armenia (besides roadsides it was registered in steppes and meadows on forest edges). Further expansion of this species is forecasted.

Figure 7 - Current and predicted distribution of Tanacetum vulgare in Armenia (whitecolored area – distribution of the species before 2000; black – predicted distribution) 145 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. & Gray (fig.8) and Impatiens glandulifera Royle (fig.9) – are widespread invasive species in Europe (www.nobanis.org). Currently suitable habitats are known predominantly in the North of Armenia. Climate change could allow those species to spread in Northern parts of Armenia where rather high amount of precipitation will remain.

Figure 8 - Distribution of Echinocystis lobata in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution)

Figure 9 - Distribution of Impatiens glandulifera in Armenia (white triangles – current habitats, black area – predicted distribution) 146 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Conclusions Preliminary results of the research on invasive alien and native expanding species started in Armenia in last years emphasize the importance of the problem. First of all it is necessary to monitor the current distribution of investigated species, which will provide the basis for the evaluation of their impacts on the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. The research carried out has shown the possibility of forecasting the changes in distribution of invasive alien and expanding native species in relation to climate change. These forecasts will also allow prioritizing species for estimating the level of the future threat to the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. References

Fayvush G (2008) Investigation of invasive plant species in Armenia. Abstr. of 5th European conference on biological invasions “Neobiota: towards a synthesis”, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p.72. Kikodze D, Memiadze N, Kharazishvilii D, Manvelidze Z, Mueller-Schaerer H (2009) The alien flora of Georgia. Tbilisi. Red Data Book of Armenian SSR (Plants) (1989). Yerevan. Second National Communication of the Republic of Armenia under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (2010) Yerevan. Tamanyan K (2008) Invasive plant species and agriculture in Armenia. Abstr. of 5th European conference on biological invasions “Neobiota: towards a synthesis”, Prague (Czech Republic), 23-26 September 2008, p. 114. Tamanyan K, Fayvush G, Nanagyulyan S, Danielyan T (eds.) (2010) The Red Book of plants of Armenian Republic (higher plants and fungi). Yerevan.


Noxious and invasive weeds in Greece: Current status and legislation P C Lolas Professor, University of Thessaly, Dep. Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment, Fytoko Str, GR-384 46, Volos, Greece, E-mail: [email protected] Weeds, generally, are a major limiting factor in crop production almost in any agroecosystem. However, not all weeds are equally aggressive and important. Noxious and invasive alien weeds are two groups of weeds that not only threaten agricultural production but also in many cases cause serious economic, social and environmental losses. Invasive alien weeds and generally invasive alien plants damage native ecosystems as well. The importance of these weeds has been recognized in the U.S.A. and ‗‘noxious weed lists‘‘ with relevant legislation have been established by the United State Department of Agriculture and most U.S.A. States. Similarly, Australia and N. Zealand developed such lists and legislation (declared species). Also, in these and a number of other countries there are lists of invasive weeds and a lot of research is conducted. Despite all this, it is important to notice that in the EC and in Greece there is no any legislation concerning noxious and invasive weeds. Directive 2000/29/EC as amended by Directive 2009/118/EC concerning introduction into the EC of organisms harmful to plants or plant products does not include weeds. The EPPO Alert List is an indicative list developed by an international organization and not a mandatory legislation of the EC or of a Member State. Examples of local weeds to be characterized in Greece as noxious (Orobanche spp., Solanum eleagnifolium, Solanum rostratum), new weeds introduced in Greece (Ipomoea hederacea, Sida spinosa), or weeds (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Solanum carolinense, Striga spp.) to be excluded from entering Greece are given. Due to the fact that there is no any national or EC legislation concerning noxious and invasive weeds such a legislation is urgently needed and suggested. The Greek Weed Science Society initiated a study to suggest to the Greek Department of Agriculture lists of noxious and invasive weeds in Greece. Noxious and invasive alien weeds importance Weeds constitute a significant limiting factor in crop production in almost all agroecosystems. Nowadays introductions of many plant species beyond their natural range are rising sharply because of increased trade, transport, travel and tourism, all associated with globalization. However, weeds are not equal in their importance and aggressiveness. Two groups of weeds that not only threaten agricultural production but cause also in many cases serious economic, social and environmental losses are noxious weeds and invasive alien weeds. Invasive alien plants damage native ecosystems as well. In the U.S.A. it is estimated that each year more than $1.3 billion are spent to fight noxious weeds and invasive alien plants are considered as the second great threat to the forests, after fire (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). Sala et al. (2000) 148 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

considered invasive alien species to be the second cause of global biodiversity loss after direct habitat destruction and to be among the top drivers of global environmental change. The importance of invasive alien plants has also been recognized by EPPO, and Alert Lists of invasive alien plant species have been developed (www.eppo.org). Estimates of losses due to noxious and / or invasive alien plants are not available for Greece. Indicative of the significance of noxious and invasive weeds are the noxious weed lists developed not only by the USDA Department of Agriculture (Federal List) but also by most U.S.A. States (State Lists), Australia and New Zealand (declared species), South Africa ( major invaders, emerging invaders), and a number of other countries. To prevent and/or limit the impact of these weeds, considerable effort is allocated not only for their control but for research as well. Defining Noxious and Invasive alien weeds In this paper the meaning of noxious and invasive weeds follow the definitions of Radosevich et al. (2007), and Weber (2003). Noxious weed means any living stage, such as seeds and reproductive parts, of any parasitic or other plant of a kind, which is of foreign origin, is new to or not widely prevalent in an agroecosystem, and can directly or indirectly injure crops, other useful plants, livestock, or poultry or other interests of agriculture, including irrigation, navigation, the fish or wildlife resources or the public health (www.plants.usda. gov/java/noxious). Invasive alien weeds are species that do not naturally occur in a specific area (ecosystem) and whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). A discussion with comments on the definition of invasive plants can be found in Brunel & Tison (2005). Also well recognized definitions of an invasive alien species is given by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Invasive alien species is an alien species (a species, subspecies, or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce), whose introduction and/or spread threaten biological diversity (www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7197) Status in countries other than Greece Noxious and Invasive weeds regulations in the U.S.A. There are national and State (more than 40) lists for noxious weeds (www.plants.usda.gov/java/noxiousDriver). The species, the number (from 2 in one State to 242 in California) and the characterization such as category A, B, C, or Primary, Secondary or simply Noxious or Restricted, differ from State to State. It is also important to notice that the same weed is noxious in one State but it is not in another and in the U.S.A list. In North Carolina and California where climatic conditions and weeds resemble those in Greece, noxious weeds are grouped in three categories, as A- not currently present or distribution is still limited (e.g. Avena sterilis), as B- distribution is still limited to portion of State (e.g. Tribulus terrestris), or as Ceither already widespread or of special interest (e.g. Tribulus terrestris in California). In California, some weeds (both native or alien) listed as noxious are Cynodon dactylon – (C), 149 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

(present in other 38 States, noxious only in one, California), Avena sterilis (quarantine, present in 5 States, noxious in 9 States and U.S.A list), Cardaria draba –(C), Cirsium arvense –(B), Cyperus spp.-(B) (present in 21 States, noxious in 4), Convolvulus arvensis –(C), (in 21 States), Sonchus spp. –A, Solanum eleagnifolium – B. All these weeds are very common and troublesome in Greece and it is suggested to be included in a noxious weed list in Greece. Noxious and invasive alien weeds regulations in Australia- New South Wales About two-thirds (1831) of the established alien plants in the Australian environment are escaped plants from gardens. They contribute substantially to the estimated $4 billion annual costs caused by weeds in agricultural ecosystems in Australia (Groves et al., 2005). As an example, in New South Wales the noxious weeds are regulated by the Noxious Weed Act 1993 as amended in 2006. According to this regulation, noxious weeds (429 species) are grouped in 5 control classes (see the website of the Department of Primary Industry of New South Wales for further information) Class 1, State Prohibited Weeds, Class 2, Regionally Prohibited Weeds, Class 3, Regionally Controlled Weeds, Class 4, Locally Controlled Weeds, Class 5 Restricted plants. Class 1 and 2 weeds must be eradicated, Class 3 weeds must be continuously suppressed and destroyed, not propagated, not moved in other places, while Class 4 weeds are managed according to local Governments. For Class 5 weeds restrictions on their sale and movement are imposed. EPPO regulations EPPO elaborates lists of pests (including weeds and invasive alien species) whose regulation is relevant for the whole, or large parts of the EPPO region (www.eppo.org). The List A1 includes pests not present in the EPPO region. The List A2 refers to pests present in the EPPO region but not widely distributed as absent from or not widely distributed in endangered areas in certain countries. Solanum eleagnifolium included in the A2 List is a weed present in Greece. Other EPPO Lists refer to invasive species including also the weeds Cyperus esculentus, Oxalis pes-caprae, Sicyos angulatus present in Greece. It is important, however, to notice that the EPPO Alert Lists are indicative lists developed by EPPO experts and not a mandatory legislation of the EC or of a Member State. Noxious and invasive weeds legislation in the E.U. Based on existing legislation, regulations and Directives (see below), one could say that in Europe, invasive alien plant species are considered not to constitute such a serious problem as in the United States, Australia, South Africa and other parts of the world. However, their negative economic, social and environmental impact is often highly damaging and likely to increase as a consequence of climate change, mobility of populations, transportation, increased tourism and travel activities, globalization of trade, and especially the opening of EU borders. Miller et al. (2006) provide a review of the existing legal and policy framework for Invasive Alien Species at international, EU and Member State levels. The authors, based on the information on the existing international, EU and national legal/policy frameworks, identify gaps in the existing EU invasive alien species legislation and make recommendations for filling such 150 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

gaps. At the national level, some countries (Germany, Great Britain, Portugal) have legislation and/or regulations aimed at preventing possession, transport, trade or release in the wild of specific invasive alien plants (www.issg.org). Information may be found either from National Plant Protection Organizations (i.e. Ministries of Agriculture) or from Ministries of Environment in individual countries. Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC The Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC provides amongst other provisions that individuals in general should be aware that under this Directive, deliberate introduction into the wild of non native species is regulated or prohibited, so as not to prejudice natural habitats or the wild native fauna and flora. The Directive has no any special statement for weeds generally and especially for noxious or invasive alien plants. Plant health Directive- EC Directive 2000/29 (amended by Directive 2002/89/EC) The Plant Health Directive concerns the ‗‘protective measures against the introduction into the Community of organisms harmful to plants or plant products and against their spread within the Community‘‘. Article 2 defines that the harmful organisms shall be considered to mean any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. One of the most important measures in the Directive consists in listing the particularly dangerous harmful organisms whose introduction into the Community must be prohibited and also the harmful organisms whose introduction into the Member States when carried by certain plants or plant products must also be prohibited (listed in Annexes I-VII of the Directive). It is very important to notice and underline the fact that the Directive includes in the meaning of harmful organisms certain insects, mites, nematodes, bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, but no weeds, except the parasitic plant Arceuthobium spp. originating out of Europe (Annex Ι Part Α). Recommendation 126/Council of Europe The recommendation was decided in the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Council of Europe) based on previous recommendations and on Article 8.h and Decision VI/23 of the 6th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Recommendation suggests to contracting Parties 1. eradication of invasive alien plants which are not widespread and represent a threat at the regional scale or, when the invasion is taken at a late stage, containment or management action (appendix 1), 2. consider taking similar action against alien plant species having a high capacity of spread and presenting a very limited distribution (appendix 2). Plant species for which eradication or containment is recommended in Mediterranean countries are the weed Solanum eleagnifolium present in Greece and two alien species Hydrocotyle ranunculoides, Pueraria lobata not reported yet in Greece. European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species A number of European States have agreed to and approved the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species concerning principles on invasive alien species which was approved by the Convention on Biological Diversity (Genovesi & Shine, 2004). Notice that it is not a legislation to be implemented and also does not explicitly refers to noxious weeds.


Noxious and Invasive weeds legislation in Greece In Greece, as in other countries in Europe, the importance of noxious and / or invasive alien weeds and their serious negative impacts not only in agro ecosystems but also in natural ecosystems has not yet been realized. This can be inferred from the absence of any legislation or regulations for these two weed categories. The Presidential law 365/2002 adopts and complies with Directive EC Directive 2000/29. There is no any provision and /or criteria for characterizing, preventing introduction or eradicating noxious and / or invasive weeds. Therefore it is obvious that for these weeds it is essential that not only Greece but also EC centrally and the Member States (MS) adopt and harmonize all the necessary measurements for management of these weeds regarding characterization (Lists), prevention of their introduction from third countries, between MS, spreading inside of each MS, and of course the eradication in cases it is feasible economically and agriculturally (for example parasitic weeds not possible to be controlled by other means). List of proposed noxious alien weeds present in Greece In Greece more than 150 plant species are considered as important weeds causing economic losses (Lolas 2007). However, as already mentioned above there is not yet any legislation/regulation or official definition or List of noxious weeds in Greece. Arianoutsou et al. (2010) assessed 343 plant species as alien flora of Greece and its traits with no reference specifically to weeds, noxious or invasive. However, of the 343 alien taxa presented, 26 species characterized by the authors as naturalized alien species and of them, 13 with invasive behavior are included in the list of common weeds in Greece (Greek Weed Science Society). The authors report also that the species Oxalis pes-caprae, Erigeron (Conyza) bonariensis and Amaranthus albus, considered as weeds (Greek Weed Science Society), are typical cases of plants characterised as invasive, having established in almost all the habitat groups identified. It is interesting to note that 8 of the 13 species characterised by Arianoutsou et al. (2010) with invasive behaviour are proposed below to be included in the list of noxious weeds in Greece. More and specific information on invasive alien plant species for Europe and Greece can be found in the site of DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway (www.europe-aliens.org) Data on the environmental/economic impact for Oxalis pes-caprae as alien plant can be found in Vilà et al (2006) and as weed in Damanakis & Markaki (1990), while for the weeds Ipomoea hederacea, Panicum dichotomifolium and Sicyos angulatus in Anagnou-Veroniki et al. (2008) and for Galinsoga ciliata, Sida spinosa in Limperopoulou & Giannopolitis (2009). The weed species reported by Anagnou-Veroniki et al. (2008) and Limperopoulou & Giannopolitis (2009), known as very serious weeds in the USA, are currently under acclimatization in Greece but not widespread yet. The Greek Weed Science Society accepted the suggestion of the author to develop a List of weeds considered to be noxious under the conditions in Greece. Main criteria for a weed to be included in the List were competitiveness, ecological impact, propagation mechanism, control difficulty, extent of distribution, and in case of invasive weeds also their biological potential for invasion. The List will be sent to the Greek Ministry of Agriculture with the suggestion to develop relevant regulations. Some weeds (native and alien) that are proposed to be included in this List are: Ambrosia artemisiifolia (present but not yet widespread, Arianoutsou et al., 2010, Bergmeier, 2008) Cuscuta campestris, Orobanche spp., Ampelamus albidus, Arundo donax, Asphodelus aestivus, Avena sterilis, Carduus nutans, Centaurea diffusa, Centaurea solstitialis, Cirsium arvense, Conyza bonariensis, Conyza canadensis, Cyperus rotundus, Equisetum spp., Euphorbia nutans (present but not yet 152 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

widespread), Imperata cylindrica, Opuntia spp., Oryza sativa (red rice), Oxalis pes-caprae, Phragmites australis, Pteridium aquilinum, Solanum eleagnifolium, Solanum rostratum and Xanthium spinosum. All these weeds meet the above mentioned three criteria, are very common and troublesome causing serious losses in the habitats in which they are present (arable land, orchards, pastures, or natural ecosystems) and are reported as noxious in some other countries. List of proposed noxious alien weeds not present in Greece Some species, among many others, considered to be potentially noxious if they enter Greece are:Acroptilon repens, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea spp. (except I. hederacea), Parthenium hysterophorus, Solanum carolinense, Solanum torvum, Solanum viarum, Striga spp. (holoparasite with no practically effective control method).These and other weeds are found in climates and habitats very similar to those in Greece, and it is therefore expected that any of them intentionally or unintentionally introduced in Greece would establish and spread to become serious and troublesome weeds in anthropogenic and /or natural ecosystems as in their original habitat. List of potential invasive alien weeds in Greece Although it is difficult to determine which biological characteristics are good indicators of invasiveness and there are no generally recognized characteristics that apply to plants that become invasive, such species often have some of the following characteristics: rapid growth and reproduction, ability to colonize disturbed or weedy areas, short growth cycle, early flowering and seeding, production of large quantities of seeds, effective vegetative propagation and spread, different phenology from native species allowing them to be strong competitors and to dominate. Many weeds share part of these characteristics that predispose them to becoming invasive (Dehnen-Schmutz, et al., 2007). Plants with some of the above features can be considered as potentially invasive. Some of these plants not yet present in Greece are Acroptilon repens, Cenchrus incertus (already present, Arianoutsou et al., 2010) Centaurea maculosa, C. iberica, Conyza albida, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea spp. (except I. hederacea), Parthenium hysterophorus, Pueraria montana, Senna spp., Sesbania spp. This is not a conclusive list. Obviously, many other plant species may find their way to arrive in the country and become invasive. Some weeds are considered as both noxious not present in Greece and potentially invasive because they are reported as noxious in their original habitat and one cannot exclude the fact that these weeds may find their way, for example through seed lots, to arrive in Greece as it happened with so many other alien species until now. For certain weeds, as for example Striga spp. it is essential that all measures are taken so that the absolute prevention of its introduction in Greece be possible, or it is eradicated at its first observation before it spreads. Conclusions Noxious and invasive alien weeds constitute a serious threat to productivity in agro ecosystems and natural ecosystems. Local, national, European, and international coordinated action is needed to minimize their negative economic, social and environmental effects. It is now the time that EU and particularly Greece ensure legislation and regulations for noxious and invasive alien weeds so as to prevent and/or limit the introduction and spread of these plants and any other that are potentially invasive because of their known behaviour and negative impact elsewhere. 153 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Acknowledgments Sarah Brunel, Giuseppe Brundu and Ilhan Uremis are greatly acknowledged for their very useful, constructive and detailed comments which improved considerably the manuscript. References

Anagnou-Veroniki M, Papaioannou –Souliotis P, Karanastasi E, & Giannopolitis CN (2010) New records of plant pests and weeds in Greece, 1990-2007 Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 1, 55-78 Arianoutsou M, Bazos I, Delipetrou P. & Kokkoris Y (2010) The alien flora of Greece: taxonomy, life traits and habitat preferences. Biology Invasions 12, 3525–3549 Bergmeier E (2008) Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.; Hesperis matronalis subsp. cladotricha (Borbαs) Hayek. In: Greuter, W. & Raus, Th. (eds.), Med-Checklist Notulae, 27. – Willdenowia 38, 466-467. Brunel S & Tison JM (2005) A method of selection and hierarchisation of the invasive and potentially invasive plants in the continental Mediterranean France. p 49-64 In Brunel S (ed). Invasive plants in the Mediterranean type regions of the world. Proceedings, pp. 428 Damanakis M, & Markaki M (1990) Studies on the biology of Oxalis pes-caprae L. under field conditions in Greece. Zizaniology 2, 145-154 Dehnen-Schmutz K, Touza A, Perrings C. & Williamson M. (2007). The horticultural trade and ornamental plant invasions in Britain. Conservation Biology 21, 224–231. Genovesi P. & Shine C. 2004. European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species. Nature and Environment n 137. Council of Europe publishing, Strasbourg, pp 67. Groves RH, Boden R & Lonsdale WM (2005) Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive garden plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts, a CSIRO report for WWF-Australia. 173. Kaufman SR & Kaufman W. (2007) Invasive plants. A Guide to Identification and the Impacts and Control of Common North American Species Stackpole books, pp.458. Lolas P (2007) Weed Science, Weeds, Herbicides, Fate and behaviour in the environment, Synchrony paideia, Thessaloniki, pp. 628. Lymperopoulou S. & Giannopolitis CN 2009) Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) S.F.Blake and Sida spinosa L., two new weed records from Greece. Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 2, 37-4 Miller, C, Kettunen, M. & Shine C. (2006) Scope options for EU action on invasive alien species (IAS) Final report for the European Commission. Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels, Belgium. 109 pp + Annexes. Radosevich, SR, Holt, J S & Ghersa C M (2007) Biology of weeds and invasive plants. 3d ed. Wiley, pp. 454. Sala OE, Chapin III FS, Armesto JJ, Berlow R, Bloomfield J, Dirzo R, Huber-Sanwald E, Huenneke LF, Jackson RB, Kinzig A, Leemans R, Lodge D, Mooney HA, Oesterheld M, Poff NL, Sykes MT, Walker BH, Walker M, & Wall DH (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770-1774 Vilà M, Tessier M, Suehs CM, Brundu G, Carta L, Galanidis A, Lambdon P, Manca M, Medail F, Moragues E, Traveset A, Troumbis AY, Hulme PE (2006) Local and regional assessments of the impacts of plant invaders on vegetation structure and soil properties of Mediterranean islands. Journal of Biogeography 33, 853–861 Weber E (2003) Invasive plant species of the world. A reference guide to Environmental weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford Internet sites, (date of consultation, 12/12/2010) CBD, www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7197 Council of Europe, https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=Rec(2007)126&Language=lanEnglish&Ver= original&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=DBDCF2&BackColorIntranet=FDC864&BackColorLogged=FDC864 DAISIE, www.europe-aliens.org Dep. of Primary Industry of New South Wales www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pests-weeds/weeds/definition EPPO, www.eppo.org ; GISD, www.issg.org/database/reference/index.asp Greek Weed Science Society, www.eze.org.gr IPCC, www.ipcc.ch/pdf/glossary/ar4-wg2.pdf ; USDA, www.plants.usda. gov/java/noxious


A tales of two islands: comparison between the exotic flora of Corsica and Sardinia Daniel Jeanmonod 1and Giuseppe Brundu 2 1

Laboratory of Plant systematic and biodiversity, University of Geneva, Conservatoire et jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève, Switzerland E-mail : [email protected] 2 Department of Botany, Ecology and Geology, University of Sassari, Italy E-mail: [email protected] (Presenting author)

Alien plant species have been introduced to Europe throughout history. There are regions, such as the Mediterranean basin islands, where for thousands of years man has been responsible for the spread of ever-increasing numbers of plants taxa, introduced for different purposes or quite often entered accidentally and rarely controlled. The two geographically close islands of Corsica and Sardinia share similar features concerning the geological history, the native vegetation, the endemism rate and the land use dynamics in the coastal areas and surrounding islets. Nevertheless there are also specific differences, mainly in the inner mountain areas, where average altitude is markedly higher in Corsica than in Sardinia. These insular systems represent a local hotspot for native biodiversity and an area of international interest for habitats and nature conservation. Coastal areas of both islands also share similar features concerning the composition of their exotic floras and the distribution patterns and impacts of the main invasive aliens, such as Carpobrotus spp., Cortaderia selloana, Oxalis pes-caprae, to mention a few. Due to the geographical position, the two islands are in fact interconnected and there are frequent trade exchanges and tourism flux between them, thus increasing the probability for similar sensitive habitats to be invaded by the same invasive taxa. In this paper we compare the naturalised and casual alien plants of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, highlighting common features and the main differences, with some indications for management.


Nouvelle espèce menaçant la biodiversité au Maroc: Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) A Taleb, M Bouhache & B El Mfadi Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, B.P. 6202 Rabat-Instituts, Rabat, Maroc, Emails : [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray est une plante exotique récemment introduite au Maroc. Elle a envahi totalement le périmètre de Souss–Massa (région d‘Agadir) et depuis, elle s'est propagée vers d'autres régions : Safi, Rabat, Larache, Sefrou, Fès. Le présent travail a été entrepris dans le but d'évaluer l'état d'infestation, de décrire les caractéristiques morphoécologiques de V. encelioides, de faire le point sur les dangers inhérents à cette nouvelle plante et d‘étudier le comportement des akènes vis-à-vis de certaines variantes de l'environnement : la température, la photopériode, le stress hydrique et la profondeur d'enfouissement. Les enquêtes ont permis de mettre en relief l'importance sa présence dans des milieux plus ou moins perturbés par l'homme ainsi que son effet attractif sur la mouche blanche. Le test de viabilité a révélé une moyenne de 92% d‘akènes viables. La cinétique d‘imbibition est rapide et importante pendant les premières 12 heures d‘incubation et elle se ralentit au delà. Les essais de germination ont démontré la capacité des akènes à germer dans la gamme thermique allant de 8þC à 35þC avec un optimum de 15þC/25þC, et une indifférence totale vis-à-vis de la lumière. Aussi, la diminution du potentiel hydrique jusqu‘à -0,6 MPa n‘affecte pas la capacité de germination des akènes. Cependant, la diminution du potentiel hydrique de -0,6 MPa à -1,3 MPa engendre une chute du pourcentage de germination. L‘émergence des plantules a été remarquée jusqu‘à 3,5 cm de profondeur. Le maximum des émergences a été enregistré à la profondeur de 1,5 cm suivie par 0 et 2,5 cm et 3,5 cm de profondeur. A partir de 7 cm de profondeur, aucune plantule n‘émerge ? Concerne sa croissance et son développement, V. encelioides parvient à accomplir son cycle de développement, de l‘émergence à la maturité des premiers akènes, en 80 jours. Durant son cycle, elle favorise la croissance de la partie aérienne et elle investit plus dans la formation de la tige et des rameaux dans un premier temps, les inflorescences apparaissent ensuite à partir du stade floraison. La production des semences est importante et échelonnée dans le temps. Introduction A l‘instar des autres pays du bassin méditerranéen, le Maroc n‘est pas à l‘abri des invasions biologiques. Ces dernières années a en effet été noté l‘apparition de nouvelles espèces au sein de la flore marocaine (Ameur & Bouhache, 1994; Qorchi & Taleb, 1997; Tanji & Taleb, 1997; Taleb & Bouhache, 2005). 156 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray a été introduite au Maroc et spécialement dans la région du Souss (Agadir) vers les années 90. C‘est une espèce dotée d‘une large amplitude écologique. Elle s‘accommode avec sa nouvelle aire d‘introduction et s‘y propage naturellement (Kaul et Mangal, 1987). La première phase de son invasion est agressive et rapide grâce à sa capacité à fleurir et à produire des semences durant toute l‘année (Tuvia, 1998). Elle commence par l‘occupation des terrains incultes et les bordures de routes et s‘étend ensuite aux terrains cultivés, toutes cultures confondues (Kaul & Mangal, 1987; Tuvia, 1998). C‘est une plante annuelle, nitrophile, mésotherme, caractérisée par une grande souplesse et une grande plasticité de germination et de croissance. Dans son aire d‘origine, elle pousse dans différents types de sols et sous des conditions de température et d‘humidité très variables (Kaul & Mangal, 1987). V. encelioides occasionne des nuisances diverses. En plus de la compétition avec d‘autres plantes (Grichar & Sestak, 1998), elle peut exercer un effet allélopathique en libérant des toxines dans le sol (Usha, 1987). Elle est aussi hautement toxique vis-à-vis du bétail en provoquant un arrêt rapide de la respiration (Baker et al., 1992; Campero et al., 1996). Néanmoins, le danger le plus redoutable est celui de la transmission du virus de la maladie bronzée de la tomate, TSWV. Elle héberge à la fois le virus et son vecteur, à savoir les thrips (Cho et al., 1988; Bautista & Mau, 1994; Forrest et al., 1996). Le TSWV s‘attaque à une large gamme d‘espèces d‘intérêt économique; les Solanaceae, les légumineuses, les plantes ornementales, etc. Cette maladie peut avoir un caractère épidémiologique et envahir des surfaces culturales très étendues (Forrest et al., 1996). Compte tenu de ces données et en absence de toute étude préalable sur cette espèce au Maroc, une étude a été entreprise dans le but d'évaluer l'état d'infestation, de décrire les caractéristiques morpho-écologiques de V. encelioides, de faire le point sur les dangers inhérents à cette nouvelle plante et d‘étudier le comportement des akènes vis-à-vis de certaines variantes de l'environnement: la température, la photopériode, le stress hydrique et la profondeur d'enfouissement. Historique Le genre Verbesina L. appartient à la famille des Asteraceae (Composées). Ce genre comprend plus de 60 espèces originaires principalement des régions chaudes (Amérique boréale et australe). Verbesina encelioides est connue sous plusieurs noms : Butteer daisy, Golden Crown daisy, Grown beard, American dogweed, South africain daisy. La plante a été décrite pour la première fois par le botaniste espagnol Antonio José Cavanilles (1745-1804) mais sous un autre genre. Après, Georges Benthan (1800-1884) et Hooker (18171911) ont placé la plante dans sa position taxonomique actuelle. Cependant, son nom n'a été publié officiellement qu'en 1876 quand le botaniste américain Asa Gray (1810-1888) l'a citée dans son article « Botany of California ».


Matériel et méthodes 1. Matériel végétal Pour les essais de viabilité, d‘imbibitions et de germination, les semences utilisées proviennent de la région d‘Agadir (Souss), et plus précisément des zones de Khmiss Aït Amira et de Biougra. La collecte est faite manuellement et d‘une manière aléatoire sur des pieds en fin de maturité. Après deux jours d‘exposition à l‘air libre au laboratoire afin d‘éliminer toute trace d‘eau à la surface des akènes, ces derniers ont été conservés dans des sachets en papier dans un milieu sec et à température ambiante jusqu'à leur utilisation. Il est à noter qu‘au sein de la zone de collecte, les prospections et les prélèvements ont été effectués dans différentes situations : terres incultes, champ de carotte, champ de maïs, serre vide, etc. Pour l‘étude morpho-écologique, les plantes ont été collectées dans les différentes régions du Maroc ou l‘espèce a été signalée. 2. Test de viabilité Ce test est entrepris dans le but d‘estimer le pourcentage des akènes viables et non viables au sein de 6 lots de 200 akènes, correspondant aux différentes stations de collecte. Pour la réalisation de ce test, nous avons utilisé le chlorure du tetrazolium à 1% (Chlorure de 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium). La viabilité des semences est appréciée d‘après la coloration rougeâtre de l‘embryon observé sous une loupe binoculaire. Les observations sont faites à un intervalle de 4 heures (Weber & Wiesner, 1980). 3. Test d’imbibition Il consiste à mettre les semences sur un papier filtre, Wathman Nþ1, qui surmonte une couche d‘éponge de 3 mm d‘épaisseur saturée d‘eau distillée. L‘ensemble est mis dans des boites de pétri préalablement stérilisées. Nous avons utilisé 4 lots de semences de 50 akènes qui ont été pesés au préalable. Des mesures de poids ont été faites après : 0,5 h, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 8 h, 10 h, 12 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, 60 h et 72 h du début de test. Le test d‘imbibition a été mené au laboratoire à température ambiante et dans des conditions hydriques non limitantes. 4. Essais de germination sous des conditions contrôlées : Ces essais ont été entrepris dans le but de mieux connaître le comportement et les exigences des akènes de V. encelioides vis-à-vis de la température, de la lumière et de l‘eau.


 Les régimes thermiques Dans le choix des régimes thermiques, nous avons essayé de respecter les critères suivants : - tester des degrés de température à l‘intérieur de la gamme permettant la germination de V. encelioides qui s‘étale de 5þC à 40þC (Mahmoud et al., 1984), ainsi que des extrêmes thermiques ; présenter trois régimes thermiques : froid (hiver), frais (printemps) et chaud (été).

-

La photopériode adoptée est de 12 h / 12 h. Traitements T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Température °C Jour 10 15 25 30 35 40

Nuit 8 10 15 17 20 22

 Les régimes hydriques Cet essai vise à étudier l‘effet du stress hydrique et la détermination du potentiel critique minimal permettant la germination des semences de V. encelioides dans des conditions spécifiques. Pour simuler les différents potentiels hydriques nous avons utilisé le polyéthylène glycol 20.000 (PEG 20.000). Le PEG 20.000 présente l‘avantage, par rapport aux autres agents osmotiques (i.e. les sels, monitol, etc.) d‘être inerte, non toxique, et non absorbable par les semences (Yessef, 1984). Les niveaux du potentiel hydrique adoptés sont les suivants (Yessef, 1984) : Solution S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Concentration du PEG en Potentiel hydrique g/l d’eau distillée (MPa) 0 -0.03 160 -0.3 210 -0.6 270 -0.9 340 -1.3

Potentiel hydrique (bar) -0.3 -3 -6 -9 -13

 Emergence à différentes profondeurs d’enfouissement Cet essai est conduit dans le but d‘étudier le comportement des akènes en termes d'émergence en fonction de la profondeur du semis. Il a été conduit dans une parcelle du jardin botanique de l‘Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II à Rabat.


Le semis a été fait dans des pots de 16 cm de diamètre et 22 cm de hauteur confectionnés à partir de bouteilles en plastique de 5 l perforées à leur base pour évacuer l‘excès d‘eau. Le sol a été stérilisé à l‘autoclave pendant 4 h, avec un intervalle de 24 h entre les 2 h, sous une pression de 1 bar. Les différentes profondeurs ont été choisies sur la base des études qui ont été faites par d‘autres auteurs, dans d‘autres conditions et avec des populations autochtones de V. encelioides, à savoir Kaul & Mangal, (1987). Les profondeurs de semis testées sont : 0 ; 1 ; 2,5 ; 3,5 ; 7 ; 14 et 20 cm.  Croissance et développement des plants de V. encelioides Le but de cet essai est de décrire la croissance et le développement des plants de V. encelioides à travers un ensemble d‘observations et de paramètres mesurés et calculés. Le semis a été fait à une profondeur de 2 cm dans des pots confectionnés, du même type que ceux de l‘essai précédent, à raison de 10 akènes par pots. La terre utilisée a été stérilisée au préalable à l‘autoclave. Une fois que les akènes ont germés et que les plantules se sont stabilisées, nous avons gardé une seule plantule par pot afin d‘éviter toute compétition pouvant s‘établir entre les plantules au dépend de leur croissance. Nous avons fixé cinq stades végétatifs comme repère pour faire les prélèvements et les observations: - Stade plantule. -

Stade rosette.

-

Stade redressement.

-

Stade floraison.

-

Stade maturité.

Résultats 1. Origine de son introduction V. encelioides a été rencontrée aux USA, en Argentine, au Mexique, au Moyen Orient, en Algérie (observée à Mostaganem en 1874 par Pomel et puis par D‘Alleizette en 1919) et au Maroc à la fin des années 90. Cette espèce n'a jamais été signalée dans le catalogue des plantes du Maroc (Jahandiez & Maire, 1931-1934). Elle vient s'ajouter aux 12 espèces introduites ces dernières années au Maroc (Tanji & Taleb, 1997 ; Taleb & Bouhache, 2005). L'origine de l‘introduction de V. encelioides est inconnue. Au Maroc, sa date d'apparition remonte à plus de 10 ans dans la zone de Souss–Massa (Sud du Maroc). Il est soupçonné qu'elle y ait été introduite comme plante ornementale. Les premiers foyers ont été constatés aux alentours de l'ancien aéroport d'Inzegane et puis elle a envahi tout le périmètre. Elle s'installe dans les entourages des habitations, les terrains incultes et les terrains cultivés. Certaines 160 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

personnes interrogées déclarent qu'elle aurait été introduite avec le fumier, d'autres ajoutent que les akènes sont disséminés par le vent et l'eau d'irrigation pompée à partir du barrage. 2. Description de la population marocaine de V. encelioides Des observations et des mesures effectuées sur un ensemble de pieds prélevés dans les différentes stations ont permis de décrire cette espèce végétale et de déterminer ses particularités. V. encelioides se présente comme une plante herbacée d'un vert grisâtre. La racine est pivotante pouvant dépasser les 30 cm de longueur, associée à un système de racines fasciculées très développé. A signaler, la présence, parfois, d'une racine latérale, de taille moyenne, prenant naissance à partir de la zone subérifiée de la racine principale et qui se développe juste au dessous de la surface du sol. La tige est très ramifiée et comporte jusqu'à 17 rameaux. Sa longueur atteint, pour certains pieds, les 130 cm. Les feuilles basales de la tige et des rameaux sont opposées, les autres sont alternes. Les capitules, ou inflorescences, se situent aux extrémités de la tige et des rameaux à différents degrés de maturité. Sur le même pied, on trouve des capitules immatures, d'autres en phase d'épanouissement et d'autres en début ou en fin de maturité des akènes. Ils sont supportés par des pédoncules dont la longueur varie en fonction de position des capitules, ceux du centre sont plus longs que les périphériques. Grossièrement, le nombre moyen des capitules par pieds est de 36, mais de 6 à 470 capitules ont été dénombrés. Chacun est constitué de deux types de fleurs : des fleurs périphériques, radiées, jaunes et triplement dentées dont le nombre varie de 13 à 21 par capitule ; et des fleurs centrales, tubulées, et hermaphrodites constituées par un long tube partiellement soudé. Leur nombre varie de 145 à 200, avec une moyenne de 167. Chacune de ces fleurs tubulées est associée à une écaille qui s'attache à sa base. L'ensemble est inséré au niveau du réceptacle floral. Les deux types de fleurs produisent des akènes. Les akènes issus des fleurs radiées sont noirs, côniformes et allongés, non ailés, durs avec une surface rigoureuse et mesurent environ 4 mm de longueur. En revanche, les akènes issus des fleurs tubulées sont pourvus de deux ailes de couleur beige claire. Leur nombre peut dépasser les 200 akènes par capitule avec une moyenne de 180. Il existe un polymorphisme relativement léger chez ce type d'akènes, on y trouve des akènes possédant trois, quatre, ou cinq ailes. 3. Infestation et répartition Les enquêtes ont permis de mettre en relief l'importance de l'infestation et de la présence de la plante dans des milieux plus ou moins perturbés par l'homme ainsi que son effet attractif sur la mouche blanche. V. encelioides se rencontre dans les régions de Souss (Agadir), de Safi (Had Hrara), de Taroudant, de Rabat (région de Témara), d‘Assila, de Larache, de Tétouan (Nord du Maroc), de Marrakech et de l‘Oriental. 4. Importance agronomique Des enquêtes lors des relevés ont montré que V. enceloides commence à envahir les champs cultivés (maïs, cultures sous serres). De plus, elle est susceptible de constituer un réservoir pour une gamme diversifiée d'agents de maladies et de viroses de plusieurs plantes cultivées, à savoir : - Cucumber mosaic (cucumovirus), -

Dahlia mosaic (caulimovirus), 161 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

-

Hogweed mosaic nepovirus),

-

Pepper veinal mottle (potyvirus),

-

Strawberry latent ringspot (nepovirus),

-

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (Tospovirus)

Des études ont montré qu'au moment de la floraison, le thrips (Franfliniella occidentalis) préfère se nourrir et pondre sur V. encelioides plutôt que sur d'autres plantes comme Datura stramonium L., d'où le risque de transmission du Virus Tomato Spotted Wilt (Tospovirus) (Bautista & Mau, 1994; Bautista et al., 1995; Mitchell & Smith, 1996). De plus, V. enceloides a causé des cas de toxicité du bétail au Maroc cette année, ce qui a été rapporté aux USA (une dose de 5 g de solution de la plante par Kg de poids vif administré à un mouton le tue après 72 heures). Ainsi, l'animal intoxiqué présente les symptômes suivants : perturbation de la fonction respiratoire, -

forts exsudats des narines,

-

hydrothorax avec 2 à 3 l de liquide thoracique avec des traces de fibrine,

-

œdème dans les poumons.

Cette toxicité est due à la concentration (0,08%) de galégine dans la plante (Keeler et al., 1992; Lopez et al., 1996).

Figure 1 - Evolution du gain de poids relatif en fonction du temps pour les akènes de Verbesina encelioides


5. Test de viabilité Les pourcentages de viabilité (moyenne 92%) des akènes reflètent leur grande capacité germinative. Tenant compte de la production élevée par pied (moyenne de 6480 d‘akènes), nous pouvons déduire qu‘une fraction importante d‘akènes est viable et capable de germer lorsque les conditions environnementales sont adéquates. 6. Test d’imbibition Le processus d‘imbibition (d‘absorption d‘eau) est entamé dès le premier contact eau-akène. La cinétique d‘imbibition est rapide et importante pendant les premières 12 heures d‘incubation et elle se ralentit au-delà. Vers 72 heures, le gain de poids est de 2,7 fois (Fig. 1).

Figure 2 - Pourcentages cumulés de la germination des akènes en fonction de différents régimes thermiques (T1: 8þC/10þC; T2: 10þC/15þC; T3: 15°C/25°C; T4: 17þC/30þC; T5: 20þC/35þC) 7. Essais de germination en conditions contrôlées  Les régimes thermiques Ces essais ont été entrepris dans le but de mieux connaître le comportement et les exigences des akènes de V. encelioides vis-à-vis de la température, de la lumière et de l‘eau. Les essais de germination ont démontré la capacité des akènes à germer dans la gamme thermique allant de 8þC à 35þC avec un optimum de 15þC/25þC (Fig. 2) et une indifférence totale vis-à-vis de la lumière.  Les régimes hydriques La diminution du potentiel hydrique jusqu‘a -0,6 MPa n‘affecte pas la capacité de germination des akènes. Cependant, la diminution du potentiel hydrique de -0,6 MPa à -1,3 MPa engendre une chute du pourcentage de germination (Fig. 3).


Figure 3 - Evolution de la germination de Verbesina encelioides en fonction de la diminution du potentiel hydrique (à quoi correspondent S1, S2, S3, S4 et S5 ?)  Essai d'émergence à différentes profondeurs d’enfouissement En ce qui concerne la profondeur de semis, la levée des plantules a été initiée 8 jours après semis. Parmi les profondeurs testées, uniquement quatre se sont révélées positives vis-à-vis de l‘émergence (à 0 ; 1,5 ; 2,5 et 3,5 cm de profondeur) (Fig. 4). L‘émergence des plantules a été remarquée jusqu‘à 3,5 cm de profondeur. Le maximum des émergences a été enregistré au niveau de la profondeur 1,5 cm suivie par 0 et 2,5 cm et ensuite 3,5 cm. A partir de 7 cm de profondeur le pourcentage d‘émergence devient nulle.  Croissance et développement Concernant sa croissance et son développement, V. encelioides parvient à accomplir son cycle de développement, de l‘émergence à la maturité des premiers akènes, en 80 jours. Durant son cycle, elle favorise la croissance de la partie aérienne et elle investit plus dans la formation de la tige et des rameaux dans un premier temps, les inflorescences apparaissent ensuite à partir du stade floraison. Du 69 au 71ième jour approximativement, les premiers capitules éclos commencent à perdre les fleurs périphériques et la formation des akènes est entamée. Ainsi, la première vague des akènes mûrs est enregistrée 80 jours après l'émergence des plantules. La production des semences est importante et échelonnée dans le temps. Dans la plupart des zones prospectées, V. encelioides existe sous différents stades phénologiques ; du stade plantule au stade fin de maturité. Ceci témoigne de l'échelonnement de la croissance et du développement de cette espèce et de sa capacité à germer, à fleurir et à produire des semences tout au long de l'année. 164 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 4 - Evolution des pourcentages d‘émergence de Verbesina encelioides en fonction de la profondeur du semis Discussion L‘extrapolation de ces résultats de terrain met en les possibilités d‘établissement et de prolifération de V. enceloides. En se basant sur le classement des différentes régions du Maroc dans le système climatique d‘Emberger, on constate que le climat du pays, en général, paraît favorable pour la croissance et le développement de cette espèce. Du point de vue pluviométrique, à l‘exception des zones sahariennes, les précipitations sont assez abondantes et ne constituent pas un facteur limitant. Du point de vue des températures, l‘étude a prouvé la capacité de la plante à germiner entre 8 þC et 35þC. En fonction des régions, des températures similaires se présentent tout au long de l‘année sur la zone côtière et durant le printemps et l‘été sur la zone continentale. Les potentiels hydriques qui ont été testés sont compris entre l‘humidité au point de flétrissement et ‘humidité à la capacité au champ c‘est à dire l'eau occupe alors ce qu'on appelle la microporosité et ne circule plus que très lentement et le sol ne se dessèche que par évaporation directe pour les couches les plus superficielles. Mais le plus remarquable est le fait que les degrés d‘humidité enregistrés a niveau de -1,3 MPa sont très proches de l‘humidité au point de flétrissement, pour chaque type de sol. Ceci met en valeur la capacité de V. enceloides à germer dans des situations hydriques très difficiles et sa tolérance au stress hydrique. De point de vue texture, Al Faraj & al. (1988) et Kaul et Mangal (1987) confirment que V. enceloides préfère les sols sablonneux, et l‘importance de la germination diminue avec l‘augmentation de la fraction argileuse dans le sol. 165 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Références Al Faraj & MM, Hassan HM & Al Dosoky RA (1988) Germination studies on Verbesina enceloides (Cav.) Benth. Et Hook. Ex A. Gray (Astercaeae). Journal of Arid environments 15, 169-174. Ameur A & Bouhache M (1994) Projet Morelle Jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.). Synthèse des travaux effectués au Maroc. IAV Hassan II, INRA et DERDA. 141 p. Baker DC, Keeler RF, & Panter KE (1992) Concentration of Galigine in Verbesina encelioides and Galega oficinalis and the Toxic and Pathologic Effects Induced by the Plants. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology 11(2), 11-17. Bautista RC & Mau R FL (1994) Preferences and development of western flowers thrips on plant hosts of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus. Environmental Pathology 23, 6 Bautista RC & Mau RFL, Cho JJ & Custer DM (1995) Potential of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus plant hosts in Hawaii as virus reservoirs for transmission by Franfliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Phytopathology. St. Paul, Minn.: American Phytopathological Society Vol. 85 9, 953-958. Campero CM, Caracino M, Chayer R, Cosentino B & Lopez TA (1996) Experimental Toxicity of Verbesina encelioides in Sheep and Isolation of Galegine. Vet. Human Toxicol. 38(6), 417-419. Cho JJ, Mitchell WC, Tabashnik BE & Yudin LS (1988) Colonization of Weeds and Lettuce by Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Environmental Entomology 17(3), 522-526. Forrest LM & Smith JW, JR (1996) Influence of Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) on Thrips (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia) Populations and Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Epidemics in South Texas Peanut Fiels. Journal of Economic Entomology 89(6): 1593-1600. Grichar WJ & Sestak DC (1998) Control of Golden Crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) in Peanut (Arachis hypogea) with Postemergence herbicides. Peanut Science 25, 39 – 43. Jahandiez E & Maire R (1931-1934) Catalogue des plantes du Maroc, 3 tomes, éd. Lechevallier, Paris, 913 p. Kaul MLH & Mangal PD (1987) Phenology and germination of Crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides). Weed Science 35, 513-518. Keeler RF, Baker DC & Panter KE (1992) Concentration of galegine in Verbesina encelioides and Galegia officinalis and the toxic pathological effects induced by the plants. Journal of Environmental Pathology 11, 275-81. Lopez TA, Campero CM, Chayer R, Cosentino B & Caracino M (1996) Experimantal toxicity of Verbesina encelioides in sheep and isolation of galegine. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. Manhatan, Kan.: Kansas States University, Vol. 38 6, 417-419. Mitchell FL & Smith JW Jr (1996) Influence of Verbesina encelioides (Asterales, Asteraceae) on thrips (Thysanoptera: terebrantia) population and tomato spotted wilt virus epidemics in south Texas peanut fields. Journ. Econ. Entomol. Lanham, Md.: Entomological Society of America Vol. 89 6, 1593-1600. Qorchi M & Taleb A (1997) Situation Actuelle de l'infestation par la Morelle Jaune dans les Différents Périmètres Irrigués du Maroc. Journée nationale sur la morelle jaune: Ampleur du problème et stratégie de lutte, pp 58. Tuvia Y (1998) The dispersion of the invasive weeds Heterotheca subaxillaris and Verbesina encelioieds in Israel. 6th EWRS Mediterranean Symposium, Montpellier, pp. 56-57. Usha G (1987) Allelopathic Effects of Verbesina encelioides Cav.. Annals of Arid Zone 26(4), 287-291. Taleb A & Bouhache M (2005). Etat actuel de nos connaissances sur les plantes envahissantes au Maroc. International Workshop "Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World" - 25-27 May 2005 in Montpellier; France Tanji A & Taleb A (1997) A newly species recently introduced into Morocco. Weed Research 37, 27-31. D‘Alleizette Ch (1919) Note sur une compose nouvelle pour la flore d‘Algérie, Verbesina enceloides Bent & Hook (Ximenesia enceloides Cavan.). Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Afrique du Nord, Alger. Yessef M (1984) Contribution à l'étude de l'installation et de la survie de l'armoise blanche (Artemisia herba alba Asso). Germination, développement des plantules et survie des différentes catégories d'individus. Mémoire de 3ième cycle Agronomie I. A. V. Hassan II Rabat.


New species threatening the biodiversity in Morocco: Verbesina encelioides (Asteraceae) Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. et Hook. ex Gray is an invasive alien weed recently introduced in Morocco. It invaded completely the perimeter of Souss–Massa (region of Agadir). From there it was disseminated towards other areas: Safi, Rabat, Larache, Fez, Sefrou, etc. This study was conducted in order to evaluate the infestation area, describe the morphological and ecological characteristics of V. encelioides, to point out threats of this species, on one hand, and to study the effect of certain environmental factors on its seeds germination (temperature, photoperiod, water stress and burial depth) on the other hand. The surveys pointed out the importance of its presence in areas more or less disturbed by man and the fact it attracts the white fly. The viability test of seeds revealed an average of 92% of viable akenes. The kinetics of imbibition was fast during the first 12 hours of incubation and it was slowed down beyond that. The tests of germination showed the capacity of the akenes to germinate in a temperature range of 8þC to 35þC with an optimum at 15þC/25þC, light and dark. Also, a reduction of water potential until -0,6 MPa did not affect germinative capacity of the akenes. However, the reduction of the water potential from –0.6 MPa to –1.3 MPa reduced the percentage of germination. The emergence seedlings occurred up to 3.5 cm of depth. The maximum of emergences was recorded at 1.5 cm followed by 0 and 2.5 cm and then 3.5 cm burial depth. Beyond 7 cm burial depth, the emergence did not occur. Regarding the growth and development, V. encelioides achieve life cycle (from emergence to the maturity of first akenes) in 80 days. It allocated more biomass to stems and branches and then inflorescences (starting from the flowering stage). Seed production was abundant and continuous for as long growing conditions permit.


Stages in the Development of an Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Program for Invasive Alien Plants in California Kassim Al-Khatib and Joseph M. DiTomaso University of California, Davis. USA, E-mail: [email protected] To develop an effective Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) program, several factors need to be considered. Initially, a comprehensive list of current and potentially invasive alien species needs to be established in the region of interest. The California Invasive Species Advisory Committee recently developed such a list for invasive alien plants and other invasive taxa. Secondarily, a system must be established to rapidly and accurately identify new invasive alien plants within an area. A third important phase of an EDRR program is the ability to predict the potential range of invasive alien plants. This can be accomplished by climate matching models. Preliminary work by the California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) mapped the distribution of 36 of the top 200 invasive alien species in the state. Using the climate matching program CLIMEX, they determined the potential suitable range under current and climate change conditions (+3 o C). The fourth phase in the establishment of an EDRR program requires a thorough understanding of the control methods that can effectively eradicate new incipient infestations. To achieve this, several groups in California have been working to develop appropriate management strategies, including Cal-IPC, the California Department of Food and Agriculture, the University of California (UC) Cooperative Extension, and members of the state Weed Management Areas. Much of this information is available on three primary websites associated with Cal-IPC, the UC Weed Research and Information Center, and the UC IPM program. Eventually, management options will be linked to the online diagnostic identification tool. Finally, a funding system must be in place to allow rapid response to new potentially damaging invasive alien plants. Legislative activity at both the state and national level are attempting to provide this funding source. While none of these phases are yet completed in California, all are now underway and may eventually lead to an effective EDRR program. Introduction The annual cost of losses and environmental damage due to invasive alien species in the United States has been estimated to be $120 billion (Pimentel et al. 2005). Invasive alien plants alone cause an estimated $35 billion in losses, damages, or control costs including $27B for crop weeds, $6B for weeds in pasture, $1.5B from weed in lawns, gardens, and golf courses, and the remaining for aquatic weeds and melaleuca. The high cost of invasive alien species is, in part, attributed to the lack of an effective means for early detection and control of emerging invasive alien species before they are widespread. Therefore, it is critical to develop a systematic approach for detection, reporting, rapid risk assessments, and response to new invasive alien plants. Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) of invasive alien plants and other 168 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

organisms is a management approach that focuses on surveying and monitoring at-risk areas to find infestations at their earliest stages of invasion. Along with prevention, this method is the most successful and cost effective means of control. In the United States, several federal and state agencies have historically cooperated to encourage invasive alien plants prevention. These agencies included U.S. Geological Survey (USGC), United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS), state departments of agriculture, and University Cooperative Extension services. The first attempt to develop a National EDRR Plan started in 2000 when a planning workshop was hosted by USGS and USDA. Immediately following the workshop, the first regional Invasive Plant Atlas for the northeast was published. A USDA-APHIS conceptual design plan for the National EDRR System was developed in 2003. Over the past ten years, most of the States have developed Invasive Species Councils, and advisory committees. Progress in addressing new invasive alien plants is being made by a number of task forces. Additionally, the National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) was established to coordinate land grant institutions, national agencies and state departments of agriculture efforts in data gathering, diagnostic collaboration, and other activities of plant diagnostics. NPDN consists of five regional plant diagnostic centers located at Cornell University (NEPDN); Michigan State University (NCPDN); Kansas State University (GPDN); University of Florida (SPDN); and University of California, Davis (WPDN). NPDN uses a common software interface to process diagnostic requests and share information among diagnostic laboratories. In California, there is a great concern about introducing invasive alien plants that may damage ecosystem processes such as community diversity, hydrology, fire regimes, and soil chemistry. Research has shown that invasive alien plants have a competitive advantage because they are no longer controlled by their natural predators or pathogens, and can quickly spread out of control. The concern about invasive alien species in California is ubiquitous because the state shares a long border with other States and neighbors Mexico where invasive alien plants may be established there before entering California, and also has three major sea ports and several international airports. In addition, California has the largest nursery and seeds industry in the country that may facilitate the introduction of many new plants. In California, approximately 20% of the plant species established and growing under natural or non-cultivated conditions are non-native, with 3% considered harmful invasive alien plants (DiTomaso and Healy, 2007). Although the percentage is small, these invasive alien plants inhabit a large proportion of the landscape. Early eradication of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective approach for the economic welfare of California, the United States, and other counties around the world. By comparison, once an invasive alien species becomes widespread, eradication is almost never economically feasible (Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002). While management of well established invasive alien plants in California is important, it is equally critical to protect natural areas yet uninfested.


California Early Detection and Rapid Response Program Invasive alien plants inventory Generating a list of invasive alien species provides a foundation for setting strategic priorities and resource management. Three lists of invasive alien species were developed in California. The oldest list, which is the only one with legal authority, was developed by California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA). The CDFA Noxious Weed List was developed to address the obligations of the Department to protect the state‘s agricultural industry and prevent the introduction and spread of injurious plant pests. Plant species that have been designated as noxious weeds are subject to various restrictions including the statutory provisions for weed-free areas, noxious weed control, prohibitive interstate transport, and provisions of the California Seed Law. Management or control activities taken against noxious weeds may both protect California's agricultural industry and important native plant species. CFDA Noxious Weed List includes 180 species, most of them of agricultural importance. The list has been revised over the years; however, the process is relatively slow and may not serve EDRR objectives. CDFA list of noxious weeds are classified into five categories (CDFA, 2010). Category ―A‖ Noxious Weeds include plants (62 species) of expected economic or environmental damage and are present in limited distribution within the state. These species are often targeted for eradication. Approximately 16 A-rated plant species have been successfully eradicated in recent years. A-rated species and their reproductive parts are legally prohibited from entering the state. Category ―B‖ Noxious Weeds include plants (84 species) with known economic or environmental detriment and are considered regionally widespread, but are not present in many areas of the state. Eradication, containment, suppression, control, or other holding action is at the discretion of the individual county agricultural commissioner. Category "C" Noxious Weeds include plants (30 species) of known economic or environmental detriment and are generally widespread in the state. They are subject to regulations designed to reduce spread, but little funding is provided for their control, except when they are the target of biological control efforts. Category "Q" Noxious Weeds include plants (3 species) that are not present in the state and agricultural or environmental damage is suspected or known to occur elsewhere. These species are typically new to the state and can be treated as A-rated plants. Such species can be the prime target of an EDRR program. Category "H" plants (1 species) are potentially invasive alien plants derived from nursery grown material. The second list of invasive alien plants in the state was developed by the California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC). The list is focused on plants with potential to cause significant ecological damage in natural areas, including displacing native plants and wildlife, increasing wildfire and flood danger, consuming valuable water, degrading recreational opportunities, and destroying productive range and timber lands. The majority of plants on this list do not infest row-crop agricultural systems. While the Cal-IPC list is based on a transparent and published set of criteria, it does not have any regulatory authority within the state. However, local authorities in California often use the list to regulate plant introduction and landscape plantings. 170 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The objectives of the Cal-IPC plant inventory are to provide a uniform methodology for categorizing non-native invasive alien plants that threaten wildlands; provide a clear explanation of the process used to evaluate and categorize plants; provide flexibility so the criteria can be adapted to the particular needs of different regions and states. The system generates a plant's overall rating based on an evaluation of 13 criteria, which are divided into three sections assessing Ecological Impacts, Invasive Potential, and Ecological Distribution (Cal-IPC, 2010). Evaluators assign a score of A (severe) to D (no impact) for each criterion, with U indicating unknown. Based on this scorecard, invasive alien plants were grouped in three categories, High (plants with severe ecological impact), Moderate (plants with substantial and apparent ecological impacts), and Limited (plants whose ecological impacts are either minor or are very limited in range). In total, the Cal-IPC list includes about 205 plants. The newly established California Invasive Species Advisory Committee (CISAC) has recently developed a comprehensive list of species that have a reasonable likelihood of entering or have entered California for which an exclusion, detection, eradication, control or management action by the State might be taken. The list included 508 plant species with 320, 96, and 92 herbaceous, grass, and woody species, respectively. Among these species only 98 species are included as highest priority species, when evaluated for their spread rate and ecological, agricultural, structural, and health damage/benefit (CISAC, 2010). Unlike the CDFA list, this list is based on clearly defined and transparent criteria. While the criteria are similar to the Cal-IPC list, the CISAC list includes invasive alien species of both agricultural and non-agricultural areas. However, like the Cal-IPC list, it does not yet have any legal authority. While California has develop excellent lists of invasive alien plants, the next critical step in the process is to provide a single list of priority species of both agricultural and natural areas that has regulatory authority within the state. Because of the legal authority of CDFA, the list should be housed and maintained by CDFA. Such a comprehensive and centralized list that increases the knowledge base of target organisms, including economic and ecological impacts is the first step in an effective EDRR program. Invasive alien plant diagnostics Several universities, state and federal herbaria have historically provided an excellent resource for the identification of both native and non-native plants in California. The collection and diagnostic capabilities of the University of California, Davis, and CDFA, in particular, have specialized in invasive alien plant identification, and both have extensive herbarium collections on non-native species. In addition, the flora of California (Hickman, 1993) is an excellent resource and a revised edition is already online (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/jepsonmanual /review/), with a hard copy expected to be published within the next couple of years. There are also a number of local floras in the state that can be of great assistance in plant identification. In addition to these well established diagnostic facilities and resources, California has the most comprehensive weed identification manual (DiTomaso & Healy 2007) developed for any state within the United States. The book includes over 3000 color photographs and descriptions for over 750 weed species, including agricultural weeds, nearly all of the invasive alien plants 171 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

included in the Cal-IPC inventory, the noxious weeds on the CDFA list, and the invasive alien plants listed by CISAC. Although these resources are readily available for professionals working in the field, they are encyclopedic or require considerable training to use and, thus, play a limited role in training volunteer groups and many other land managers not adept in plant identification. However, the effectiveness of an EDRR program depends heavily on volunteer groups and organizations, as well as a wide variety of field practitioners. Furthermore, the critical identification timing for effective eradication or management of an incipient invasive alien population is before flower and seed production, when plants are immature. Most dichotomous keys found in floras rely on flowers and mature plant characteristics for identification. Furthermore, color photographs found in guidebooks are often of flowering plants. To increase the ability of individuals to identify invasive alien plants at all stages of development, an interactive identification program was developed in California and is available on compact discs (http://calweeds.com). This software program allows for selection of over 200 characteristics of a plant, including many vegetation features. The program narrows the choices down with every characteristic selected until one or a few choices remain. Photos and descriptions can then be used to determine the correct species. The advantage of this approach is that it allows for identification of seedlings and immature plants. However, this tool also requires some knowledge of plant morphology. Another recently developed online resource is a much simpler interactive web-based tool (http://wric.ucdavis.edu). This tool can be custom developed to include any group of plants of interest, including only invasive alien species. The website was developed for use by individuals with little training in plant identification and can be used to train volunteers on invasive alien plant identification. The tool can also be used on Smart Phones. Furthermore, new innovative technology is becoming available that allows entry of new species of invasive alien plants with photo verification using Smart Phone technology. With all the key tools already available to accurately identify invasive alien species, the last critical step is to develop a centralized system that combines field identification, verification, data entry, and data retrieval. Such a system is critical in the development of an effective EDRR system. In California, this centralized location is best housed in a university environment, primarily because of the extensive Information Technology (IT) expertise found in these institutions, as well as the extensive herbarium facilities used to identify and house archival collections. Predictive range expansion The third important phase of an EDRR program is the ability to predict the potential range of invasive alien plants, and thus, determine where these plants are likely to invade. This can be accomplished by climate matching models. While Mapping the risk based on climate maching models give useful information, such model cannot correctly predict all the area at risk (Gallagher et al. 2010). The University of California at Davis has worked in partnership with Cal-IPC to develop an innovative ―risk mapping‖ approach for invasive alien plants. The maps generated from this pilot project compare the current distribution of 36 invasive alien plants in California with their potential distribution based on the climate matching model CLIMEX. The approach combined two types of data into a GIS map, including expert opinions on current 172 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

distribution and invasion trends (increasing or decreasing), and CLIMEX modeling based on each plants global range. Hall (2006) and Steinmaus (2002) included data from 321 weather stations in California. This greatly increased the spatial resolution of the CLIMEX model. This spatial data provides baseline information for the regions of the state where each of the 36 species is expected to expand, based on the climate conditions currently present in the state. Such maps provide a more efficient method for selecting early detection priority species in any particular region in the state. In addition, using the average estimate of temperature increase in California (+3 oC), additional maps can be developed to predict the potential range under a climate change scenario. Similar maps should be developed for all invasive alien plants in the state and for invasive alien plants anticipated to invade California. This information can be linked to an online interactive program that would allow land managers or agencies to predict invasive alien plants likely to invade a particular area and habitat. These specific ―Watch Lists‖ would be far more efficient in training programs for volunteers or those not completely familiar with the California flora. Invasive alien plant management The final phase in the establishment of an EDRR program requires a thorough understanding and adoption of methods that can effectively prevent, eradicate, or control new incipient or established infestations, as well as providing a clearinghouse for the dissemination of this information. Another key element to a successful EDRR program is good coordination between federal agencies/regulators as well as states, local entities, industry and other interested parties. To initiate an effective management program, it is first necessary to develop a statewide strategic plan. While California developed a strategic plan for invasive alien plants in 2005 (Schoenig, 2005), this plan is currently being expanded by CISAC to include all taxa in a more unified approach. Within the plan, it is important to include a strong prevention strategy. Prevention is the most cost-effective method of invasive alien plant management and is the first line of defense against the spread of invasive alien species. Once introduced, the spread of new localized populations of invaders should be considered for eradication. Eradication efforts on small populations are far more cost effective compared to populations that have spread to large area (Rejmanek & pitcaim, 2002).To be successful, it is essential that invaders be detected at early establishment stages through a well developed EDRR program. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) should be considered a guiding principle to any management program (Flint & Gouvelia, 2001). An IPM approach should be used when invaders are well established and widespread. IPM is a science-based decision-making process that reduces risks from pests and pest management strategies. It includes coordinating the use of pest biology, environmental information, and available technology to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means while posing the least possible risk. Several complementary methods may be implemented in an overall IPM strategy to protect ecosystems and aid in their recovery. There are several groups in California that have been working to develop appropriate management strategies and educational outreach and training materials for invasive alien plants 173 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

over the years. These include scientists and researchers associated with Cal-IPC, CDFA, University of California (UC) Cooperative Extension, Weed Management Areas, and private entities. Through these efforts, there are many examples of successful control strategies for specific species and ecosystems. Much of this information is available on three primary websites associated with Cal-IPC (http://cal-ipc.org), UC Weed Research and Information Center (http://wric.ucdavis.edu), and the UC IPM program (http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/). As the final step in an effective EDRR program, two additional aspects are required. First, an online clearinghouse for information on prevention strategies, methods to prioritize eradication efforts, management options, and follow-up monitoring programs are necessary. This information should be linked to the invasive alien plant inventory, online diagnostic identification tools, and the predictive range expansion program. This would allow volunteers and land managers to anticipate species that are likely to invade particular areas, rapidly identify new incipient populations, and response quickly with eradicate or containment efforts when these populations are discovered. To be successful, however, a funding system must be in place to allow rapid response to new potentially damaging invasive alien plants. Legislative activity at both the state and national level are attempting to provide this funding source. While none of these phases are yet completed in California, all are now underway and may eventually lead to an effective EDRR program. References Bossard CC, Brooks ML, DiTomaso JM, Randall JM, Roye CL, Sigg J, Stanton AE & Warner PJ (2006) California Invasive Plant Inventory. California Invasive Plant Council, Publ. #2006-02. Berkeley, CA. 39 pp. CA-IPC, California Invasive Plant Council (2010) Invasive Plant Inventory. http://www.calipc.org/ip/inventory/index.php. CDFA, California Department of Food and Agriculture (2010) Weed List-Pest Ratings of Noxious Weed Species. http://www.extendinc.com/weedfreefeed/list-b.htm. CISAC, California Invasive Species Advisory Committee (2010) The California Invasive Species List. http://www.iscc.ca.gov/species.html. DiTomaso JM & Healy EA (2007) Weeds of California and Other Western States. Univ.Calif. Div. Ag. Nat. Res. Publ. 3488. 1809 pp. Flint ML & Gouvelia P (2001) IPM in Practices: Principle and Methods of Integrated Pest Management. 2001. University of California ANR Publication 3418. Oakland, CA. Gallagher RV, Beaumont LJ, Hughes L & Leishman MR (2010) Evidence for climatic niche and biome shifts between native and novel ranges in plant species introduced to Australia. J. Ecology 98, 790-799. Hall J (2006) Modeling climatic preferences of an invasive woody shrub, Ulex europaeus L., and a biological control agent, Tetranychus lintearius Dufour, in California. M.S. Thesis. Cal-Poly-San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, CA. Hickman JC (ed.) (1993) The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. Univ. Calif. Press. 1400 pp. Ielmini M & Ramos G (2003) A National Early Detection and Rapid Response System for Invasive Plants in the United States. http://www.fws.gov/ficmnew/FICMNEW_EDRR_FINAL.pdf Pimentel D, Zuniga R & Morrison D (2005) Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alieninvasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics 52, 273-288. Rejmanek M & Pitcairn MJ (2002) When is eradication of exotic pest plants a realistic goal? In C. R. Veitch, M. N. Clout, [eds.]. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species, 249-253. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland. Schoenig S (2005) California Noxious and Invasive Weed Action Plan. CDFA, 45 pp. Steinmaus S (2002) Predicting Plant Invasion with Modeling. CalEPPC News. 1, 5-9. Warner PJ, Bossard CC, Brooks ML, DiTomaso JM, Hall JA, Howald AM, Johnson DW, Randall JM, Roye CL & Stanton AE (2003) Criteria for Categorizing Invasive Non-native Plants that Threaten Wildlands. California Exotic Pest Plant Council and Southwest Vegetation Management Association. http://www.calipc.org/ip/inventory/pdf/Criteria.pdf.


Early experiences in the establishment of a National Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for South Africa Philip Ivey1, John Wilson1,2, Ingrid Nänni1 and Hilary Geber3 1

Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme for Invasive Alien Plants, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa 3 Centre for Learning, Teaching and Development, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein 2000, Johannesburg, South Africa The Working for Water Programme is an initiative of the South African Government to manage invasive alien plants through job creation in a country with chronic unemployment. It provides opportunities for people to learn new skills, gain self-confidence, at the same time as reducing threats to the country's natural resources. To date, most of the work has focussed on area-specific clearing operations, but in 2008 a National Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) Programme for Invasive Alien Plants was established. As of 2010, the Working for Water programme in South Africa has devoted 1.43% of its budget of seven hundred million Rand (€63,000,000, July 2010) to EDRR. This paper will explore the challenges and opportunities of setting up such a programme in the context of the job creation goals of Working for Water and the unique challenges of South Africa. In particular we discuss monitoring approaches, which species to target, engagement of stakeholders, staffing issues, a programme designed to provide mentorship for staff, institutional arrangements, and how political pressures have affected the operation. We conclude that the EDRR programme is an important new addition to invasive alien plant management in South Africa, and that, to be most effective, the programme should continue with its remit of using stake-holder networks to combine early detection with eradication. Background With a budget of seven hundred million Rand (€63,000,000, July 2010) allocated for management of invasive alien plants the South African government, through its Working for Water (Department of Water Affairs Website) has shown that it takes the threat of invasive alien plants to biodiversity, ecosystems, environmental services and human livelihoods seriously. The management of invasive alien plants also has benefits in terms of job creation where unemployment is high. However, a labour-intensive approach to the management of invasive alien species, whilst enjoying relatively well-recognised success, is not necessarily the most cost effective way of managing all aspects of the problem. A disproportionately small amount is devoted to preventing the arrival of new invasive alien species and even less on detecting the early establishment of new alien plant species. Early detection and possible eradication of new 175 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

invasive alien plants may be more cost effective if efficient systems of early detection and successful eradications are achieved. The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) was formed with the promulgation of the National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act, 2004. SANBI‘s mission is ‗To promote the sustainable use, conservation, appreciation and enjoyment of the exceptionally rich biodiversity of South Africa, for the benefit of all people’. Among the functions of SANBI listed in the Act are that it must monitor and report to the Minister on the status of invasive alien species (National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA), 2004, Chapter 2, Part 1, 11.1.a.iii) and it may co-ordinate and implement programmes for the prevention, control or eradication of listed invasive alien species (NEM:BA, 2004, Chapter 2, Part 1, 11.1.m.ii). The draft regulations (section 9.4.f) pertaining to this Act state that SANBI should collate information on invasive alien species management programmes including: "research into any aspect of the invasiveness of an alien or listed invasive species or the prevention, eradication or control of such invasiveness". In March 2008 SANBI was contracted by the Working for Water Programme of the Department of Water Affairs to develop, in partnership with other stakeholders, a programme of Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) for Invasive Alien Plants. In this paper we will describe how the initial strategic plan was formulated, the current focus of efforts, and some of the challenges faced. Development of a Strategic plan In February and March 2008 a range of stakeholders from relevant government departments, scientific institutions and non-governmental organisations were consulted on the role EDRR should take. They were keen to see a practical, not overly ambitious programme that would make a real difference in reducing the likelihood of new plant invasions. The strategic plan outlined four key areas of implementation, 1. Early detection, 2. Identification and verification, 3. Risk assessment and response planning, 4. Rapid response, and specified that these should be supported by the following services: good information management, advocacy and awareness raising, and research. At this early stage of strategic planning a possible stumbling block emerged as although SANBI is clearly mandated to work on the first three key areas, it did not feel it had a definite remit to carry out actual implementation of rapid response to eradicate or control invasive alien plant outbreaks. The EDRR programme and work plan were influenced by this lack of clarity regarding rapid response roles. Stakeholders also emphasized the need for a co-ordination of effort as much work has already been done by key stakeholders such as the Department of Agriculture, the Agricultural Research Council, Universities, and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. SANBI was encouraged to work in partnership to ensure that efforts were not duplicated and limited 176 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

resources were not wasted. In particular, many databases and systems were already in place for managing knowledge and information on invasive alien species. The final strategic plan proposed a national co-ordination unit that would work with a number of regional co-ordination units to direct the efforts of volunteer invasive alien plant ‗spotters‘. Each regional unit would develop a regional list of species to be monitored, and conduct more general monitoring at key sites. The vision was that when spotters detected a new invasive alien plant, the regional co-ordinators would be contacted, and the regional co-ordinator would employ taxonomists at SANBI Herbaria to verify the identity of the plant. The risk posed by each new incursion was then to be assessed by a to-be-formed Invasive Plant Assessment Panel, which in turn would make recommendations as to the appropriate response. Regional Rapid Response teams would then be responsible for executing and reporting the outcome of their actions. To a greater or lesser extent each of these aspects have been explored and developed during the first year and a half of operation. The degree of successful achievement still needs to be assessed and changes need to be recommended and implemented given our revised understanding of the situation. In particular, the programme is adopting a more proactive model than the linear model described above (see Fig. 2 below). The stated mission of the Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme is to protect ecosystem services from the negative impact of invasive plants through surveillance that enables early detection of invasions and allows for appropriate action. The programme, in accordance with applicable legislation and the needs of stakeholders, aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. Co-ordinate surveillance through an early detection programme for emerging invasive alien plants. 2. Develop capacity and systems to allow for rapid and accurate identification and verification species detected by the surveillance teams. 3. Ensure optimum institutional co-operation to facilitate risk assessment of emerging invasive alien plants in South Africa. 4. Co-ordinate the organization of rapid response teams to respond when invasions have been detected and the course of action decided and approved. 5. Develop and co-ordinate effective information management systems that allow for readily accessible, rapid and accurate exchange of information between all those involved in the programme and also to provide appropriate information to wider audiences. 6. Initiate and execute relevant research on early detection, risk assessment and rapid response aimed at continuously improving the programme. 7. Plan and implement an advocacy and awareness raising programme to elevate the profile of the early detection programme and the issue of invasive alien plants. 177 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

8. Design and implement a monitoring and evaluation programme to assess effectiveness of the above programmes and to recommend improvements. 9. If appropriate, plan for SANBI to take full control of the programme and ensure permanent financial support from the South African Government Treasury. Objectives one to four include the key implementation areas of the whole programme. Objectives five, six and seven support the programme and are essential for the successful achievement of the first four objectives. Objectives eight and nine will ensure the development, improvement and longevity of the programme. Planned and actual programme activities The programme has been going for one and a half years. Thus far the results of the programme have been encouraging, but a flexible approach to the problems and situations has had to be adopted in order to make progress. Here we discuss the four main planned activities of the EDRR, namely early detection of plant invasions, identification and verification of the invasive alien species, risk assessment and response planning, and rapid response actions. In each case we discuss some of the key factors limiting progress, and potential solutions to them. 1. Early detection Background In many respects South Africa already has a system for the detection of invasive alien plants in the form of the Southern African Plant Invader Atlas (SAPIA). SAPIA arose from road-side survey work initiated in 1979 by Lesley Henderson, and over the past 31 years this atlas project has gathered distribution data on invasive alien species across Southern Africa. As at March 2010, it contains ~70,000 locality records of ~660 naturalized alien plant species in South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho (Henderson, 2010). The project has utilized the skills and enthusiasm of ‗volunteer‘ observers who have submitted records to add to the ‗professional‘ collection of records carried out by Lesley Henderson, the project co-ordinator, but throughout some form of record verification was attempted (be it simply asking for a photograph or a sample if the contributor did not have much botanical experience). The importance of the SAPIA database was acknowledged at the outset of the EDRR, and stakeholders encouraged the programme to use these data as a foundation, and to feed information back into the data-base. How was the EDRR programme, in its infancy, to best utilize the SAPIA data? With 660 species listed on SAPIA, which of these could be considered suitable case studies to prove the value of an Early Detection programme? Nel et al. (2004) developed a classification system in an attempt to establish priority species and areas for management action. In 2004, 117 of the over 500 species on SAPIA were considered to be major and established invasive alien species and through using their classification system some 84 were considered "emerging" invasive alien species. They concluded that management actions should ―aim to eradicate invasive alien plants that are confined to small areas or just beginning to become invasive‖. Although the definition "emerging" was not explicitly linked to species that were potential targets for eradication. 178 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Determining which species to work on In two provinces of South Africa the Early Detection team utilized the SAPIA data to develop a list of species to be considered by stakeholders in order to assist with priority setting. Species that occurred in 10 quarter degree squares or fewer in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape were arbitrarily deemed "emerging" invasive alien plants, again the phrase was not explicitly linked to potentially management options or legislation. At a workshop in KwaZulu-Natal in March 2009 a great diversity of opinion emerged about what species should be on the list. It was resolved that further criteria be developed to assess the species and to set the order of priorities for action. In July 2009 at a workshop in the Western Cape the stakeholders were asked to consider a similar list of species for the winter rainfall region. However stakeholders recommended that the team focus on a few case studies that showed promise of being able to generate results quickly (i.e. "low-hanging fruit") to prove the value of EDRR. The case studies currently being investigated by the EDRR team are listed in Appendix. Developing networks During the planning of the EDRR Programme it was recognized as essential to incorporate local knowledge of invasive alien species and environments, and that a broad range of people should be encouraged to report early signs of new invasions. Based on the experiences of SAPIA, there are probably 30–40 highly knowledgeable, enthusiastic, and dedicated people in South Africa with field experience who are able to ‗spot‘ invasive plants amongst the 22 000 indigenous and 8 000 exotic species in the country. There are many more potential observers who spend time observing the vegetation they walk and work in and who can determine changes in plant communities and, if trained, identify noticeable plants. For early detection to be effective, clearly both groups needed to be utilised. Regional co-ordinators have encouraged support for the programme from people with strong local knowledge, e.g. farmers involved in stewardship programmes, mountain club members, Botanical Society Members, and professional botanists engaged in field work. Regional coordinators have also met with a wide range of stakeholders and have begun to establish networks of ‗spotters‘. Wittenberg & Cock (2001) suggest general surveys, site-specific surveys, and species-specific surveys as three main ways to achieve the early detection of invasive alien species. At present the general surveys are essentially those conducted by SAPIA, and the links to the plant spotter network. In terms of site-specific surveys, the regional teams, through their work on case studies and in response to calls from observers, have identified a number of locations (including arboreta, abandoned farm homesteads, land adjacent to plant nurseries, dams and waterways, conservation sites, truck stops near to international borders) that need to be monitored regularly and form the foundation for future site-specific surveys. Each regional co-ordinator will develop a site-specific monitoring plan for their area of responsibility. In terms of species-specific surveys, we are currently not looking for specific alien plants that are not yet recorded in South Africa, although such a prohibited list is part of the regulations, such focussed surveys are perhaps more appropriate for early detection of animals. We do, however, distribute leaflets on each species that we are working on to relevant bodies with the aim of identifying any other sites of naturalisation or spread. 179 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Figure 1 - The current spread of the chosen case study species when compared with all the species on the SAPIA database. The red histograms indicate species that are currently receiving attention by EDRR. The majority of case study species (red) are recorded in SAPIA as occurring in one or two quarter degree grid cells in Southern Africa. 2. Identification and verification Accurate identification of invasive alien plants is essential for numerous reasons but specifically: 1. For assessment of invasive potential. If the species is not correctly identified then invasive potential cannot be assessed, as invasiveness of the same taxon elsewhere in the world is a prime indicator of whether a species is likely to be invasive. 2. The course of action to take is determined by the species. If the species is not accurately identified then action planning is not possible. Appropriate treatment and herbicides cannot be considered without good taxonomic information. However, identification to genus level may sometimes be sufficient to allow for general action plans to be made (as was the case with Melaleuca species discovered in the Western Cape Province). 3. Legislation cannot be drawn up against the species if it is not correctly identified. 180 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

SANBI has three Herbaria: the National Herbarium in Pretoria, the KwaZulu-Natal Herbarium in Durban, and the Compton Herbarium in Cape Town. The identity of plant specimens gathered by the programme have been confirmed and verified by taxonomists at these herbaria. The programme has employed taxonomists and herbarium assistants to co-ordinate the identification efforts. However, as a result of limited taxonomic capacity within South Africa two of the six taxonomic support posts catered for in the EDRR programme remain unfilled. The need for taxonomic expertise has been apparent in some of the case studies. In the case of Melaleuca quinquenerva and Melaleuca ericifolia the confirmed identification has been slowed as specimens had to be sent to overseas herbaria for accurate identification. There is expertise for genetic analysis in South Africa and this was used to accurately identify the Anigozanthos species and hybrids of concern in the Kleinmond area (Le Roux et al., 2010), but such molecular diagnostics were only investigated because the issue had been previously raised by an expert in the group. EDRR will continue to use molecular tools to aid taxonomic identification, particularly where issues of hybridisation or polyploidism may occur, but as a programme, more emphasis is required on field identification, and formal herbarium identification skills. EDRR offers the opportunity to develop taxonomic capacity, and this is clearly of potential broad benefit to biodiversity research in South Africa.

1. Co-ordinate Early Detection

Provide information to observer network to maintain interest and enthusiasm

• Establish a network of observers • Develop and implement both site specific and species specific monitoring plans • Detect locations of alien species

2. Identification and verification • Herbarium taxonomists and molecular work • Confirm identity of plant species • Assess presence of hybrids or varieties

3. Assessment and response planning • Assessment of current status of species and future risks including review of potential threats and benefits, models to understand distribution, population dynamics, impact and pathways • Hold stakeholder meeting to discuss management options

4. Rapid response • • •

Initial response to prevent further spread Assess the efficacy of management options through control actions Attempt eradication

5. Change legal status of invasive species

Species too widespread, national management strategy to be compiled outside EDRR Species eradicated

Figure 2. Schematic representation of current organisation of EDRR programme


3. Risk assessment In 2010, South Africa has a new National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act (2004) but has not promulgated regulations which allow aspects of this act to be enforced. The impasse caused by lack of regulations has had an impact on the programme. Currently invasive alien plants are categorised under the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act using a series of questions which roughly equate to a risk assessment but this approach has not been legally specified. A new risk assessment framework to be used to assess invasive alien species is yet to be drawn up in terms of the act and will only occur once the regulations have been promulgated. In the strategic plan it was proposed that an Invasive Plant Assessment Panel be formed with permanent representation of the government departments of Agriculture, Water Affairs and Environmental Affairs, and co-opted experts from research institutions to evaluate different species as appropriate. This panel would make rapid assessments of new incursions and propose appropriate plans of action to be undertaken. However, it was recognised that the information required to make informed decisions was in many cases missing—the infestations detected were sometimes the only record of invasiveness world-wide, and the initial reports did not accurately reflect the infestations (Jacobs et al. in these proceedings, and Wilson et al ibid). Field-work was essential to adequately determine risk (see Jacobs et al. in these proceedings). Therefore, the programme has decided not to worry too much about the lack of framework, but to gather valid information in order to enable accurate risk assessment to be carried out. Information will be gathered for each species that has been selected as a case study. This information will cover taxonomic details, known current distribution in South Africa, projected distribution and spread, impacts and benefits, and a short review of the relevant literature. A clear feed-back between publicity and awareness-raising, implementation, early detection and risk assessment has also emerged. For example, in the case of Triplaris americana, a horticultural subject introduced into the Durban- eThekwini Municipality, the impact of taking action resulted in newspaper coverage and numerous reports of the species in various localities were received. The co-ordinator in this case is continuing to monitor the impact of publicity on the number of reports of the species. Similarly, after an initial clearing exercise of populations of a cholla cactus (Cylindropuntia sp. poss. tunicata or rosea) outside a national park (conservation area) and a presentation at a farmers‘ meeting there was a dramatic increase in reports of this species. It is now evident that this species was severely under-reported and recorded on SAPIA, and as a consequence eradication in the short to medium term does not appear feasible. Only after some initial work was a realistic assessment of risk and potentially feasible responses possible. 4. Rapid response planning and implementation Determining institutional responsibility Finding the correct institutional arrangement for Rapid Response activities has proved a challenge. At the outset SANBI felt that its remit did not include the actual implementation of rapid response to eradicate or control invasive alien plant outbreaks. This will need to be the responsibility of another entity. While it may not be appropriate for SANBI, a public entity 182 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

tasked with biodiversity research and policy development responsibilities, to actually implement activities involving physical and chemical control of invasive alien plants, there is merit in SANBI being involved in the full scope of EDRR (i.e. Early Detection, Identification and Verification, Risk Assessment, and Rapid Response implementation). This is particular important as efforts of rapid response were found to feed-back to detection of new infestations and such information can be important for updating risk assessments (Fig. 2). Moreover, a clause in the National Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act states that SANBI may coordinate and implement programmes for the prevention, control or eradication of listed invasive species. This could be interpreted that SANBI is legally mandated to carry out Rapid Response activities. The initial plan developed in March 2008 suggested that SANBI should not be responsible for implementation of Rapid Response activities. By November 2008 it was apparent that for effective research to be conducted rapid response activities had to be integrated with early detection and risk assessment (e.g. Zenni et al., 2009). The SANBI executive agreed that the Early Detection programme could take on discreet Rapid Response work. However, concerns regarding SANBI‘s role in management and clearing of invasive alien plants were again raised as this is not SANBI‘s core competence and the Working for Water programme did have structures in place to carry out this type of work. In November 2009 it was agreed that a national coordination unit for Rapid Response activities would be established within the Working for Water programme. In May 2010 SANBI was requested to manage greater Rapid Response activities with a larger budget. As the programme is maturing, we are recommending that some specific and delimited rapid response responsibilities are retained in perpetuity as these are integral to EDRR as a process. Pompom weed: an exercise in containment The case that perhaps has been most important in defining the extent to which EDRR is involved in implementation is the case study of Campanuloclinium macrocephalum (Pompom Weed). In 2009 Pompom Weed was listed in 93 quarter degree squares across six different provinces in South Africa, far more widely than any other targeted species (Table 1 and Figure 1). Why then, was Pompom Weed considered a good case study for EDRR? The Working for Water programme that sponsors the EDRR has as its key focus clearing of large woody and water consuming invasive alien plants. This is most efficiently done by clearing a range of species from key water catchments and by working on an area basis. Pompom weed, an herbaceous perennial, is distributed along roadsides sparsely in five provinces and densely in one province (Gauteng). This discontinuous linear distribution required a species-specific management approach rather than an area management approach. The EDRR team was requested to manage this species as part of the Rapid Response programme as the approach was different to that usually followed by Working for Water. This species gave the team an opportunity to develop a rapid response methodology that would suit a species-specific approach, aimed at species containment. During the first year of operation the team managed only one clearing contract in a single province. During the second year of operation the team managed 39 clearing contracts in four provinces. The aim of the Pompom Weed management programme is to contain the species into a single province whilst options for biological control are being investigated. However, the emphasis is strongly on implementing temporary 183 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

containment, and as such it is much less clear that it fits within SANBI's mandate. Indeed one of the challenges of EDRR will be to develop a process of exiting species that need to come under general management operations, and where classical biological control options should be explored. We are recommending that in future a separate, but perhaps related, process to EDRR be developed for such containment efforts, otherwise the potential for eradication could again be overlooked by the continued resources required for containment efforts. Building the program There were several key challenges for the program, first building human capacity, second enabling field-reports to be accurately captured, and third integrating data collection with existing databases. The second and third challenges are being addressed through development of appropriate and efficient processes. A novel mentoring programme has been used to tackle the first challenge of human capital development. Mentor programme fostering human capital development The first major hurdle for EDRR has been to recruit 21 staff to offices around the country within one year. In order to build the capacity of the early-career staff appointed to the project a mentor program was implemented by matching ―silverbacks‖ with 30+ years of experience to each staff member. The training for the mentors and the EDRR team, including the National Co-ordinator and administrative staff, was developed around the Transformational model of mentoring (Geber, 2006). Transformational mentoring involves the establishing of learning alliances for professional development and a commitment to social and organisational change (Geber 2003). Mentoring with a transformation emphasis is particularly important in mentoring training, where mentors guide less experienced colleagues in order to help them achieve requirements for educational and organisational change, which is part of the South African national agenda. Each member of the team had a mentor who provided 16 hours of mentoring per month. In a review of the progress of the mentoring after almost a year, mentors and mentees said they had benefitted greatly from their partnerships. Mentees expectations of their mentors in achieving their goals included being guided, advised and pointed in the right direction. They expected support and to learn to understand the work environment. They expected their mentors to share experiences with them but also for the pairs to learn together. They expected their mentors to promote the Early Detection programme and help with relationship building with others in the field. Most of the mentees‘ expectations were met and in many cases exceeded for both their professional and personal growth. Mentees reported on specific areas of research where their mentors had helped them with their higher degree studies and other research proposals. Mentees commented that having access to the mentors‘ networks enabled them to do their research faster and have avenues of which they were previously unaware opened for them. They said that their research was more innovative than they could have anticipated. This confirms the findings of de Janasz & Sullivan (2004). 184 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Mentees also spoke about how the mentoring had affected other areas of their lives. Several mentees have begun to see themselves in a new light, as professionals in an important national programme (i.e. no longer simply graduates or postgraduates working for the Early Detection programme, but serious players in their field and competent young professionals). They said that the connections they had made through their mentors‘ networks had allowed them to operate at levels beyond their expectations and to speak to senior officials and CEOs much earlier in their careers than they would have otherwise. Nevertheless they could still make individual contributions outside SANBI to the wider community. They now have some influence in the field because their mentors have expert reputations. Through the mentor programme team members have been introduced to wider networks and this has resulted in information being shared between co-ordinators and an ever increasing network of volunteer observers. The mentees said that the field trips with their mentors were very valuable and necessary and that they learnt an enormous amount during the field trips. The field trips were included in the 16 hours per month which the mentors spent with the mentees and some mentees felt that there was not enough time for their other meetings and would have liked more mentoring time in their daily work environment as well. The investment in the mentoring was higher than many programmes of this nature. This was generously funded by The Working for Water Programme of the Department of Water Affairs. The money and time spent by mentors meant a rapid capacity development among mentees. This is evident in the range of goals and skills they managed to achieve and develop in a relatively short time. The programme also built capacity in mentors as, through experience, they learned how to do cross cultural mentoring better. The programme provided access to mentoring, especially for young black women, that they are unlikely to have accessed without a formal programme (Stone, 2005) The mentoring programme has spread awareness of the need for such professional development in science / biodiversity in South Africa as revealed by the mentor feedback. The mentoring of young researchers in the Early Detection programme stands out as a rare and exceptional example of good practice in mentoring and the design and implementation of a mentoring programme for capacity building of young biodiversity researchers and practitioners. Biodiversity programmes in South Africa and worldwide can benefit from such mentoring programmes. The major disadvantage of using mentors in such a programme is that the goals and methods used by the programme have taken much longer to be standardised, with the mentors pulling in different directions to where the program as a whole was headed. Certainly such mentorship activities while needed at an early stage, are also most disruptive in a new programme where the processes and aims are still to be determined. In a more developed programme the expectations of the mentors can be set out much more clearly.


Data capturing using Cyber-Tracker technology In order to facilitate ease of data capturing amongst volunteer and professional observers software is being developed that will allow for ease of identification of the species for which the Early Detection team is seeking information. Cyber-Tracker is a world recognised software application that melds the technological world of computer software with the ancient skills of trackers. The application for the Early Detection programme has been designed to:  Allow validation of species identification. Electronic Field Guide pages will include images, text and known distribution maps of the up to 660 species on the Southern African Plant Invader Atlas.  Provide a number of taxonomic filters. The software will calculate the number of possible species after each filter operation, so that the user can skip to a series of photographs and plant names at any stage of the identification process. If the user is unable to make a definitive identification, the final result will include all the possible species. A photograph and herbarium specimens may be used for validation by a taxonomic specialist.  Contain up to 700 species, with each species containing about five images installed onto a high performance microSD card for efficient distribution.  Automatically capture required Meta data, such as the name of the observer, contact details, methods used, etc. Meta data should also include a record of decisions made by the user when selecting taxonomic filters.  Utilize the integrated camera to capture photos attached to GPS position and attribute data. Capture GPS timer track data that can be used to create lines and polygons to plot areas of alien vegetation infestation.  Transmit data captured in the field via a Cellular modem to a specified ftp site hosted by SANBI. Data transmission should be verified before clearing the data from the Handheld Computer.  Provide an Efficiency Report to show the number of observations, time spent and distance covered per day by each field observer.  Include a real-time GPS navigation map to enable users to find previously recorded alien plants for treatment. Include a map maker to produce maps for the Handheld Computer. The moving map feature should indicate the position of the user in real time and display the path followed, and  Most importantly the software should be Open Source and free for conservation use worldwide. This software application is almost fully developed and field testing was carried out during last quarter of 2010. Conclusion and way forward The EDRR work needs to have a clear mandate and link to the legislation. Due to the large number of alien plant species that could be considered, it was proposed that species-specific activities be restricted to three groups. First, category 1a species as categorized by the National 186 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Environmental Management and Biodiversity Act. These are Invasive species requiring compulsory control. Remove and destroy. Any specimens of Category 1a listed species need, by law, to be eradicated from the environment. No permits to have these species will be issued. The second list is a Species under Surveillance List which currently does not have appropriate legal standing but is a list of species that are of concern but which still require a formal assessment before any legally-binding categorisation. And the third group are any new records of naturalisation. As such EDRR is focussing on species where the possibility of eradication has not been ruled out (although this may simply be because of a lack of available information). Good progress has been made towards the establishment of a functioning national EDRR. However, some early problems and lessons can be summarised as follows: a. The high number of invasive alien plant species already in South Africa that could be construed as ―emerging‖ invasive aliens made it difficult to know where to start. Initially a priority setting process was embarked upon, but stakeholders suggested targeting a few ―case studies‖ may be a more appropriate way forward. The fact that EDRR has fasttracked a few projects has actually been to the benefit of the programme as a whole, as already broader lessons are being learnt (e.g. at what point is a desk-top risk assessment appropriate). b. The case study focus, however, has detracted from the development of regional monitoring strategies but it has given guidance as to how these strategies should be structured in future. The foundations for a long term programme of EDRR need to be strengthened through establishment and implementation of site and species surveys and monitoring. c. The limited availability of taxonomic skills has meant that not all positions have been filled, this needs to be a focus particularly early on in an EDRR programme (Fig. 3). d. A delay in starting the programme combined with a restricted funding timeframe created pressure to employ capacity as quickly as possible, and led to excess budget available in the first six months of the programme. This skewed some decisions (e.g. the staff structure), but these are being resolved with time. e. There is value in all processes of EDRR being managed by a single entity. Indeed, response activities should be an integral part of activities and feed-back into early detection and risk assessment (i.e. EDRR should not be a linear or cyclic process but more integrative, particularly given the need to act quickly). f. The relatively inexperienced team has been supported by very experienced mentors that have enabled team members to develop both professionally and personally. And while, the mentorship scheme has meant EDRR programme has taken longer to settle on shared goals and methodologies, the mentor programme has given the team members guidance and support which has contributed to good retention of staff.


In the future we anticipate the workloads in the four different focus areas to change with time as illustrated in Figure 4. As the programme progresses, more time will be spent on Early Detection and contingency planning as the programme is now working through the ‗backlog‘ of species that have not been fully assessed. The existing high level of identification of species will tail off as species currently not identified are checked and verified. Subsequent to this high work load the need for identification of species will increase alongside the number of new species being detected. Although it is still to be formally assessed, we believe EDRR has the potential to continue to be an important feature of the control of invasive organisms in South Africa for many years to come.

Figure 4 - Anticipated change in work load on each component as the EDRR programme develops References de Janasz SC & Sullivan SE (2004) Multiple mentoring in academe: Developing the professorial network .Journal of Vocational Behavior 64, 263–283 Department of Water Affairs Website http://www.dwaf.gov.za/wfw/ (Accessed July 2010) Geber HM (2004) Mentoring of early career academics in South African Higher Education: A Transformation Strategy. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Geber HM (2003) Fostering career development for Black academics in the New South Africa. In: Global perspectives on mentoring: Transforming contexts, communities, and culture, eds. F. Kochan and J. Pascarelli. Information Age Publishing. Henderson L (2010) Surveys of alien weeds and invasive plants in South Africa, - Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA) Phase II, Final Report to Working for Water April 2005 – March 2010 Jacobs, Van Wyk and Wilson in these proceedings Should Melaleuca be an eradication target in South African fynbos? Looking beyond population data. Le Roux JJ, Geerts S, Ivey P, Krauss S, Richardson DM, Suda J, & Wilson JRU (2010) Molecular systematics and ecology of invasive Kangaroo Paws in South Africa: management implications for a horticulturally important genus. Biological Invasions, DOI 10.1007/s10530-010-9818-4


National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, Act 10, 2004, Government Gazette, Vol. 467 Cape Town 7 June 2004 No. 26436 http://www.environment.gov.za//PolLeg/Legislation/2004Jun7_2/Biodiversity %20Act -7%20June%202004.pdf Nel JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Mgidi TN, Mdzeke N, Le Maitre DC, van Wilgen BW, Schonegevel L, Henderson L & Neser S (2004) A proposed classification of invasive alien plant species in South Africa: towards prioritizing species and areas for management action. South African Journal of Science 100 January/February 2004 Stone K, & Coetzee, M. (2005) Levelling the playing field: reducing barriers to mentoring for women protégés in the South African organisational context. SA Journal of Human Resource Management 3(3), 33-39 Wilson et al. these proceedings Eradication and monitoring of Australian Acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR program, can species with long-lived seed banks be eradicated? Wittenberg R, & Cock MJW (eds.) (2001) Invasive Alien Species: A toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK, xvli – 228. Zenni et al. (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 75, 485–496.


Appendix - EDRR is actively working on about 18 invasive alien plant species as of July 2010, either in terms of assessing current status and future risk (step 3 on Fig. 2); or containment or eradication plans are being implemented (step 4). Plans are in place to start full scale assessments on several other species not listed here in the next year, while in some cases taxonomic issues relating to the list below still need to be resolved (step 2). Species Biome Categorisation Range size Records of naturalisation or 4 under South (quarter degree invasiveness African law1 grid cells) at project initiation2 Acacia implexa Fynbos 1a 2 South Africa only (Wilson et al. these proceedings) Acacia paradoxa Fynbos 1a 2 Australia (extra-limital), U.S.A. (California), Israel, New Zealand, South Africa (Zenni, et al. 2009; Wilson et al. these proceedings) Acacia stricta Fynbos 1a 5 New Zealand, South Africa (Wilson et al. these proceedings) Anigozanthos flavidus / Fynbos Surveillance list 1 Australia (extra-limital), South Africa (Le Anigozanthos rufus Roux, et al. in press) Banksia ericifolia Fynbos Not listed 1 South Africa only Campuloclinium Grasslands 1a or 1b depending 85 Southern Africa only macrocephalum on the province Cylindropuntia fulgida var. Arid 1b 7 (variety not Australia, South Africa mamillata specified) Cylindropuntia rosea / Arid Genus on 0 Australia, Cuba(?), South Africa Cylindropuntia tunicata surveillance list Fucraea gigantea (Fucraea Tropical Not listed 0 Various foetida) coastal Hydrilla verticillata Water bodies 1a 2 South Africa, Mozambique Lythrum salicaria Wetlands 1a 1 Various


Melaleuca ericeafolia

Melaleuca quinquinerva

Fynbos wetlands

Surveillance list

0

Present in 5 countries (GBIF), Australia (extra-limital), but not currently classified as invasive in this country (Jacobs et al. these proceedings) Present in 22 countries (GBIF) (Jacobs et al. these proceedings) Various South Africa Australia, Hawaii?

Fynbos Surveillance list 0 wetlands Spartinia alternifolia Estuaries Not listed 0 Tephrocactus articulatus Arid 1a 5 Triplaris americana Tropical 1b 1 coastal 1 According to the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, Draft Alien and Invasive Regulations 2009. 1a species require compulsory control; 1b species are controlled as part of an invasive alien species control programme; the surveillance list refers to species that have been identified as potential risks. 2 EDRR was initiated in April 2008. Data are from the South African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA), http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/. ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria. 3 New records can be from any source, and need not be attributable to EDRR, but the values here are as recorded by EDRR staff (in some cases prior to integration with SAPIA). 4 Data are from Global Compendium of Weeds, http://www.hear.org/gcw, accessed 20 July 2010; and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, http://data.gbif.org, accessed 20 July 2010.


The NOBANIS gateway on invasive alien species and the development of a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System Melanie Josefsson Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Natural Resources, SE106 48 Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]

NOBANIS (the European Network on Invasive Alien Species) is a gateway to information on invasive alien species in Europe. Eighteen countries in North and Central Europe participate in the NOBANIS network, which originally was funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers (20032008), but is now funded by member countries. The focus of NOBANIS is to provide information on IAS for environmental managers working with preventative measures, control and eradication of IAS in all environments. The NOBANIS gateway provides information on alien species and populations in distributed but integrated databases with more than 14,520 records, fact sheets on 59 of the most invasive alien species in the region, an identification key for alien species in the marine environment and a library on national regulations and literature. A charting function enables the user to produce figures from the databases for example trends in introduction, pathways of introduction, habitats invaded. After a workshop on developing a European Early Warning and Rapid Response System in June 2010, the focus of work within NOBANIS is continued improvement of the databases and on developing the early warning aspects of the gateway. A quarterly newsletter is produced to facilitate exchange of information. A ―species alert‖ function on the portal is under development. A pilot project has been initiated to implement a biogeographic approach in the databases to facilitate early warning functions in the future.


From mediocrity to notoriety – the case of invasive weedy rice (Oryza sativa) biotypes in Malaysian rice granaries Baki B. Bakar Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: [email protected] Weedy rice (WR), Oryza sativa L., aggregates are a scourge in the Malaysian rice granaries. We collated and analyzed field survey and experimental data on the extent of the infestation, the economic losses and the economics of control of WR for the past 20 years. Albeit season-mediated fluxes with erratic infestations from small pockets measuring less than 50 ha in total in 1987 to ca. 56,790 ha out of 230,000 of rice granaries in 2009 in Malaysia. Different degrees of both season- and field-mediated infestations were displayed, ranging from 50%. Based on conservative estimates of 5% yield loss due to WR infestation nationwide and the national average of 5 tons/ha, a yield loss of 0.25 tons/ha or 115,000 tons/year of rice yields valued at MYR172.5 million/year based on the government guaranteed price of MYR1,500/ton can be envisaged. The average input and labor costs of thorough land preparation, herbicides and application as well as manual weeding, roughing and panicle slashing of WR amount to MYR1,250/ha or MYR285.7 million/year nationwide. These costs augmented with monumental yield loss impacted not only on farmers‘ income but also the national target of self-sufficiency level of 86% of rice production by 2010. Future trends are discussed.

Introduction “If there is no man, there will be no woman. If there is no weed science there will be no agriculture. If there is no agriculture, there will be no mankind” (Baki B.B. 2005). Oryza sativa or weedy rice (WR) aggregates including red rice (RR) and their wild relatives remain a universal scourge in rice fields worldwide. They grow side-by-side as sympatrics where the crop is direct-seeded (Vaughan & Morishima 2003; Baki & Shakirin 2010). Together they represent some of the noxious and millennial weed species (Gressel 2000) in rice ecosystems globally (Chin et al. 2000; Baki 2005; Shakirin 2009; Baki & Shakirin 2010). The spread of weedy rice in Malaysia became significant due to the shift of rice culture from transplanting to direct seeding (Azmi et al. 2000). The cultural practices of direct- and volunteer seeding in the 1980‘s is suspected to be the most plausible uses for the origin and spread of weedy rice in Malaysia. In Malaysia and in the nieghboring countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, and elsewhere, the practices of dry-seeding culture using seeds from previous season are thought to be the most important factors causing the infestation of weedy rice in rice crop (Sadohara et al. 2000). The use of contaminated rice seeds and the movement of farm machinery between granaries are also factors related to this problem. With shorter maturation period compared with commercial rices and the manifestation of easy grain shattering, weedy rice 193 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

seems to be able to out-compete commercial rices. Since its first reported occurrence in 1987 by Wahab & Suhaimi (1991) in Malaysia, weedy rice inflicts yield losses to the rice crop, thus representing one of the most serious threats to rice production in Malaysia. Weedy rice infestations impact on rice production. Impact studies of WR or RR on the rice industry registered measurable loss in terms of yields and quality of harvest by farmers (Fisher & Ramirez 1993; Chin et al. 2000; Baki 2004; Shakirin 2009). Weedy rice infestation reduced growth and yields of commercial rice and is undesirable to rice farmers, to the milling industry, and to consumers alike. These reductions are augmented with parallel increase in the costs of crop management and care. Azmi et al. (2000) recorded cultivar-mediated variations in yield reductions due to WR interference, ranging from 8 to 34%. Weedy rice contaminants in the rice harvest lead to quality reduction and lower market value. Baki (2004, 2007) estimated that 5% field infestation of weedy rice in Malaysian rice fields led to an economic impact in yield loss of ca. 64,880 tons of rice valued at MYR 137,876,375/year or US$35,999,053/year. Millers complain that WR reduce total and head rice recovery, and lowers grain quality (Menzes et al., 1997; Azmi, pers. comms.), besides inflating the processing cost when WR are separated from milled rice. The Malaysian rice millers imposed premium penalties in grain harvest contaminated with weedy rice, thereby fetching lower prices at the mills (Azmi, M. pers. comm). This communication traces the infestation of weedy rice from a non-entity among weed populations in the late 1980s to its current status as the most important invasive weed in the Malaysian rice granaries. A brief treatment on weedy rice biotypes or aggregates, and socioeconomic impacts and losses due to ensuing infestation of weedy rice in the Malaysian rice ecosystems are also made. Management protocols of weedy rice in the rice eco-systems for the past decades with special emphasis on direct, and indirect, preventive, and substitutive agrotechnical and cultural methods of control of weedy rice were made. The rationale and approaches of integrated weed management including the economics of control of weedy rice are also discussed. The paper ends with a note on future challenges faced by the rice industry in managing weedy rice in Malaysia. Weedy rice aggregates, impacts and status of infestation in Malaysia “We sow rice seeds but weeds grow and establish” (Malay proverb). Weedy Rice Aggregates -Infestation and Spread. While pockets of Oryza officinalis, O. rufipogon, O. nivara grow sympatrically with commercial rices, weedy accessions of O. sativa infest extensively the Malaysian rice fields (Watanabe et al., 2000; Baki, 2006b, Shakirin 2009). Since its first detected occurrence in Tanjung Karang rice field, weedy rice has spread to other rice granaries in Peninsular Malaysia. The infestation has spread to Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA) MADA in 1990, Besut in 1995, Sungai Manik/Kerian in 1996, Seberang Prai in 1997, Seberang Perak and Kemubu in 2001 (Baki, 2006b) (Table 1). Albeit season-mediated fluxes with erratic infestations of the scourge from small pockets measuring less than 50ha in total in Selangor North-West Project in 1987 to ca. 49,000 ha out of 230,000 ha of rice granaries in Malaysia in 1997. The parallel figures of infestation for 2007, 2008 and 2009 were ca. 11,735 ha, 32,370 ha and 56,790 ha, respectively. Different degrees of both season- and 194 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

field-mediated infestations were displayed, ranging from 50%. Intriguingly, the scourge has spread to the rice fields in northern Sabah some 3,000 km away (Baki, unpublished data 2010). In the Muda region of Kedah, weedy rice was present in 82% of the farm blocks in 2001. About 91% of the farm blocks were infested by weedy rice in 2005 with 88% of the farm blocks having at least a 10% infestation (Baki et al., 2000; Shakirin, 2009; and Baki & Shakirin (2010). In Selangor North West Project, the infestation acreages dropped in 2000 and this was principally attributed to a successful weed control by farmers and consistent campaigns and advice by the government and other related organizations to alleviate the problem in the area (Azmi et al., 2004). The chronological appearance of weedy rice in Peninsular Malaysia was described by Baki (2006b)(Fig. 1).

1996 200 1 1996

1997 1999

198 8

Figure 1 - The chronological occurrences of weedy rices in the granaries of Peninsular Malaysia (after Baki 2006b). PA1, PA2…PA125, weedy rice accessions; [●], rice-growing areas and granaries. 195 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Weedy Rice Aggregates - Origin and Morphological Traits. The origin of weedy rices in Malaysia is essentially unknown and this intricacy remains to be unfolded. Weedy rices comprise 2 principal categories, one sympatric with wild rices, and another which occur in localities where no wild rice is found. In the former case genes introgression occurs commonly from the commercial varieties domesticated to the wild type, but the opposite direction of gene flow is rare because of the low fertility of the pollen grains and the high out-crossing rate in the perennial type type. The recurrent gene flow in this direction may lead to the production of a weedy type having an indica-type nuclear genome and a japonica-type cytoplamic genome (Sato, 2000). Abdullah et al. (1996) and Vongsaroj (2000) argued that the origin of weedy rice was through the segregation of the deciduous ―off-types‖ from extensively planted cultivars during the periods of volunteer seeding. Table 1 - The chronological estimates of weedy rice infestations in Peninsular Malaysia from 1995 to 2007 (updated from Shakirin 2009; Baki & Shakirin 2010) Granary MADA** Pulau Pinang Peraka Selangor** Negeri Sembilan Johor/Pahangb Terengganu Kelantanc Sabah Total +

Area (ha) 96459 14846 42966 18320 1095

1995 ? n n

1996 300 n** 9660 -

1997 225 40 n** 36664 -

Degree of infestation (ha) 1998 1999 2000 2001 50% grain shattering except the weedy rice Acc. 15. Integrated Management of Weedy Rice “The story of agriculture is indeed the story of weed interference “(Dekker 1997). No single weed management component or control method can effectively control WR in rice (Azmi et al., 2000; Noldin, 2000a, 2000b; Valverde, 2004). Farmers normally employ a battery 197 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

of indirect and direct control methods to achieve satisfactory results. These include, principally, the agro-technical and preventive methods comprising land preparation and tillage, water management and manual weeding; crop manipulation through seeding rates, planting density, and a choice of competitive cultivars; and chemical weed control (Noldin, 2000 a,b). Indirect Methods of Control: Preventive, Substitutive, Agro-technical and Cultural. The indirect control measures of WR are shown in Table 3. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits, and when used within the context of integrated weed management systems, should augment each other in reducing WR populations. Preventing the introduction of invasive weedy rice is the most effective method for their management and is an essential component of a noxious weed management strategy. However, this is difficult to enforce. The major elements of a prevention programme are to stop the introduction of weedy rice seeds or vegetative propagules, to reduce the susceptibility of the ecosystem to invasive weedy rice establishment, and to develop effective education and extension materials and activities, and establish a programme for early detection and monitoring. Strict quarantine enforcement preventing free movement of animals, vehicles and farm machines from infested lands should also be carried out. This is a difficult and an expensive routine to carry out. This would mean only certified high quality weed-free rice seeds should be planted by farmers (Baki et al., 2000; Vongsaroj, 2000). This is an achievable target with close monitoring and political will of the policy makers especially the quarantine office and the extension agents. In Malaysia only 35 -40% of the certified seeds are available to rice farmers and such situation aggravates further weedy rice problems now and for the future. The fact that certified rice seeds are not easily available or inadequate in supply and the fact that farmers rely on their own collection of seeds for planting, higher risks of weedy rice being a contaminant. Seed longevity in the soil is an additional character that enables population persistence over cropping seasons. Furthermore, the inherent seed dormancy in some variants of weedy rice makes control measures more difficult in rice cultivation. Reducing seed longevity or seed bank is a long-term strategy to reduce the deleterious effects of weedy rices on their commercial counterparts. This is a pre-requisite to long-term eradication of the scourge in the rice fields. Therefore, holistic control measures have to be developed which integrate indirect control such as thorough land preparation, high quality seeds, appropriate seeding rate and crop establishment technique. Cultural practice of WR include the use of stale bed techniques, water-seeded rice with pregerminated seeds, crop rotation, and management practices to reduce WR seed bank. WR seed longevity increases when the seed is buried deep in the soil (Nordin, 1995, Watanabe et al., 1996; Azmi et al., 2000; Vongsaroj, 2000). Following harvest, rice fields infested with WR should be left as a fallow, leaving the WR seeds near or on the soil surface, allowing them to germinate thus losing their viability faster than when buried deep in the soil. The size of seed bank plays an important role in determining the severity of infestation by weeds, including WR. Proper tillage must be undertaken to reduce this seed reservoir. Land preparation, especially puddled soils and harrowing, provides a weed-free environment for planting and often aids in the good crop establishment while minimizing weed growth and proliferation in the established crop. Azmi et al. (2000) advocated sequential tillage operations 198 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

within the framework of integrated weed management to reduce WR populations in directseeded fields (Fig. 2). The initial tillage should be shallow enough to encourage sizeable germination of WR seeds while subsequent tillage must be thorough enough to ensure that all volunteer seedlings are annihilated. Three rounds of tillage at 10-day intervals are effective in reducing WR populations. To ensure total kill, pre-planting or pre-seeding sprays with nonselective herbicides such as glyphosate or glufosinate ammonium are occasionally needed. Minimum or zero tillage (MZT) systems are used in many areas with severe WR problems. This is done either by seed drilling or water-seeding 15 - 20 days after land preparation and spraying of the fields with non-selective herbicides such as glyphosate or glufosinate ammonium (Nordin, 2000; Azmi et al., 2004). Appropriate water management is singularly important for controlling weeds irrespective of rice cultures. Inundation of rice fields suppresses weed emergence and establishment, including WR. Rice fields should be flooded soon after rice emergence, preferably at 5 -10 cm until booting stage, otherwise WR control is ineffective. In water-seeded rice, pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted in the water in leveled fields soon after seedbed preparation. This system warrants permanent levees, and offers one of the best alternatives for WR control in Brazil and elsewhere. Field drainage is monitored so as not to expose soil to air and increases in oxygen concentration in the soil, thereby stimulating WR germination. Table 3 - Components of indirect control methods of weedy rice (modified from Baki, 2006b). Control components Merits / Demits Quarantine measures, difficult & expensive to enforce; use of Prevention/Eradication WR- free certified seeds effective in long-term control, require effective quarantine and extension services. Panicle cutting of WR before maturity; expensive to carry out in large farms.

Tillage/Stale seedbed

2-3 rounds of tillage, augmented by blanket or spot sprays with low doses of glyphosate. Field levelling is necessary. Tillage implements should be free from WR contaminants, difficult to enforce in systems where farmers hire tillage/harvesting machines.

Water management

Fields inundated 5 -10 cm, 5 days after wet-seeding or 14 days after dry seeding. Inundation of rice fields suppresses WR emergence and establishment.

Seeding technique/rate seeding

Pre-germinated wet seeding gives better seedling establishment than dry of 80-100kg/ha vis-à-vis the optimum 60kg/ha seeding rate as insurance against establishment uncertainties.

Crop rotation

Rice-maize rotation grown at alternate years for 4 years controlled WR effectively and this brings about changes to the overall crop-weed ecology. Allows rotation of herbicides; prevent subsequent build-up of weed resistance. Farmers plant high-priced market-driven produce, rather than rice for better income.

Choice of cultivars/planting date Competitive short maturation cultivars can out-compete WR, e.g. MQ 95.


Our limited studies indicated that two rounds of thorough soil ploughing or rotovation in the land preparation followed by leveling would enable weedy rice seeds to germinate and establish before herbicidal treatments with non-selective herbicides such as glyphosate (0.8 – 1.7 kg ae ha1 ) or glufosinate ammonium (0.6-1.1 kg a.i. ha-1) 10-14 days later gave measurable control against WR seedlings at 3-4 leaf stage. An important component in the indirect cultural and preventive weed control methods in rice is the use of suppressive and competitive rice cultivars against WR. A short-maturing variety, such as MQR 95, out-competes WR, and this will indirectly help reduce the WR seed bank where early harvesting of the rice crop when WR is still at its flowering stage (Azmi et al., 2000). Puckridge et al. (1988) recommended the planting of cultivars with distinguishing colour traits (e.g. Khao Niew Dam), such as a cultivar with purplish stems and leaves to differentiate crop from weedy forms, to aid in manual weeding. However, this tactic will only be successful in the long term and if hybridization with wild rice is prevented, with prudent choice of planting dates.

Figure 2 - Integrated approach in weedy rice control in direct-seeded fields in Malaysia (after Azmi et al., 2000). Developing Herbicide-Tolerant Rice Cultivars. Malaysia through the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) has developed some promising lines of imidazolinone- resistant rice biotypes. This was made possible by crossing Clearfield® rice cultivar with locally produced modern rice cultivars (Azmi, M., pers. comm. 2010). So far five such lines have been identified showing resistance to imidazolinone. According to Croughan (1994), an ethyl methane sulfonate-induced mutation of the acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene is the basis for herbicide resistance in the imidazolinone rice varieties, conferring resistance to imidazolinones and certain sulfonylurea herbicides. These Malaysian IMI-rice cultivars are yet to be released to the rice farming communities. Due to the fear of possible introgressions with 200 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

weedy rice, the arguments made by Riches & Valverde (2002) and Madsen et al. (2002), among others, that prior to the introduction of HR crops including HR/HT rice, their short- and longterm risks should be thoroughly assessed should be followed. I believe that scientists at MARDI have yet to undertake such risk analyses following the release of IMI-rice to the rice farmers in the country. Generally, the cultivation of HR/HT rice would lead to parallel increase of volunteer rice crop problems (Sankula et al., 1998). Further, WR plants may emerge out in frequent timemediated flushes, and hybridization, however, low in frequency, may still prevail. If we were to follow the arguments of Madsen et al. (2002), using a ten-year run, predicting that resistance to glufosinate would occur within 3 -8 years of monoculture, then the basis of releasing IMI-rice in Malaysia would equally be flawed and risky with the possibility of weedy rice biotypes acquiring resistance over time. There are enough evidences that the introduction of these herbicide-tolerant (HT) or herbicide-resistant (HR) rices accentuate the risks of gene flow into weedy relative, the WR (Gealy et al., 2003; Shivrain et al., 2004) or the potential development of herbicide-resistant or ferality in WR (Gealy & Estorninos, 2004). Such risks are monitored through simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker and phenotypic analyses of segregating populations to identify, quantify, and track the WR hybrids in farmers‘ and research fields. Being sympatrics, rice and WR are primarily self-pollinated, but can cross-pollinate one another, providing avenue for the transfer of genetic traits such as herbicide resistance from rice to weedy rice. Direct Methods of Control. Physiological similarities between WR and cultivated rice limit chemical control options (Jordan & Sander, 1999). With the absence of herbicides for WR control in commercial rice, Malaysian rice farmers are encourages to rotate rice fields with other crops. This option is not readily acceptable to Malaysian for the very reasons of irrigation regimes in the rice granaries although such rotation of crops not only will bring about changes to the overall crop-weed ecology, but also prevent the continuous use of same herbicide(s) and the subsequent build-up of weed resistance (De Datta & Baltazar, 1994; Valverde et al., 2000). Except for glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium, most of graminicides for WR control are used in the presence of the rice crop. Application of oxadiazon at 250 g a.i. ha -1 or oxadiargyl at 72 -100 g a.i. ha-1 to control WR, obtained significantly higher rice yields than the control (Chin et al., 2000; Azmi et al., 2000). Slight injuries to cultivated rice were observed under drained field conditions. Measurable control of WR in Malaysia was reported with molinate at 4.5 kg a.i. ha-1 and thiobencarb at 300 g a.i. ha -1, respectively (Azmi et al. 2000). Graminicides such as clethodim, fluazifop-P, quizalofop-P and sethoxydim were more efficient for the control and seed head suppression of WR especially at booting stages than when applied at early growth although the efficacy was dependent on application timing and environmental conditions during treatment. High levels of WR control were ranging from 84 to 92% with PRE applications of alachlor, dimethenamid, metolachlor, acetolachlor at the respective rates of 2.4, 1.4, 2.5, and 1.5 kg a.i. ha-1. The parallel figures of WR control with POST applications of glyphosate, glufosinate, or quazilafop-ethyl were 92, 89, 81 and 100%, respectively. Pre-flood applications of glufosinate at 0.42 kg ha-1 at 2-3 leaf rice initially, and at the early tillering stage, and glyphosate at 0.42 - 0.84 kg ha-1 also gave consistent control of WR. Manual roughing of WR seedlings or plants before heading are being practiced by farmers in tropical Asia and Latin American countries (Azmi et al., 2000a; 2000b). This method of control is limited as it is labor intensive, and can be expensive, especially in countries relying on foreign 201 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

labor. I believe strongly that if back-breaking manual weeding is still instituted in weed control against WR or any weed species for that matter in this so called post-modern era of the new millennium, then something is wrong with our attitude towards humanity as a whole. Either the world community is not sensitive to the needs and suffering of the human race, or there are real gaps in our extension activities to help modernize farmers weed management effort and boost their rice yields. Economics of control of Weedy Rice and impact of its infestation in Malaysia The costs incurred to manage weedy rice vary according to the granaries. These differences stem out partially on the level of infestation prevailing in the rice fields, and also in the costs of the labor input to carry out chemical, manual weeding or roughing and panicle slashing of weedy rice. Labor is increasingly scarce in Malaysian rice fields due partly to the aging of farmers. Lately foreign labor from neighboring countries is contracted in rice farming from land preparation to harvesting, even with combine harvesters. Recent surveys (1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010) conducted in Malaysian rice granaries indicated that the costs of herbicide sprays ranged from MYR 15 – MYR 50/ha depending on the localities Manual roughing and panicle slashing of weedy rice cost MYR 500-MYR 650/ha. If the costs of thorough land preparation as indirect costs of weedy rice management as well as herbicide inputs are taken into account, the total costs would be in the region MYR 1000 –MYR 1250/ha. On the higher extreme, the costs of managing weedy rice in the country would be estimated at MYR285.7 million nationwide based on rice growing areas of 624,000 ha. With granary- and season-mediated differences in infestation levels of WR, it is quite difficult to ascertain the yield loss due to WR in Malaysian rice fields. Our conservative estimate of 5% field infestation of WR nationwide would inflict yield loss of no less than 0.25 tons/ha based on the national average yield of 5 tons/ha or 115,000 tons/year of rice yields valued at MYR172.5 million/year based on the government guaranteed price of MYR1,500/ton. Our surveys in 2000, 2003, 2005, and 2007 registered field WR infestations ranging from 25 to 35 % with the respective acreages of 3265, 8144, 8902, 9832, and 14,280 ha (Table 1). However, there were many rice fields in the country that registered infestation ranging from 50% infestation, depending on the levels of control undertaken by the farmers either through agro-technical or herbicide-based control measures. Our field studies indicated that with 35% of WR infestation, density-mediated yield losses would in the regions of 50-60%, or 3.20 - 3.84 tons/ha/season valued at MYR4,800 – MYR5,670/ha/season. Baki (2007) estimated that 5% field infestation of weedy rice in Malaysian rice fields led to an economic impact in yield loss of ca. 64,880 tons of rice valued at MYR 137,876,375/year or US$35,999,053/year. Additionally, weedy rice infestations incur further costs to Malaysian rice farmers. Farmers need to practice thorough land preparation, water management, and herbicide-based weed management to ensure total control of weedy rices and other weeds prior to seeding. Measures of proper agronomic practices and proper crop care will inevitably lead to more hours spent in the fields. For some farmers these valuable hours should be spent elsewhere to generate better income or better-paid jobs. In the same vein, inculcation of the zero-tolerance concept and practice of weed infestation among farmers is difficult and expensive, especially among aging 202 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

rice farmers in the country. This failure will aggravate weedy rice problems for many years to come. One of the actions needed to bring down the infestation of WR is to change the rice culture presently from direct seeding to transplanting. Such a change would enable manual weeding to be done under transplanting rice culture compared with direct seeding. Transplanting rice culture would incur extra cost to rice farmers ranging from MYR850/ha to MYR1,200/ha compared with MYR200/ha in direct seeding rice culture, inclusive of the costs of seeds. Future Challenges The new millennium witness food security and food scarcity (FSFS) as major issues haunting the world populace at large and Malaysia is no exception. With our current needs exceeding our domestic supply, Malaysia imports about 27% of the rice from Thailand and Vietnam, and lately from Cambodia and Myanmar. The government targets 86% of self-sufficiency level (SSL) in rice by2010. This aim should be attained through serious action and mitigation to increase rice supply with more than US$1 billion allocation to improve infrastructures, drainage and agricultural inputs. It becomes the responsibility of rice farmers and those involved in the rice industry to produce enough rice for domestic consumption. The demand for rice outclassing supply coupled with the increasing world‘s population spell uncertainty in the world rice market. Malaysia being a net rice importer is likely to be affected by this spin-off. Recently, two of the world‘s biggest supplier of rice, Thailand and Vietnam, plagued by drought and floods, announced shortfalls in supply, hence the reduction in export quantity of the commodity. A perennial issue facing rice farmers in Malaysia is pest outbreak with weeds being the most important. The advent of recalcitrant, hard-to-control millennial weeds like WR, coupled with increasing incidences of herbicide-resistant weed species in rice ecosystems worldwide including Malaysia are challenges that the rice industry at large has to face, requiring farmers to invest higher input costs to control these weeds. The ability to implement control measures against WR with minimal input costs yet inflicting no yield loss to commercial rice warrants the commitment of farmers, extension agents and other players in the rice industry. The WR infestations inflict yield loss to a variable degree. The ability of extension agents to inculcate awareness among rice farmers that WR infestations inflict yield loss to a variable degree, and that integrated control measures against the scourge must be carried out early enough, are key challenges facing the rice industry. This is especially important to small-scale peasantry rice farming communities, where state of the art control inputs and credit facilities are not always at their disposal. Farmers must be advised that intensive rice monoculture breeds resistance in other weed species. The use of certified WR-free rice seeds, the sharing or use of WR-clean tillage and harvesting implements, and cutting of immature WR panicles are other ways to prevent the spread in non-infested fields. Truly the advent of invasive WR from a non-entity in the late 1980s to a largely recalcitrant scourge in the new millennium is worrisome to the players in the rice industry. This is aggravated by increasing costs of inputs in rice production in the country. There is a need to institute aerobic rice production in the country in the face of increasing competition for water – a move that is likely to increase WR and other millennial weed problems further. Intensive research to find solutions to WR problems based on IWM concepts and practice will go a long way to help achieve the 100% SSL in rice production in the country. 203 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

With innumerable accessions the deciduous ―off-types‖ of WR segregants from extensively planted cultivars during the periods of volunteer seeding (Abdullah et al., 1996; Vaughan et al., 2001; Valverde, 2004; Shakirin, 2009), the problems of WR in rice fields are here to stay. Our ability to manage these WR populations below the economic threshold levels season after season requires the sharing of knowledge and experience for the common good of humanity. The establishment of global databases and of a WR management network is one way that the entire world rice community can share and benefit from each other. The MED-Rice is one of such network. Such networking facilities are not common in rice-growing areas of the developing countries for a variety of reasons. The technological gap between the rice-growing areas of USA, Europe and Japan, and those in the developing world like Malaysia is one reason for the ―apparent lack of dialogue and cooperation‖ to solve WR problems worldwide. The weed science fraternities, especially those working in WR management need to bridge this gap. I can say with pride that rice farmers in Malaysia enjoy not only price-support system and subsidies in many forms from the government but also good extension and technical-support services from government-run agencies. In this way fair price to the farmers are assured while providing affordable rice to the Malaysian consumers. References Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Watanabe H & Okuno, K (1996) The origin of weedy rice in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI Res. J. 24(2), 169-174. Azmi M, Abdullah MZ & Fujii Y (2000) Exploratory study on allelopathic effect of selected Malaysian rice varieties and rice field weed species. J. Trop. Agric. & Food Sci. 28, 39-54. Azmi M, Mislamah AB & Mohd Rafee U (2004) A Technology Manual For Weedy Rice Management. MARDIDepartment of Agriculture, Publication, Kuala Lumpur, 36p. Baki BB (2005) The world‘s landscapes of weedy rice: An overview. Proc. 20thAsian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference (Ho Chi Minh City) 1, 45-52. Baki BB (2006a) Shaping the Future of Weed Science to Serve Humanity. University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 178p. Baki BB (2006b) Weed Ecology and Management in Rice Ecosystems. University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 373p. Baki BB (2007) A Review on Invasive Plants in Malaysia. Abstract – International Symposium on Invasive Alien Plants in Asia, 5-7 October 2007, National Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (NIAES), Tsukuba, Japan. Baki BB, Mislamah MA & Azmi M (2000) Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Peninsular Malaysia. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 51-54. Baki BB & Shakirin MM (2010) Spatio-temporal Distribution Pattern of New Biotypes of Weedy Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Selangor North-West Project, Malaysia. Korean J. Weed Science (2010)(in press). Chin DV, Tran VT & Le VT (2000) Weedy rice in Vietnam.In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 45-50. Croughan TP (1994) Application of tissue culture techniques to the development of herbicide resistant rice. Lousiana Agric. 3, 25-26. De Datta SK & Baltazar AM (1994) Paper presented at the Conference on Herbicide Use in Asian Rice Production, March 28-30, 1994, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA, 8p. Dekker J (1997) Weed diversity and weed management. Weed Sci. 45, 357-363. Fisher AJ & Ramirez A (1993) Red rice (Oryza sativa): competition studies for management decisions. Intl. J. Pest Mgmt. 39, 133-138. Gealy DR, Mitten DH & Rutger JN (2003) Gene flow between red rice (O. sativa) and herbicide-resistant rice (O. sativa): Implications for weed management. Weed Technol. 17, 627-645.


Gealy DR & Estorninos Jr LE (2004) Hybridization between red rice and rice in the U.S.: Implications for gene flow and ferality. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. p. 76. Gressel J (2000) Novel controls of millennial weeds. Abstracts 3rdIntl. Weed Sci. Congr., p.1 Harlan JR (1969) Evolutionary dynamics of plant domestication. Japanese J. Genetics 44 (suppl.), 337-343. Jordan D & Sanders DE (1999) Pest Management. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University AgCenter, Louisiana Rice Production Handbook. Publ. 2321, pp.37-50. Madsen KH, Valverde BE & Jensen JE (2002) Risk assessment of herbicide-resistant crops: A Latin American perspective using rice (Oryza sativa) as a model. Weed Technol. 16, 216-223. MED-Rice Network (2005) Web page: http://www.medrice.unito.it/. Accessed May 2010. Menzes VG, da Silva PRF, Carmona R, Rezera F & Mariot CH (1997) Red rice interference on milling yield of irrigated rice cultivars. Lavoura Arrozeira 50, 3-6. Mislamah AB & Baki BB (1999) The spatio-temporal pattern of distribution of weedy rice accessions in Sungei Burong rice granary of Tanjung Karang, Selangor. Proc. 17th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference 1(A), 105-115. Noldin JA (1995) Characterization, seed longevity, and herbicide sensitivity of red rice (Oryza sativa L.) ecotypes, and red rice control in soyabeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. PhD dissertation, Texas A & M. University, College Station, Texas, 218p. Noldin JA (2000a) Weedy rices. Abstracts: 3rdIntl. Weed Sci. Congr., p.246. Noldin JA (2000b) In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 21-24. Puckridge DW, Chankasom L, Vonsaroj P, Thongbai P & Chinawong S (1988) Effect of tillage and sowing methods on control of wild rice. Proc. Intl. Deep Water Rice Workshop (Manila), IRRI, pp. 593-598. Riches CR & Valverde BE (2002) Agricultural and biological diversity in Latin America: Implications for development, testing, and commercialization of herbicide-resistant crops. Weed Technol. 16, 2000-214. Sadohara H, Watanabe O & Rich G (2000) Control of red rice. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 87-90. Sankula S, Braverman MP & Oard JH (1998) Genetic analysis of glufosinate resistance in crosses between transformed rice (Oryza sativa) and red rice (Oryza sativa). Weed Technol. 12, 209-214. Sato Y (2000) Origin and evolution of wild, weedy, and cultivated rice. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 7-16. Shakirin MM (2009) Descriptive analyses of new biotypes of weedy rice in the Selangor North West Project, Malaysia. MSc thesis, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 245p. Shivrain VK, Burgos NR & Rajaguru SN (2004) Cultivar and planting date affect gene flow between Clearfield rice and red rice. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. (Durban), p. 53. Valverde BE, Riches CR & Caseley JC (2000) Prevention and Management of Herbicide Resistant Weeds in Rice: Experience from Central America with Echinochloa colona. San Jose, Costa Rica. Camara de Insumos Agrorecuarios de Costa Rica, 123p. Valverde BE (2004) Characteristics, impact and management of weedy rice (Oryza spp.) in rice (O. sativa) in Latin America. Abstract: 4th Intl. Weed Sci. Congr. (Durban), p. 11. Vaughan LK, Ottis BV, Prasak-Harvey AM, Bormans CA, Sneller C, Chandler JM & Park WD (2001) Is all red rice found in commercial rice really Oryza sativa? Weed Sci. 49, 468-476. Vaughan DA & Morishima H (2003) Biosystematics of the Genus Oryza . In: Rice, Oreigin, History, Technology and Production (C.W. Smith, R.H. Dilday, eds.). John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ, pp. 25-65. Vonsaroj P (2000) Wild and weedy rice in Thailand. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 59-68. Wahab AH & Suhaimi O (1991) Padi angin, adverse effects and methods of eradication. Teknologi Padi 7, 27-31. Watanabe H, Azmi M & Md Zuki I (1996) Ecology of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.), locally called padi angin, and its control strategy. In: Ecology of major weeds and their control in direct seeding rice culture of Malaysia. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Collaborative Study (1992-1996) (Watanabe, H., Azmi, M. & Md. Zuki, I., eds.), pp. 112-166. Watanabe H, Vaughan DA &Tomooka N (2000) Weedy rice complex: case studies from Malaysia, Vietnam, and Surinam. In: Wild and Weedy Rice in Rice Ecosystems in Asia – A Review (Baki, B.B., Chin, D.V. & Mortimer, M., eds.). IRRI, Manila, Philippines, pp. 25-34.


Assessment and attempted eradication of Australian acacias in South Africa as part of an EDRR programme John R. Wilson1,2*, Haylee Kaplan1, Carlo de Kock3, Dickson Mazibuiko1, Jason de Smidt 3, Rafael D. Zenni1, Ernita van Wyk2 1

Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa 2 South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Gardens, Claremont 7735, South Africa. 3 Invasive Species Control Unit, South African National Parks, Ground Floor Westlake Square, Corner Steenberg Road & Westlake Drive, Cape Town, South Africa * Corresponding author, Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa, [email protected], Tel: +27 (0)21 808 3408, Fax: +27 (0)21 808 2995 One of the targets of the initial phase of the South African National Programme for Early Detection and Rapid Response (EDRR) of Invasive Alien Plants has been introduced wattles (Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae (DC.) Ser.). While 15 Australian acacias are listed in South African regulations on invasive plants, only eleven are widespread. The remaining four species (A. adunca, A. implexa, A. paradoxa, A. stricta) have not been investigated in depth, nor has there been a concerted or sustained effort to manage these invasive populations. In this paper we describe EDRR's involvement in Australian Acaica species, in particular: current plans to eradicate A. paradoxa from Table Mountain; initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta; and surveys to determine the status of other introduced Australian Acacia species. Introduction Australian Acacia species (or wattles, i.e. Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae) are regarded as a model group in invasion biology (Richardson et al., 2011). Management practices around the world have focussed on the most widespread invaders, but given the difficulties of long-lived persistent seed-banks, preventing or eradicating new invasions before invasions become established will be the best strategy (Wilson et al., 2011). South Africa is in the process of developing a strategic plan for managing biological invasions, and wattles have been used as a test case (van Wilgen et al., 2011). Draft South African regulations on invasive alien species (National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2009) lists fifteen species of wattles. Eleven of these have been subjected to substantial investigation and are found at several sites throughout the country (Figure 1). These species are undisputably invasive (category E according to the scheme proposed by Blackburn et al. (2011)); are the subject of on-going management; and are propsed under the draft regulations either as category 1b if they are not widely used, or as 2 or 3 if they still provide benefits in some instances. 206 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

The remaining four species (A. adunca, A. implexa, A. paradoxa, A. stricta) are proposed to be listed as category 1a (defined as "requiring compulsory control"). For management purposes this is taken to mean they are eradication targets. While A. implexa, A. paradoxa, and A. stricta are spread over several hundred hectares (and so are category E), given its restricted distribution, A. adunca is taken to be category D1. One more species, not included in the legislation, A. viscidula¸ is also recorded as naturalised and spreading from a single site (D1).

Figure 1 - Frequency distribution of invasive alien plants range sizes in South Africa, with fifteen invasive Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae shown in black. Data are from the South African Plant Invaders Atlas (accessed 2009). Continental South Africa covers 1944 quarterdegree grid cells (QDGCs). The total number of species recorded in SAPIA changes through time with taxonomic revisions and new findings, in particular the numbers shown here do not reflect the revised results from the EDRR work. Another nineteen species of wattle have been introduced to Southern Africa for commercial reasons according to a recent review (Poynton, 2009). A further sixty or so species are recorded in South African Herbaria, suggesting they have been introduced at some time or other. See Richardson et al. (2011) for a compliation of all the species lists. In this article we describe the work done by the South African National Programme for Early Detection and Rapid Response of Invasive Alien Plants (EDRR) (Ivey et al., this volume) to combat wattle invasions. The specific aims are to: a) implement the eradication of A. paradoxa 207 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

from Table Mountain through adaptive management; b) provide both initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta; and c) determine the status of other introduced Australian Acacia species. Eradication of A. paradoxa from Table Mountain (Cape Town, SA) Acacia paradoxa D.C. (Kangaroo Thorn) is currently restricted in South Africa to around ~3.1 km2 on Table Mountain (Devil‘s peak) (Moore et al., 2011). The current population is thought to be the result of a few plants initially introduced as a curiosity around the end of the nineteenth century, followed by a long history of neglect (Zenni et al., 2009). Alien plant clearing operations started targetting the plant in the mid-1990s. While the intention of the recent management efforts was to eradicate the population, the clearing until now can be categorised as sporadic and partial, focussing mostly on the largest and presumably oldest plants. The first detailed survey of the population was conducted in 2008 as part of a student project (Zenni et al., 2009), and since then targetted efforts have been co-ordinated by EDRR to ensure the population is eradicated. General alien clearing operations in the affected area (based on figures from 2009/2010) cost around 400–600 Rands. ha-1, with the return time in any one location approximately 3–5 years. However, this is insufficient to prevent plants producing seeds, particularly as one year old plants can possibly set seed and plants over 2m tall are missed during the clearing. In an area of 45 000 m2 evaluated 3 years after general alien clearing operations, around 1 000 A. paradoxa plants were found, most showing signs of reproduction (Zenni et al., 2009). Fortunately, the population does not appear to have spread far from the initial point of introduction, and the seed-bank is confined almost exclusively to below the canopy. If annual search-and-destroy operations systematical survey the affected area during the flowering season (i.e. August–October) (Fig. 2), it is likely that seed-set can be prevented. Indeed, a recent decision analysis suggested that the optimal management goal for this population is eradication (Moore et al., 2011). After the first year of clearing in response to the report of Zenni et al. (2009) , a wild-fire in early 2009 went through much of the affected area. This allowed an assessment of the effect of fire on seed germination. In both field assessments and lab trials, fire stimulated up to 90% seed germination compared to an average of around 10% in normal conditions (D. Mazibuko, unpublished data). Despite the fact that in the dense areas there was 100% cover with A. paradoxa following the fire, there was a substaintial regrowth of species other than A. paradoxa. This new species-specific approach that was not confined to previous operating plans was one of the reasons for developing an EDRR (Ivey et al., this volume).


a)

b) Figure 2 - Example of surveying work on Acacia paradoxa on Table Mountain in December 2009. a) physical area surveyed; b) track-lines recorded and plotted on Google Earth. Each icon represents the location of an Acacia paradoxa that was found and treated. The survey consisted of teams of three or four, walking up, then down with one of the surveyers carrying a GPS. So at least four people walking parallel to each other will have surveyed in the gap between tracks (see Zenni et al., 2009 for more details).

The project is now in a follow-up phase involving further search-and-destroy surveys and pulling of seedlings that have emerged following the Vredehoek fire in May 2009. In 2010 the unburnt areas (1.45 km2), were resurveyed costing 64 000 Rands, and about a hundred adult 209 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

plants were found (not found on previous surveys). Later in the year and in the start of 2011, in the burnt section over 600,000 seedlings were hand-pulled on a contract costing 400 000 Rands. As such the exercise is much more expensive than general clearing operations (which will still continue in the area separate to the A. paradoxa work). Initial estimates suggest that working in groups of 2–4 people, each person can cover 1–2 ha per day (so a total requirement of around 200 person field days per year). However, this approach is estimated to be much more costeffective than if either no action is taken, or containment is attempted (Moore et al., 2011). The total cost estimate if control is successful is 5.4 million Rands spread over 20 years. In addition to the walked search-and-destroy surveys (Fig. 2), areas immediately adjacent to the park will be surveyed (EDRR provides a more flexibile mandate than if the process was controlled solely by South African National Parks); and in steep areas within Table Mountain National Park, specifically trained and equipped "high angle teams" will be used, and plants treated as before. As for most of the invasive Australian Acacias in South Africa (Richardson & Kluge, 2008), A. paradoxa has a significant long-lived seed-bank of >1000 seeds m-2 in places, and our concern is that in dense areas, the seed-bank will persist for decades. Given the fact that Table Mountain National Park is a World Heritage Site, alien clearing operations are likely to be a part of land management for many years to come. Nonetheless, efforts to reduce the seed-bank would be advisable. Unfortunately, the infested site is very close to Cape Town (see Figure 1), and as such the requirements for allowing fires in this area are stringent. The main future steps in the eradication will be to assess the success and control of current practices and assess the likely benefits of using different methods to reduce the seed-bank. Initial field and risk assessments for A. implexa and A. stricta The initial assessment of A. implexa was started in 2009, and was completed in early 2011 confirming the view that this species should also be an eradication target (Kaplan et al. in review South African Journal of Botany). Three populations of A. implexa have been identified, mapped, and studied as part of a student project funded by EDRR. The survey found approximately 30 000 A. implexa individuals within a total invaded area of 6 km2 across the three sites. While A. implexa produces a prodigious amount of seed, it appears not to have spread widely yet (perhaps through poor dispersal and high seed mortality), although it is beginning to spread along one water-course. Control is problematic given its strong ability to sucker, but general clearing operations (co-ordinated but not managed by EDRR) are on-going. The exact delimitation of the species in South Africa is not certain as the species is difficult visually to separate from Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. in W.T.Aiton. Indeed, several new reports of sightings have subsequent been confirmed as A. melanoxylon. We have distributed identification leaflets asking for new sightings, and if many new reports are confirmed, then the project will need to be reassessed. But given the relatively slow spread, but the threat it poses to biodiversity, it will remain an eradication target for the present. Acacia stricta (Andrews) Willd. is only known from a few populations scattered through the Kynsna and Wilderness areas of the Southern Cape. Much of the population appears to be 210 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

situated close to road-sides in pine plantations, though it is reaching high densities in places, and is again a prolific seed producer. It is unclear how it reached the area, but has been there for at least 15 years, perhaps being spread by vehicles or road resurfacing work. Control of mature plants appears to be relatively straight-forward, although the seed-bank may represent a major challenge for eradication, and certainly the populations along the major highway (the N2) were of concern regarding its potential spread. A thorough survey of the area in September 2010 found eight populations of A. stricta and a total of ~ 20 000 plants, all of which occured on plantation land. The infestations straddle various land-owners and management areas (in particular the Mountain to Ocean Forestry Company). EDRR facilitated a meeting of all stakeholders involved in May 2011, and the group are developing a joint management plan. This is a good example where EDRR can act as an independent co-ordinator to ensure that appropriate control occurs wherever plants are found (see paper by Ivey et al., this volume). Surveys of other introduced Australian Acacia species Records of Australian acacias in the Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas as well as records in South African Herbaria are being collated and followed up. Acacia adunca Cunn. ex Don is currently known to have naturalised in only one site in South Africa, ―Bien Donné‖ Experimental Farm in the Franschoek Valley, and the population is being assessed. However, it has not spread widely and is not an immediate priority for eradication. Several other species have also been found. Acacia viscidula Benth. is invading Newlands Forest on the slopes of Table Mountain in Cape Town, and a few plants of Acacia ulicifolia (Salisb.) Court and Acacia retinoides Schldl. have naturalised at Tokai Arboretum in Cape Town (i.e. category C3). Reports of Acacia fimbriata Cunn. ex Don in Grahamstown have been followed up, but no plants were found (potentially category A2). We still need to confirm if a reported naturalised population of A. cultriformis Cunn. ex Don from Ladybrand exists. There are also arguable two species that are planted in some numbers but are not recorded as invasive Acacia pendula Cunn. ex Don and Acacia floribunda (Vent.) Willd. (potentially category B2), but again more work is required to confirm their status as not naturalised. Conclusions Given the number and diversity of Australian acacias introduced to South Africa, they represent an excellent test case both for general theories of invasivenss and for our ability to conduct eradications. The long history of introduction and plantings means that there is a high possibility for many species that are currently at low density to become invasive in later years, and the long-lived seed bank represents a challenge for control. We would, however, conclude that specific EDRR type projects are warranted on Australian Acacia species as: they allow the flexibility to look at infestations across administrative and management boundaries; they provide continuity of funding; and EDRR provides the focus required for eradication. The last point is particularly important given the number of invasive Australian Acacia species that require general management. 211 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Acknowledgements This work was funded by South Africa‘s Working for Water Programme (WfW) of the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs, with support from the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology. The work would not have been possible without numerous field assistants and clearing teams, we would particularly like to thank Agnes Sogiba and Douglas Euston-Brown. We would also like to thank Chris Botes of SAN Parks for bringing several new sightings to our attention. References

Blackburn TM, Pyšek P, Bacher S, Carlton JT, Duncan RP, Jarošìk V, Wilson JRU & Richardson DM (2011) A proposed unified framework for biological invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 333–339. Moore JL, Runge MC, Webber BL & Wilson JRU (2011) Contain or eradicate? Optimising the goal of managing Australian acacia invasions in the face of uncertainty. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.14724642.2011.00809.x. National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (2009) Draft Alien and Invasive Regulations (eds Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism). Government Gazette, Pretoria, South Africa. Poynton RJ (2009) Tree planting in southern Africa: vol. 3 other genera. Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. Richardson DM, Carruthers J, Hui C, Impson FAC, Miller J, Robertson MP, Rouget M, le Roux JJ & Wilson JRU (2011) Human-mediated introductions of Australian acacias—a global experiment in biogeography. Diversity and Distributions 17, (in press no DOI yet). Richardson DM & Kluge RL (2008) Seed banks of invasive Australian Acacia species in South Africa: Role in invasiveness and options for management. Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics 10, 161177. Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas, http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/ [Accessed 2009]. ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria. van Wilgen BW, Dyer C, Hoffmann JH, Ivey P, Le Maitre DC, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Wannenburgh A & Wilson JRU (2011) A strategic approach to the integrated management of Australian Acacia species in South Africa. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00785.x. Wilson JRU, Gairifo C, Gibson MR, Arianoutsou M, Bakar BB, Baret S, Celesti-Grapow L, Dufour-Dror JM, Kueffer C, Kull CA, Hoffmann JH, Impson FAC, Loope LL, Marchante E, Marchante H, Moore JL, Murphy D, Pauchard A, Tassin J, Witt A, Zenni RD & Richardson DM (2011) Risk assessment, eradication, containment, and biological control: global efforts to manage Australian acacias before they become widespread invaders. Diversity and Distributions 17, DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00815.x. Zenni R, Wilson JRU, Le Roux JJ & Richardson DM (2009) Evaluating the invasiveness of Acacia paradoxa in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 75, 485–496.


The value of context in early detection and rapid response decisions: Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Ernita van Wyk1 and Llewellyn Jacobs2 and John Wilson1,3 1

South African National Biodiversity Institute. P/Bag X7. Claremont 3357. Cape Town. South Africa 2 CapeNature. Scientific Services. Private Bag X5014. Stellenbosch 7599. South Africa 3 Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, South Africa In the context of the South African Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme, decisions around risk and response have to be made as quickly as possible using available data. In an adaptive management framework, control is coupled with the collection of data on e.g. history of species behaviour elsewhere, presence of traits associated with invasiveness and spatial distribution at known sites. As data collection proceeds, estimates of risk of spread are revised. This paper uses an example of Melaleuca invasions in a mediterranean ecosystem (fynbos) in the Western Cape, South Africa as an illustration of how risk and response should be updated as more information becomes available. We describe how contextual insights augment the fundamental understanding of the invasion system. We show how the consideration of aspects such as expected ease of effort, population data, history of introduction, and site history all enrich the initial assessments made on the basis invasiveness elsewhere and species traits. Such considerations are expected to enhance understanding of the broader system variables that influence risk assessment of invasive species within mediterranean fynbos. We produce a conceptual framework to illustrate this finding. Introduction Most governments and societies endorse the allocation of resources to the protection of biological diversity. They also support resource allocation to reduce the risks associated with threats to biodiversity such as those posed by invasive alien organisms (McGeoch et al., 2010). However, the resources to address the invasive alien problem are limited and must be prioritised in order to leverage acceptability of results for any given investment. Within the South African Early Detection and Rapid Response Programme (EDRR) context (see Ivey et al. this issue), the focus of resource allocation is on species that have naturalised but are not yet widespread. Given a set budget and the large number of potential targets, only a few species can be prioritised. Such prioritisation needs to consider both the invasion risk posed and the ease with which goals can be achieved given the management context (Moore, 2010). Because such risk decisions are intended to direct human behaviours and financial resources, approaches to the assessment of invasion risk is a well debated and much researched topic. According to Giampietro (2004), ‗risk‘ is a situation in which it is possible to assign a distribution of probabilities to a given set of possible outcomes. The assessment of risk can be based on the knowledge of probability distribution over a known set of possible outcomes 213 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

obtained using validated inferential models. Alternatively, risk can be determined in terms of agreed-upon subjective probabilities. However, Giampietro (2004) is quick to remind us of the difference between a complex natural system and the scientific representation of that system, the latter being a construct that confines our efforts to understand the system to what we believe to be relevant attributes of the system. In this sense, a risk assessment is a representation of the complex natural system based on criteria believed to be most influential in determining the invasive potential of a species. Typically, invasive alien risk assessments are based on biological, ecological and biogeographical criteria, the measures of which are used to populate risk models. Commonly used criteria include climate and distribution, undesirable traits, weedy relatives and weediness elsewhere (Pheloung et al., 1999; Nel et al., 2004 and Mgidi et al., 2007; Brunel et al., 2010). Even in cases where risk and prioritisations are based on subjective expert agreement (Roura-Pascual et al., 2009) and where non-biological traits are incorporated into risk models (e.g. Burns, 2006) the derivation of risk tends to be mechanistic rather than aimed at developing an interpretive understanding of the wider ecological and the even wider social-ecological system (Stirling et al., 2007). In this paper, we examine an example from invasive melaleucas in the South African mediterranean climate region. Our observations of populations of two exotic Melaleuca species with apparently similar residence time, but which have shown surprisingly ‗uncharacteristic‘ spread rates, have provided an opportunity to interrogate our assumptions about how we determine invasive potential and risk and ultimately the decisions we have made in the EDRR Programme. We use this example to illustrate how contextual information can enrich risk-based decision-making and the allocation of public resources. Based on these insights, we develop a conceptual framework that prompts interpretive thinking about the larger system beyond what we can know about the biology and ecology of the species of interest. Although some literature on biological invasions suggest a more holistic approach to understanding the invasion system (see Lockwood et al., 2007; Simberloff, 2009), none of these attempt explicit conceptual advances in this direction. This paper presents an example from the Melaleuca invasions in South Africa to illustrate how contextual information contributes to risk and decision-making. Approach We use a grounded approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to reflect on and document some key considerations that have affected our understanding of the system of selected Melaleuca invasions in South Africa and which have encouraged us to revise our response. The points made are not intended to be exhaustive, but rather aim to illustrate the value of incorporating contextual aspects into an understanding of an invasion system. Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Members of the Melaleuca genus have long been popular garden and urban street ornamentals in South Africa, indeed one of the most popular varieties takes its name from the financial capital: hybrid Melaleuca bracteata var. "Johannesburg Gold". None of the species have been widely cultivated in the country although M. alternifolia is planted for its medicinal and culinary uses. Historically, melaleucas were also common features of botanic gardens. Despite apparent opportunities for spread, reports of naturalisation and invasiveness are relatively rare: the only 214 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

records prior to the study described here are of M. hypericifolia and M. wilsonii naturalising on the Cape Peninsula and from a flower farm in the Western Cape respectively; and M. quinquenervia recruiting at the Tokai arboretum in Cape Town (source: SAPIA database). First records and initial risk assessment During 2007 and 2009 respectively, staff of a provincial conservation agency (CapeNature) discovered two relatively small, naturalising populations of M. ericifolia and M. quinquenervia on and close to the Waterval Nature Reserve near Tulbagh in the mediterranean climate region of the Western Cape. The Tulbagh sightings mentioned here were the first records of major invasion events by melaleucas into natural areas in South Africa. Conservation staff initially required confirmation of the species identity, in particular whether it was native or alien to the region. In May 2009, this information was passed on to the newly formed national EDRR Programme which operates as part of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). As EDRR was embarking on a 3-year pilot phase, the melaleuca discovery at Waterval presented an excellent opportunity for SANBI-EDRR, CapeNature and others to form a partnership to better understand and manage these invasions. The discovery of M. quinquenervia in South Africa, a few months after the discovery of M. ericifolia, was especially interesting because of the extensive and well documented M. quinquenervia invasions in the Florida Everglades and the comprehensive and costly U.S. investment spanning several decades (Laroche & Ferriter, 1992; Laroche, 1999; Pratt et al., 2003; Dray et al., 2006). This example is well known in the invasion ecology and management circles and M. quinquenervia has been listed as one of the 100 worst invasive alien organisms globally (Lowe et al., 2000). In contrast, we have not been able to source any scientific records of M. ericifolia being invasive, apart from weediness in south-eastern Australia (Global Compendium of Weeds). However, there is much known about the ecology of M. ericifolia because it is used as an indicator of wetland dynamics in its native range in Australia (Robinson, 2007; Salter et al., 2010). Both M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia prefer growing in seasonal wetlands (Hamilton-Brown et al., 2009) suggesting that these habitats are considered the most at risk. Figure 1 shows a mind-map indicating how species knowledge and invasiveness elsewhere were the factors that initially influenced EDRR perception of risk. As per convention, the EDRR team set out to measure selected variables that would provide us with baseline data to characterise the M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia populations. In a destructive sampling exercise, we recorded plant height, width, basal stem diameter, number of growth rings (age) where possible and the exact geographical coordinate of each live stem. The information gathered allowed us to characterise each population precisely such that we are able to quantitatively monitor population response to treatment. The information also allows us to model potential rate of spread. We furthermore spent many hours at the respective sites and beyond, observing the plants, debating variables of interest and conversing with various land managers about the Melaleuca populations.


Species knowlesge e.g. M. ericifolia ecology well studied

Habitat requirements Actual distribution

Invasiveness and impacts elsewhere e.g. M. quinquenervia well studied & control techniques refined

Preliminary estimation of risk

Response planning, prioritisation, resource allocation and action

Figure 1 - A mind-map showing the factors that initially influenced EDRR perception of risk.

Melaleuca quinquenervia was introduced into the U.S. more than a dozen times for a variety of reasons and in large numbers since 1815 and now covers approximately 200 000 ha of wetlands in southern Florida (Dray et al., 2006). Its invasive tendencies were recorded from around the 1920s. The species is well adapted to growth in both tropical and temperate climates, indicating that it may be adapted to invade all areas of South Africa apart from the driest interior. Large-scale and intensive efforts by the U.S. government to manage M. quinquenervia in Florida began in 1988 (Laroche, 1999). As part of their efforts to control the species, they have refined herbicide application techniques and have isolated the active ingredients most effective against the plant. In addition, the U.S. task team for M. quinquenervia have made their lessons and experience available on a website (http://tame.ifas.ufl.edu/) which has greatly facilitated fasttracked learning by the South African EDRR team. In many ways, the well-researched and wellpublicised U.S. example has had the effect of raising the risk perception of the species in South Africa, improving our readiness to respond to the problem. Knowing which herbicides are most effective has also been beneficial in response planning. These aspects show that being able to learn from others‘ experiences improves the likelihood of preventing the spread of a species and providing a robust motivation for allocating resources to a project. Figure 2 shows how our initial perception of risk was increasingly enhanced by new information and notably by information that was not related to the biology of the species. Initial EDRR field observations and measurements One of the first intriguing observations was that the naturalised M. quinquenervia population near Tulbagh was much smaller than that of M. ericifolia (0.02 km2 vs. > 0.4 km2). Preliminary estimates of age ring counts suggested that the M. ericifolia population currently being removed is aged between 9 and 11 years. The M. ericifolia population residence time may be older, since we found 3 large plant remains of what would have been M. ericifolia mother trees, amongst the live plants in an area which is likely the source of the infestation. Stems in the M. quinquenervia 216 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

populations were too soft and papery to produce age rings, but some had basal stem diameters of up to 23 cm. From observations of large charred plants, the population survived the most recent fire in 1988 (source: CapeNature fire records) and thus the M. quinquenervia population must be at least 22 years old. Based on these observations, M. ericifolia seems to have been released from a lag phase and has spread across an area at least 50 times the size of the M. quinquenervia population. In Florida, M. quinquenervia thrives in permanent wetlands in subtropical climate (similar to its native Australian climate) whereas in Tulbagh M. quinquenervia occurs in a seasonal wetland is subject to a typical mediteranean climate. Consequently, at this stage, we are regarding M. quinquenervia as an eradication possibility whilst eradication potential for M. ericifolia needs further assessment. The initial expectation was therefore that M. quinquenervia represented a much large threat, and that perhaps M. ericifolia was of low risk, but that for M. quinquenervia much management information was readily available (See Figure 2). Stage

Melaleuca ericifolia

Melaleuca quinquenervia

Notes

First report of invasiveness

LOWMEDIUM

Not initially reported

Learning from invasions elsewhere

LOWMEDIUM

VERY HIGH

Field observations and measurements

HIGH

HIGH

Understanding

HIGH

HIGH

Initial reports of an invasion from CapeNature (M. ericifolia) indicated a species to be considered. Only on the first site visit was another species naturalising mentioned. Based on experience in other countires, M. quinquenervia was immediately prioritised as of concern, but there was no indication M. ericifolia was particularly widespread. Mapping exercise quickly showed that M. ericifolia occupied a substantial range at increasing densities. With a small range there was little indication that M. quinquenervia had spread far. By raising awareness new populations of M. ericifolia were identified. Understanding how and why the species were introduced was essential to determining where to look, though given the precautionary principle the risk assessments were not changed.

the context

Uncertainty

Diversity of information sources

Figure 2 - Qualitative risk perceptions were updated during the course of the ongoing investigation. These risk perceptions were combined with management context (e.g. ease of eradication) to determine the response. The Waterval Nature Reserve staff manages a number of mountain catchments in the area for biodiversity protection and water conservation. This conservation area is fringed by agricultural land and plantations. Because of poor soils and insufficient rainfall, the state owned commercial 217 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

forestry industry in the Western Cape has embarked on a strategy to reduce its activities in areas where wood cannot be grown viably. As forestry decommissioned some of their plantations, these areas were returned to conservation authorities for rehabilitation. Both the M. quinquenervia and M. ericifolia populations are found on previously forested sites, with the melaleucas emerging after eucalypt and pine trees were felled and not replanted. During 2009, the staff at the Kluitjieskraal forestry office learnt of the melaleucas at Waterval, and approached the EDRR Programme, indicating that M. ericifolia has become widespread in the understory of the plantation forests managed by them. A site visit confirmed this and indicated that the M. ericifolia population is much larger than we had initially thought. At first, the known population of M. ericifolia covered approximately 40ha. A further 40ha was discovered (Kluitjieskraal wetland) and since plants were found to be relatively widespread in the plantation forest understory, we currently estimate the total area under M. ericifolia to be greater than 100ha (1km2). Importantly, it prompted us to understand more about a possible linkage between commercial forestry practices and the Melaleuca populations relevant to EDRR. In terms of risk perception, even though risk remains high (unchanged), awareness of new populations changes the management context and the perception of ‗ease of eradication‘ decreases (See Figure 2).

Making sense of context History of introduction Given that the Kluitjieskraal forestry station and its associated nursery are the second oldest in the country (established in 1877; MTO Forestry, pers. comm.), we considered the possibility that Melaleuca seeds had arrived to be grown as ornamentals. However, a recent review of tree plantings in Southern Africa (Poynton, 2009) does not mention any introductions of Melaleucas for commercial reasons. We are busy investigating the Kluitjieskraal import and nursery records, but as yet there is no direct evidence of deliberate introduction, and as such introduction as a soil contaminant is a possibility. We also spent some time browsing the area in and around the Kluitjieskraal estate. We found other bottlebrush species (e.g. Callistemon rigidis and Melaleuca styphellioides) beginning to naturalise in the Kluitjieskraal wetland. This would support the notion that there was a historical collection of imported Myrtaceae in the area, but again this remains to be seen. In either case, plants appear to have established and spread as a result of the ideal seasonal wetland conditions and the removal of competition by the felling of commercial eucalyptus and pine species. As a consequence, EDRR staff decided to direct their surveillance strategies towards forest plantations and conservation areas that had previously been forested, to determine the true extent of M. ericifolia populations. Ease of eradication Having the benefit of the U.S. experience, together with the small size of the M. quinquenervia population in South Africa presents an attractive and cost-effective eradication opportunity. Costs for the South African project so far (based on 12 months of effort) amounts to R15 000 (Assuming a cost of R120 per person day, accommodation and meals, equipment and transport since July 2009). An estimation of future costs (the next 15-20 years) still needs to be made. In comparison, the U.S. spent US$ 25 million between 1988 and 1998 and they estimated that the cost of no action in the Florida Everglades would be US$ 161 million per year in lost revenue (Laroche, 1999). As with the American control project, the South African project enjoys 218 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

good political and financial support as well as the benefit of effective collaborations to support both research and management. These factors are all in line with Dan Simberloff‘s five key requirements for likely success in eradication (Simberloff, 2009): (1) early detection and quick action, (2) sufficient resources for the full duration of the project, (3) a dedicated authority to drive agency co-operation, (4) sufficient information about the species, and (5) enthusiastic project leaders. In contrast, the feasiblitiy of eradicating M. ericifolia has yet to be determined, since the population is larger and more scattered widespread than initially estimated and our confidence in knowing the extent of the population is still low. Precautionary principle For both Melaleuca species we invoke the ‗precautionary principle‘, accepting that we should not wait for impacts to be measurable before we act (Blossey et al, 2001; Simberloff, 2003) and while there is political and financial backing, to commit to the best possible efforts for eradication and containment. For M. quinquenervia, even though its spread seems currently to be very limited, our risk perception is heightened by the commonly used risk criterion of ‗invasiveness elsewhere‘ and thus choose to act to caution against its spread. In contrast, we cannot lean on the same criterion for M. ericifolia. However for this species, we still use the precautionary principle and allocate resources to control, since our perception of risk for this species is triggered by our on-site observations that it is spreading successfully across the landscape. A conceptual framework We considered the contextual aspects discussed and realised that have substantially influenced our perception of risk, and therefore planning and actions. Figure 3 (see appendix) presents a mind-map of how we see contextual information contributing to risk estimation and response management of Melaleuca invasions in South Africa. Discussion Our findings highlight several lessons for EDRR. Firstly, we show that risk-criteria commonly used such as invasiveness or weediness elsewhere, are not perfectly predictive. Even though in the cases shown we would be prudent to attach high risk to M. quinquenervia, on-site observations for M. ericifolia suggest that we should attach as much risk to this species as to M. quinquenervia and that this should be reflected in response planning and action. This finding highlights the need to update preliminary risk assessments with site- and context-specific information. Our findings also show that decisions in terms of response planning and action are as much influenced by opportunity as risk. In other words, decision-making is not purely riskbased. Ease of eradication and sustained political will provide two points that affect how we motivate for species prioritisation and resource allocation in EDRR. These factors also highlight the limitation of population data as it can provide only a partial insight into risk estimation and response planning that will lead to likely success.


In general our findings have led us to expand our understanding of the drivers of risk for the two Melaleuca species and we have used these insights to understand how we have rationalised our adjustments of risk perception for the two species. We also found that contextual information can affect how we think about, and possibly lead us to adjust our responses. Directly measured population data provide quantitative information about the attributes of the population and built into a model, can produce predictive indications of risk of future spread. This provides essential base-line against which management efficacy needs to be measured, and is necessary to convince interested and affected parties that action is required. But, these parameters (reflecting the ‗current state‘ of invasion) are symptomatic of underlying drivers of the invasion system and the social system that is both the cause and the response mechanism. We suggest that contextual information provides us with possible key driving variables that aid us in developing a more fundamental understanding of the system and the ‗problem‘ or ‗symptom‘ that we see (Senge et al., 2008). In taking this approach, we recall Giampietro‘s point by attempting to develop a more comprehensive and more fundamental representation of the system we are interested in. A good example from the South African melaleucas is the link with plantation forests in the area as a possible source of infestation. Importantly, this has led us to consider directing resources to future surveillance strategies to plantation forests and recovering natural areas that were previously under plantation. It has also drawn our attention to the forest industry as an important collaborator in our EDRR efforts. In the end, we affirmed both species to be high-risk candidates, but we have gained a better understanding of the underlying drivers of the patterns of invasion. An interesting point from our experience with the melaleucas is that the new contextual insights did not come about in an anticipated manner. Instead, the new information emerged as a result of planned as well as unplanned collaborations between various agencies. For EDRR, this indicates the importance of collaborative links in the promotion of information sharing and the generation of new insights. It also means that gathering contextual insights typically cannot be done in a mechanistic way, but are emergent properties of a collaborative knowledge creation system. The performance of EDRR staff in South Africa is in part evaluated on their collaborations, with the intention to motivate staff to develop inter-organisational linkages. In summary, a broader and more context-based understanding of the invasion system has prompted us to inform our risk assessment with a more diverse knowledge contribution. The emergence of natural resource approaches such as place-based management (Manuel-Navarrete et al., 2006) and implementation-oriented research (Bammer, 2005) signify a recognition of place-based insights and diverse knowledge contributions to an improved understanding of whole system functioning. The melaleuca example indicates the importance of both human and natural history in an EDRR context (see Dayton & Sala, 2001). The challenge for EDRR will be to ensure these aspects are meaningfully combined in response planning and action. The Melaleuca species project in South Africa is in its infancy and many challenges await. However, we are encouraged by an approach that is more sensitive to context and believe that incorporating these aspects into a more fundamental understanding of the invasion system will promote more effective responses.


Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge our partners, MTO Forestry and CapeNature staff at Waterval. We also kindly acknowledge our funder, the natural Resource Management Programme of the Department of Environmental Affairs. References Bammer G (2005) Integration and implementation sciences: building a new specialisation. Ecology and Society 10(2), 6. Blossey B, Skinner LC & Taylor J (2001) Impact and management of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in North America. Biodiversity and Conservation 10, 1787-1807. Brunel S, Schrader G, Brundu G & Fried G (2010) Emerging invasive alien plants for the Mediterranean basin. EPPO Bulletin 40, 219-238. Burns J (2006) Relatedness and environment affect traits associated with invasive and non-invasive introduced Commelinaceae. Ecological Applications 16(4),1367-1376. Craven LA (2006) New combinations in Melaleuca for Australian species of Callistemon (Myrtaceae). Novon 16, 468-475. Dayton PK & Sala E (2001) Natural history: the sense of wonder, creativity and progress in ecology. Scientia Marina 65(2), 199-206. Dray FA, Bennet BC & Center TD (2006) Invasion history of Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake in Florida. Castanea 71(3), 210-225. Giampietro M (2004) Multi-scale integrated analysis of agroecosystems. CRC Press. Florida. Global Compendium of Weeds. Accessed 20 July 2011: http://www.hear.org/gcw/. AgWest and the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project. Hamilton-Brown S, Boon PI, Raulings E, Morris K & Robinson R (2009) Aerial seed storage in Melaleuca ericifolia Sm. (Swamp paperbark): environmental triggers for seed release. Hydrobiologia 620, 121-133. Laroche FB (1999) Melaleuca Management Plan. Ten years of successful Melaleuca management in Florida, 19881998. Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Laroche FB & Ferriter AP (1992) The rate of expansion of Melaleuca in South Florida. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 30, 62-65. Lockwood JL, Hoopes MF & Marchetti M (2007) Invasion Ecology. Blackwell Publishing. Massachusetts. Lowe S, Browne M, Boudjelas S & De Poorter M (2000) 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species. A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Published by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission of the World Conservation Union. Manuel-Navarrete D, Slocombe S & Mitchell B (2006) Science for place-based socioecological management: Lessons from the Maya Forest (Chiapas and Petén). Ecology and Society 11(1), 8. McGeoch MA, Butchart S HM, Spear D, Marais E, Kleynhans EJ, Symes A, Chanson J & Hoffmann M (2010) Global indicators of biological invasion: species numbers, biodiversity impact and policy responses. Diversity and Distributions 16, 95-108. Mgidi TN, Le Maitre DC, Schonegevel L, Nel JL, Rouget M & Richardson DM (2007) Alien plant invasions – incorporating emerging invaders in regional prioritization: a pragmatic approach for southern Africa. Journal of Environmental Management 84, 173-187. Moore JL, Rout TM, Hauser CE, Moro D, Jones M, Wilcox C & Possingham HP (2010) Protecting islands from pest invasion: optimal allocation of biosecurity resources between quarantine and surveillance. Biological Conservation 143, 1068-1078. Nel JL, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Mgidi TM, Mdezeke N, Le Maitre DC, van Wilgen BW, Schonegevel L, Henderson L & Neser S (2004) A proposed classification of invasive alien plant species in South Africa: towards prioritising species and areas for management action. South African Journal of Science 100, 53-64. Pheloung PC, Williams PA & Halloy SR (1999) A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions. Journal of Environmental Management 57, 239-251. Poynton R J (2009) Tree planting in Southern Africa: vol. 3 Other Genera. Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. Pratt PD, Slone DH, Rayamajhi MB, Van TK & Center TD (2003) Geographic distribution and dispersal rate of Oxyops vitiosa (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of the invasive tree Melaleuca quinquenervia in South Florida. Environmental Entomology 32(2), 397-406.


Robinson R (2007) Regeneration mechanisms in swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia Sm.) and their implications for wetland rehabilitation. PhD thesis. Victoria University, St. Albans, Victoria, Australia. Roura-Pascual N, Richardson DM, Krug RM, Brown A, Chapman RA, Forsyth GG, Le Maitre DC, Robertson MP, Stafford L, van Wilgen BW, Wannenberg A & Wessels N (2009) Ecology and management of alien plant invasions in South African fynbos: accommodating key complexities in objective decision making. Biological Conservation 142(8), 1595-1604. Salter J, Morris K, Reed J & P.I. Boon (2010) Impact of long-term, saline flooding on condition and reproduction of the clonal wetland tree Melaleuca ericifolia (Myrtaceae). Plant Ecology 206, 41-57. South African Plant Invader Atlas (SAPIA) database. Agricultural Research Council. Plant Protection Research Institute. South Africa. Accessed 2009. Available online: http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/ Senge P, Smith B, Kruschwitz N, Laur J & Schley S (2008) The Necessary Revolution. How individuals and Organisations are working together to create a sustainable world. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. London. pp.406. Simberloff D (2009) We can eliminate invasions or live with them. Successful management projects. Biological Invasions 11, 149-157. Simberloff D (2003) Eradication - preventing invasions at the outset. Weed Science 51, 247-253. Stirling A, Leach M, Mehta L, Schoones I, Smith A, Stagl S & Thompson J (2007) Empowering Designs: towards more progressive appraisal of sustainability. STEPS Working Paper 3, Brighton, STEPS Centre. Strauss A & Corbin J (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research. Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. (2nd Edition). SAGE Publications. London. pp. 312. Wilson J RU, Richardson DM, Rouget M, Procheş Ş, Amis MA, Henderson L & Thuiller W (2007) Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Diversity and Distributions 13, 1122.


APPENDIX Figure 3. Mind-map of how we see contextual information contributing to risk estimation and response management of Melaleuca invasions in South Africa Denotes application of the precautionary principle Species knowledge e.g. M. ericifolia ecology well studied

Habitat suitability

Invasiveness and impacts elsewhere e.g. M. quinquenervia well studied & control techniques refined

Forestry nursery records?

Other Melaleuca species found on forestry estate

Rate of spread Biological data

Emergence pattern Emergence following plantation clear fell and in forest understory > surveillance strategy adapted

On-site observations of extent and recruitment e.g. M. ericifolia not invasive elsewhere but considered high-risk

Actual distribution

Refined estimated RISK

Response planning, prioritisation, resource allocation and action (i.e. risk reduction)

Ease of eradication e.g. M. quinquenervia


Code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants V H Heywood Centre for Plant Diversity & Systematics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, RG40 6AS, UK. Email: [email protected]

It is estimated that about 80% of invasive alien plants in Europe have been are introduced through the horticultural industry and trade for ornamental purposes. This major pathway must be addressed to help prevent further entry and spread of invasive alien plants in Europe. Currently, only a few legislation instruments are in place and management programmes are limited. As an urgent first step, voluntary measures to tackle the problem and raise awareness among the horticultural sector and the public are needed. It is in this context that the Council of Europe and the European and Mediterranean Plant Organization (EPPO) have cooperated in preparing a code of conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants for European and Mediterranean countries,. This code of conduct, published in 2009, provides essential background information and a set of guidelines for Governments and the horticultural and landscape sectors on regulation concerning invasive alien plants, plant wastes disposal, labelling of plants, proposing alternative plants, publicity, etc. The code is voluntary and requires action at the country level to promote and implement its recommendations.


Industry view on importance and advantages of a Code of Conduct on horticulture and invasive alien plants Anil Yilmaz Antalya Exporter Unions General Secretariat, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]

The International Association of Horticultural Producers (AIPH) represents horticultural producers' organisations all over the world. The horticultural industry supports the aim to preserve the biological diversity. The reinforcement of the biological diversity in urban areas, the improvement of the greening in cities is considered and supported as the essential aim of national strategies for biological diversity. Therefore AIPH has interest in the prevention of introduction and spread of invasive plants. Their interest is that a Code of Conduct is set up by the sector itself or in partnership with government and/or NGO‘s. A code may not just be layed upon the sector by the authorities. The rules have to be made by and in agreement with the target group. They also can agree on the sanctions, within ethical and legal boundaries. Introducing a Code of Conduct can only be successful if there is awareness of the problem and stakeholders find it their responsibility to take preventive measures. The organisation that edits the Code of Conduct has to be representative for the sector. The form and the content have to be accessible, consistent, applicable, realistic and feasible. To be effective a Code needs incentives, compliance and assurance. Major reasons to encourage self-regulations are 1) preventing government regulation, 2) concern for the image of the sector, 3) concern for the environment and 4) corporate social responsibility. Although Code of Conducts is not a new way of self-regulation, in the horticultural sector it is relatively new. Since the middle of the 90-ties codes of conduct or code of practice have been introduced in the field of environment and social aspects. Some Codes of Conduct or Code of Practice for preventing the spread of invasive plants have been introduced in the last few years. Other initiatives like Action Plans or Management Plans towards invasive species, edit by governments, are more compulsory.


Effectiveness of policies and strategies in tackling the impacts of Invasive Alien Species on biodiverse Mediterranean ecosystems in South-West Australia Judy Fisher School of Plant Biology University of Western Australia / Fisher Research, PO Box 169, Floreat, Perth, Western Australia 6014, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

When policies, strategies and prioritization processes for invasive alien species (IAS) are based on individual species, whether it is at a global, regional or whole of country level, discrepancies can occur resulting in long term negative impacts on highly biodiverse ecosystems. The Convention on Biological Diversity (Bonn, 2008) invited Parties to consider the impacts of IAS on biodiversity, utilizing an ecosystem approach for specific biogeographical regions, and to focus on the restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems degraded by the presence of IAS. Research organizations were called on to study the impact of IAS on socio-economic factors, health and the environment. Plant invasions in Mediterranean Regions of the world provide the opportunity to consider ecosystem impacts of invasive species with ecosystems the focus, rather than the invading species. Examples will be provided within woodland, coastal and wetland ecosystems in the South-West Australian mediterranean biodiversity hot spot, where financial assistance based on individual invasive species, of ―national significance‖, has led to limited resources being directed to highly biodiverse ecosystems and consequent ecosystem decline. The Copenhagen Meeting on Climate Change (December 2009) identified the vulnerability of ecosystems to a changing climate and the importance of maintaining and increasing their resilience through good management, thus enhancing their climate mitigation potential via the sequestration and storage of carbon in healthy forests, wetlands and coastal ecosystems. In the examples provided the decline in the functioning of invaded biodiverse ecosystems will be demonstrated. Questions will be raised as to whether investment in invasive species research and management would be more effective for biodiversity protection if the strategies and policies directing investment were focused on the ecosystem approach rather than a single species approach. A diagrammatic representation, based on evidence based ecosystem research, will be presented outlining the limited potential to restore transformed invaded ecosystems without early intervention.


Combining methodologies to increase public awareness about invasive alien plants in Portugal Elizabete Marchante1, Hélia Marchante 2, Maria Morais 1 & Helena Freitas 1 1

CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology. Department of Life Sciences. University of Coimbra. PO Box 3046. 3001-401 Coimbra. Portugal; [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]; 2CERNAS-Centre for Studies of Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Department of Environment. Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra, 3040-316 Coimbra, Portugal. [email protected] Citizens represent a vector of introduction and spread of invasive alien species (IAS) and, on the other hand, can play a major role in helping to prevent and control IAS. Even though IAS and their consequences are recognised by the Portuguese law since 1999, a large proportion of the population is still unaware of biological invasions. To reduce this gap, the research team has devoted a considerable effort to promote public awareness and engage the public with IAS, namely invasive plants. A web page was developed, field-work projects for university students and training courses for professionals dealing with exotic plants and for schoolteachers were organized. Online questionnaires were performed targeting municipalities, forestry associations, horticultural trade, etc. Additionally, printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal, including a field guide, a technical document about identification and control, bookmarks and postcards were produced. Finally, workshops and other initiatives were organized. At the same time, an effort is being made to evaluate the effectiveness of these various approaches. Overall, public awareness about IAS is increasing, but more work is needed. Future work will involve diversifying the field actions, namely by establishing protocols with local and regional administrative entities, and planning a pilot early-detection programme. Introduction Biological invasions represent one of the main threats to biodiversity worldwide, they alter ecosystem services and have significant economic impacts (Mooney & Hobbs 2000, Lambdon et al. 2008, Gaertner et al. 2009, Hulme et al. 2009, Vilà et al. 2009). In Europe alone, the known economic impacts are estimated at about €10 billion/year (Hulme et al. 2009). Scientists, politicians (Commission of the European Communities 2008, Ministério do Ambiente 1999) and Global Organizations (ISSG, UICN, Millennium Assessment), all recognize the magnitude of the problems caused by invasive alien species (IAS), stressing the need for strategies that reduce their impacts on biodiversity. Although establishment of invasive species can be prevented if they are controlled soon after introduction, management and control of IAS already established and spread is a complex and generally difficult and costly task. Therefore, the more cost-efficient strategy is to prevent the introduction of IAS. To achieve this, a strong investment in prevention and public awareness about IAS is essential. The general public is an important vector of introduction and spread of IAS (Ruiz & Carlton, 2003), but, if strongly engaged, a public well 227 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

informed can help to prevent further introductions of IAS and have a major role in helping to control or mitigate them. Furthermore, in order to develop sustainable management programs for IAS, scientists and other professionals dealing with exotic species, as well as decision-makers, need to be adequately informed about IAS. Importantly, public awareness activities need to be carefully evaluated in order to allocate available resources to the approaches that are the most successful at changing attitudes and actively engage the target publics. In Portugal, although IAS and their consequences are recognized by the Portuguese law since 1999 (Decreto-Lei nº 565/99), many people are not aware of biological invasions and of the problems they cause. Even though the main focus of the research team is on scientific research, soon after initiating work on invasive plants we realized both the huge lack of awareness of the Portuguese population about this theme and the importance of communicating it countrywide. Therefore, we have made a strong commitment to engage the public with IAS, specifically by including public awareness tasks and activities in our research projects as much as possible. Since 2003, several initiatives and methodologies have been used to raise awareness about invasive plants in Portugal (Table 1): 1) development of a web-page, 2) summer field-work projects, 3) training courses, 4) online questionnaires aiming to survey the awareness of different target publics, 5) printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal and 6) other activities, namely thematic workshops, participation in forums, school talks, public events, etc. These initiatives and methodologies have reached about 0.2% of the Portuguese population (excluding the outreach of the web-page which is available to a larger population), including very diverse target publics. Funding for the activities came mainly from research and science communication projects, being designed specifically only for some of the activities, namely for field-work projects and printed documents, while for others the estimates are mostly based on man-working days (Table 1). Development of a Web page Aims: to produce simple available information about invasive plant species in Portugal and biological invasions in general; to communicate results of scientific projects and multiple public awareness activities. Description: a web page was developed and is available at http://www.uc.pt/invasoras; this was the first web page in Portugal with information about invasive alien plants at the country level. All information is available in Portuguese, since the main target public is the Portuguese population, but several menus are available also in English. The menus in the web page include: 1) biological invasions (with basic information about the process of plant invasion, characteristics, impacts and management of invasive plants, etc.); 2) invasive plants in Portugal (including detailed information about the plant species listed as invasive in the Portuguese legislation and some other species not yet listed but with invasive behaviour; and including also a list of potentially invasive plants – information about these species will be further developed in the near future); 3) research and other projects (namely objectives, tasks and main results of some of the on-going research projects about invasive species); 4) on-going activities of public awareness; 5) publications and outputs and 6) news. Additionally, an e-mail address is available for users to consult experts about invasive plants.


Table 1 - Initiatives and methodologies used to raise public awareness about invasive plants in Portugal by a team from CFE and CERNAS. Type of Target public activity/methodology Web-page General public http://www.uc.pt/invasoras Field-work projects University students and professional, mainly of environmental, forestry and biological sciences Training courses: Identification and control Technical publics of IAP** dealing with IAP** Biological invasions and Schoolteachers environmental education

Public reached* > 130 200

Online questionnaires

Municipalities Forestry associations Higher education courses Horticultural industry Botanical gardens

81 51 52 33 4

Technical publics dealing with IAP** General public 8 to 12 years old general public

> 2 ...................... > 2 000 > 2 000 > 10 000

Available since 2005 (out of print) Available since 2009 (out of print) Available since 2009 Available since 2009

6 400 .... 18 000

Mainly students, but also the general public General public and students General public, students, horticultural trade, conservation experts, foresters, etc. sub-total (not considering the web page): total:

> 650 > 1 500 > 1 500

10, since 2008 4, since 2008 > 30, since 2007

5 000

Printed documents: Plant species technical profiles Invasive plants field guide Postcards to color Bookmarks collection Other initiatives: Thematic workshops Science and nature forums and fairs Talks

Time frame Available since 2003

Costs (€) *** 5 500

> 170

9 annual editions 180 since 2003 (1 week 000 each)

40

3 editions: 2005, 3 500 2006 & 2007 (25h each) 1 200 1 edition: 2009 (25h) Distributed during 2 500 2006 and 2007

25

> 20 000 (~0.2% Portuguese population) > 150 000

60 100

* Approximate numbers; **IAP – invasive alien plants; *** some values are rough estimates based on man-days to develop the activities, though such values were not, in most of the cases, specially allocated to fund these tasks. 229 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Results and evaluation: the web page is available from April 2003 and since then more than 130 200 visitors accessed it, corresponding to more than 605 000 ―clicks‖. Although a large percentage of visitors are from Portugal and Portuguese speaking countries, users from over 80 countries have visited the page. Numerous people and institutions use the page e-mail address to request technical assistance on control methodologies and species identification, as well as to ask for collaboration in public awareness activities and environmental education sessions. These contacts enable this web page to be validated as an effective awareness tool. Field-work Projects Aims: to increase awareness amongst university students and young professionals, mostly from areas related to environmental, forestry and biological sciences, namely through training and collaboration on control of invasive plants in Conservation Areas. Description: the projects include different approaches to engage the target public: 1) participation in control of invasive plant species, namely Acacia longifolia, A. dealbata, Cortaderia selloana and Carpobrotus edulis, 2) short courses about IAS and Nature Conservation, and 3) small projects involving invasive plants, namely scientific experiments and public awareness activities for the general public and schools (Figure 1). The philosophy behind these projects is to strongly engage the target public with this theme, through learning about IAS, hands-on activities to control invasive plants and creation of a healthy and fun working/learning environment. In 2003, when the first project was organized, this type of project was quite innovative in Portugal and the public was very receptive and enthusiastic. Although activities were planned for 20 volunteers in each field-work project, the number of inscriptions has been always much higher, reaching more than 80 in some cases. These projects were developed mostly in summer vacations, occasionally at Easter Time, for one week, with volunteer groups sharing accommodation, meals, learning, working and leisure time.

a

b

c

Figure 1 - Field-work projects. a. control of Carpobrotus edulis at Reserva Natural das Dunas de São Jacinto (2004), b. development of scientific experiments, c. short-courses about invasive plants. Results and evaluation: nine field-work projects were organized in four Conservation Areas in Portugal involving more than 170 volunteers, who contributed to the control of four invasive plant species. These projects were very effective and successful in training people and increasing 230 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

awareness, especially among university students and young professionals. Due to the continuity of the projects, usually one each year since 2003, the target public has grown accustomed to them and frequently unknown people request information about the future events. This type of activity showed to be engaging and effective: after participating, several volunteers became involved in invasive species projects, and some of them now work professionally in this subject. Furthermore, it has been a good way to encourage the Conservation Areas staff and to publicize their work on the management and control of invasive plants. A questionnaire is currently being prepared targeting all the previous participants in order to better quantify the effectiveness of this approach. Training courses Aims: to provide tools to capacitate the trainees to 1) identify and manage invasive plants present in Portugal (technical courses for professionals dealing with exotic and invasive plants) and 2) develop educational projects and activities about invasive species (courses for school teachers). Description: the courses involved theoretical sessions, laboratory and field practical sessions and field trips to areas invaded by different species. Three courses (ca. 25h each) about identification and control of invasive plants were organized in 2005, 2006 and 2007. The target public was technicians from municipalities and nursery industry, conservation and forestry experts, researchers, and other technical staff who deal with exotic and invasive species. In 2009, a different course was offered to school teachers, as they are in a privileged position to disseminate information about this theme among young people. The program was adapted from the technical course, focusing more on the theory behind biological invasions and considering environmental education projects and activities that could be developed and used in school classes. Results and evaluation: ca. 40 technicians and 25 teachers attended the courses. This approach has proved to be very effective in changing attitudes. Some technicians have actively integrated the knowledge gained in the course in their regular activities, namely in invasive control programs or excluding invasive species from their lists of ―working species‖. Some of the teachers developed programs to be applied during the forthcoming school year in their schools and as a consequence many students have heard about this theme and many have been involved in hands-on activities. Online questionnaire Aims: to survey the knowledge/awareness of different target publics who deal with exotic and invasive plants about their use and related legislation. At the same time, the questionnaire aimed to raise public awareness about IAS and Portuguese legislation about non-indigenous species, start the mapping (presence vs. absence only) of invasive plants in continental Portugal and survey the control actions being developed in the country. Description: a questionnaire was undertaken targeting technical publics who deal with exotic and invasive plant species, namely municipalities, forestry associations, horticultural trade and industries, botanical gardens and higher education institutions/courses in which forestry, 231 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

environmental and biological sciences are part of the curricula. Most questionnaires were carried out online and sent to a list of institutions previously selected. While municipalities, botanical gardens and institutions of higher education were all surveyed, although not all responded, forestry associations and horticultural trade and industry were more difficult to trace and consequently the ―total‖ public was sub-sampled. Concerning horticultural trade and industry, in person questionnaires were also performed at a horticultural fair. Questionnaires were performed during 2006 and 2007 and they were adapted to each target public, with some questions shared and other distinct from each other. Full text versions of the questionnaire and results may be seen at http://www.uc.pt/invasoras (in Portuguese). Results and evaluation: 221 institutions returned the questionnaire; from these, 81 were municipalities, 51 forestry associations, 52 higher education departments/courses, 33 horticultural trade and industries and 4 botanical gardens. Municipalities and horticultural trade and industry were the target publics with the lowest percentages of response to the questionnaire (Figure 2a). Although Portuguese legislation about non-indigenous species is from 1999, ca. 8 years after, the results showed that unawareness about IAS, amongst these target publics still exists, with ca. 33% of the horticultural traders and industries and forestry associations being unaware of the legislation (Figure 2 Figure 2b). Establishment/courses of higher education were asked if biological invasions/invasive species were part of the curricula and if legislation was referred to during the classes: from the 52 respondents, 44 said biological invasions were a subject in classes, but only 24 referred to the present legislation.

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Figure 2 – a. Percentage of inquired from each target public that responded to the questionnaire about invasive plants and related legislation. b. Awareness about Portuguese legislation concerning non-indigenous species. Trandescantia fluminensis Spartina densiflora Senecio bicolor Robinia pseudoacacia Pittosporum undulatum Oxalis pes-caprea Myriophyllum brasiliensis Ipomoea acuminata Hakea sericiea Hakea salicifolia Galinsoga parviflora Eryngium pandanifolium Erigeron karvinskianus Elodea canadensis Eichhornia crassipes Datura stramonium Conyza bonariensis Carpobrotus edulis Azolla filiculoides Arctotheca calendula Ailanthus altissima Acacia retinodes Acacia pycnantha Acacia melanoxylon Acacia mearnsii Acacia longifolia Acacia karroo Acacia dealbata Acacia cyanophylla

Senecio bicolor Oxalis pes-caprea Hakea salicifolia Galinsoga parviflora Acacia karroo Eryngium pandanifolium Eichhornia crassipes

Datura stramonium Acacia retinodes Acacia pycnantha Pittosporum undulatum Erigeron karvinskianus Acacia mearnsii Robinia pseudoacacia Carpobrotus edulis Ailanthus altissima Acacia saligna Acacia longifolia Hakea sericea

Acacia melanoxylon Acacia dealbata 0

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Species perceived as problematic by the different entities (%)

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Figure 3 - a. Invasive species perceived as problematic by municipalities and forestry associations responding the questionnaire. b. Mode of introduction of invasive plant species, according to answers from municipalities and forest associations. The questions from municipalities and forestry associations‘ questionnaires were, in general, the same. However, results showed that both publics have quite different knowledge and perception about invasive plants, which is probably related to their distinct professional aims and obligations. Ninety percent (90%) and 65% of the forestry associations and municipalities, respectively, declared to have invasive species present in their territories. Perception that these species cause problems was different, with 74% of the forestry associations recognizing that invasive species promote negative impacts while only 40% of the municipalities had that view. However, only 6% of the forestry associations develop management action in order to control invasive plants, claiming that such actions were out of their duties, while 57% of the municipalities responded that they make an effort to control invasive plants. The problems associated to invasive plants were also distinct for both target publics: while municipalities elected reduction of biodiversity (67%) and economic problems (57%) as the main impacts associated with these species, forestry associations recognized economic (85%) and productivity (59%) problems, and only 50% considered invasive plants to be a threat to biodiversity. When 233 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

asked directly about which invasive species cause more problems, the answers revealed that the most widespread species are not always perceived as the ones causing more negative impacts: Acacia dealbata, A. melanoxylon, Hakea sericea, A. longifolia, A. saligna, Ailanthus altissima, Carpobrotus edulis and Robinia pseudoacacia were the species most often quoted as problematic by municipalities and forestry associations; some invasive plant species were not perceived as causing problems by these publics (Figure 3a). The perceived mode of introduction of the different invasive species was also surveyed. Although results differed from species to species (Figure 3), for most species (70%) the reason for introduction was unknown to the respondents, while for 23% and 7% intentional and accidental introductions were evoked, respectively.

Figure 4 - Distribution maps of selected invasive plant species in Portugal according to responses to questionnaires sent to municipalities and forestry associations. b black k one or more municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire and signalled the species as present in the area; g grey y municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire, but none signalled the species as present in the area; white, area where no municipality or forestry association responded to the questionnaire.


Answers from municipalities and forestry associations allowed the mapping of the major invasive plants along the continental Portuguese territory to be initiated, considering presence/absence per area of municipality (see Figure 4). Results show that some invasive species are already present in many Portuguese municipalities. However, the lack of answers from non-respondent municipalities or forestry associations has obvious implications in the maps, with data missing for many regions. Considering this limitation and although these results do not allow the mapping of abundance of each species, results suggest that Acacia dealbata is the most widespread invasive species, which is in agreement with our own perception (Marchante et al. 2008). On the other hand, for example Eichhornia crassipes was signalled by few municipalities or forestry associations, but it is present in more regions of the country (Marchante et al. 2008). When analyzing the results of the questionnaires, it is important to keep in mind that they reflect the knowledge and sensitivity/awareness of the respondents, which may sometimes not reflect rigorously the actual situation, since species that are more problematic and frequent are more easily spotted and remembered. In addition, only a proportion of the target population answered the questionnaire. Other point that must also be taken into account when interpreting the results is that species may have been sometimes mistaken by some other species. These questionnaires were an important source of information about the awareness of legislation, invasive plant species distribution, perception of species which are problematic, their perceived mode of introduction, etc. In addition, such survey increased public awareness, and nowadays many technicians from these target publics contact our team asking for information or consultation about management of invasive plants. Printed documents about invasive plants in Portugal Aims: to produce printed documents that can be used to raise awareness about invasive plants. Description: the different activities organized and the contact with the public highlighted the need of printed documentation about invasive plants. To fill this gap, different documents were produced, targeting different publics (Figure 5). Plant species technical profiles (2005): technical document about identification and control of the most common and problematic species in Portugal (Marchante et al. 2005). This document includes the profiles of the 30 plant species considered invasive by the Portuguese legislation, plus three other species that are also invasive although not yet listed in the legislation. This publication targets technical publics dealing with invasive plants, and was made available both online (in two platforms – www.uc.pt/invasoras and www.pluridoc.com) and in a printed version. The printed version was distributed to professionals working with exotic plants and public and private institutions responsible for the management of areas invaded by alien plants. Invasive plants field guide (2008): publication of the first field guide of invasive alien plants in continental Portugal (Marchante et al. 2008). More than 80 plants species were included, considering invasive plants and other potentially invasive plants (casuals and naturalized), which are either invasive in other regions of the world with similar climate, show sporadic invasive behaviour in Portugal or belong to genera which include invasive plants in the country. The guide includes as well an introduction to biological invasions and invasive plant species. 235 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Booklet with postcards to color (2008): although this theme can be somewhat complex to young children, it is important to raise awareness from an early age. A small booklet, with a collection of postcards, of 13 of the worst invasive plant species in Portugal was developed targeting school children. The booklet includes a fixed part (to keep, with simple information) and postcards to detach. Each postcard is the drawing of an invasive plant; the reverse is an ordinary postcard to write a message – the idea is that each child can learn a bit about invasive plants, personalize the card, colouring it, and write a message to friends and family about this theme, working themselves as ―vectors of dissemination of information‖. Postcards were initially made for children from 8 to 12 years old, but worked also fine with younger and older students. Bookmarks collection (2008): 13 bookmarks were made about the worst invasive plants in Portugal. Each bookmark has simple information about invasive plants in general, information about a specific invasive plant and the link of the website where more information and contacts can be looked after. These are targeted to the general public, and used for different publics and activities. The idea was to have available a simple, appealing (and cheap) publication that can be given to everyone.

a

b

c

d

Figure 5 Examples of printed documents about invasive alien plants in Portugal. a. ―Plantas Invasoras em Portugal – guia para identificação e controlo‖ [technical profiles about identification and control of invasive plants in Portugal], b.‖Guia prático para a identificação de Plantas Invasoras de Portugal Continental‖ [field guide about invasive plants in continental Portugal], c. Postcard from the ―Booklet with postcards to color‖, d. Bookmark about Eichhornia crassipes. Results and evaluation: the technical profiles about invasive plants are available in a platform where they are the third most downloaded document amongst several thousand, with more than 2000 downloads since July 2007; the printed version (500 copies) is out of print. Frequent requests for the printed version and consultation concerning control of different invasive plant species are received. Two thousand free copies of the field guide were printed and are now out of print; the reviews/criticisms to this first edition were very good and a new edition is being planned. This edition was distributed, mainly under direct request, to several official entities and people interested in the theme, reaching very distinct publics; it was also distributed to some public and school libraries, being available to people all over the country. The bookmarks were mostly distributed to entities dedicated to science communication and environmental education, 236 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

but also to conservation areas, schools and the general public in nature and science festivals and other events. Distribution is still ongoing, and the distribution together with a national newspaper is being prepared. Postcards were mainly used for school children and activities organized for this specific public. As much as possible, the printed documents were used together with different initiatives organized in order for them to be understood in context. Other initiatives Aims: to raise awareness about invasive plants and to communicate results of research projects to different publics. Description: thematic workshops were organized, mainly targeting school students, but also the general public. These workshops included different activities (Figure 6), such as short talks, hands-on activities for the control of invasive plants, interactive games and invasive plant identification games (Reis et al. submitted). Further dissemination of information about invasive plants was attained through participation in several environmental conferences, forums, conference and school talks, etc, targeting very diverse publics (the general public, school children and students, university students, foresters, horticultural trade, conservation experts, etc). Results and evaluation: since 2005, more than 30 talks were given, 10 workshops and handson activities were carried out, and science and nature forums and fairs for different publics were joined. The contexts and publics of these initiatives were very diverse. As a result, over the past few years and all over the country many citizens became aware about invasive plants. Effectiveness of the workshops organized for schools was accessed through questionnaires sent to schools, one year later, targeting students who attended the workshop as well as a control group who did not attend it. Results showed that, after one year, the participants in the workshop knew significantly more about invasive species and recognized more invasive plant species than non-participant students (Reis et al. submitted).

a

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f e Figure 5 - Thematic workshop about invasive plants. a-b. short-talks, c-d. recognition games, e-f. interactive games. 237 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

Final considerations and future work After several years communicating about invasive alien plants in Portugal, our perception is that awareness about biological invasions has increased, although lack of awareness is still a substantial reality. There is still a lot to be done! Nevertheless, information on invasive alien species is nowadays more frequent in the media and many people and institutions have contributed, and are committed to continue, to raise public awareness. The diversified methodologies and strategies used by the team from CFE and CERNAS are slowly contributing to change mentalities and attitudes, making the public better educated on the topics of invasive plants and biological invasions. This public can then have an important role in the prevention, early-detection and the control of invasive species. After using different approaches, our perception is that methodologies which include handson or interactive activities and involve the participants for a longer time are more engaging and efficient in increasing awareness about invasive plant species (Reis et al. submitted). The estimated number of people reached by the different activities/approaches is higher than 150 000 (Table 1). However, the main contribution to this number is the web page, which effectively contributes to raise awareness and provide information, but which is probably less effective to make people change their attitudes about exotic and invasive plant species than more interactive activities. A stronger effort and investment needs to be made in order to better evaluate the activities/approaches used to communicate on IAS. Evaluation of effectiveness is not always easy. Nevertheless, funding for communication is often scarce and so it is important that it can be used in the most efficient way, targeting approaches that are more effective in changing attitudes and engaging the public with this subject. The collaboration of experts on communication is also of utmost importance if a well-coordinated and effective campaign is to be promoted. We are committed to this challenge of engaging the public with IAS and will continue to do so along with our research activities. For that, we are planning to diversify activities in the field, establishing protocols with local and regional administrative agencies, implementing new tools and interactive maps on the web page, extending the questionnaires to conservation experts, forestry authorities, and general public, preparing updated versions of the printed materials and initiating a pilot early-detection programme. Acknowledgements Special thanks to volunteers of field-work projects, to Catarina Reis and to all who helped and participated in the different activities. FCT-MCES & FEDER (POCI2010) are acknowledged for funding the projects INVADER (POCTI/BSE/42335/2001), INVADER II (POCI/AMB/ 61387/2004) and CV-127-107. References Commission of the European Communities (2008) Towards an EU strategy on invasive species - Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/index_en.htm [accessed on January 2009]


Gaertner M, Den Breeyen A, Cang H & Richardson DM (2009) Impacts of alien plant invasions on species richness in Mediterranean-type ecosystems: a meta-analysis. Progress in Physical Geography 33(3), 319-338. Hulme PE, Pyšek P, Nentwig W & Vilà M (2009) Will Threat of Biological Invasions Unite the European Union? Science 324 (5923), 40-41. Lambdon PW, Pyšek P, Basnou C, Hejda M, Arianoutsou M, Essl F, Jarošìk V, Pergl J, Winter M, Anastasiu P, Andriopoulos P, Bazos I, Brundu G, Celesti-Grapow L, Chassot P, Delipetrou P, Josefsson M, Kark S, Klotz S, Kokkoris Y, Kühn I, Marchante H, Perglová I, Pino J, Vilà M, Zikos A, Roy D & Hulme PE (2008) Alien flora of Europe: species diversity, temporal trends, geographical patterns and research needs. Preslia 80, 101–149. Marchante H, Marchante E & Freitas H (2005) Plantas Invasoras em Portugal – guia para identificação e controlo. Ed. dos autores. Coimbra. (in Portuguese) Marchante E, Freitas H & Marchante H (2008) Guia prático para a identificação de Plantas Invasoras de Portugal Continental. Coimbra Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. 183 pp. (in Portuguese) Ministério do Ambiente (1999) Decreto-lei n.º 565/99 de 21 de Dezembro. In: Diário da República - I Série - A. 295: 9100-9114. (in Portuguese) Mooney HA & Hobbs RJ (2000) Invasive Species in a Changing World. Island Press, Washington DC. Reis CS, Marchante H, Freitas H & Marchante E. Public perception of invasive plant species: assessing the impact of workshop activities to promote young students awareness. Submitted to Public Understanding of Science. Ruiz G M & Carlton JT (2003) Invasive Species: Vectors and Management Strategies (p. 484). Island Press. Vilà M, Basnou C, Pyšek P, Josefsson M, Genovesi P, Gollasch S, Nentwig W, Olenin S, Roques A, Roy D, Hulme PE & DAISIE partners (2009) How well do we understand the impacts of alien species on ecosystem services? A pan-European, cross-taxa assessment. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 8(3), 135-144.


Expérience tunisienne des Champs Ecoles Paysans sur la lutte intégrée contre une plante exotique envahissante : Solanum elaeagnifolium M. Mekki1, M. M‘hafdhi2, R. Belhaj2 and K. Alrouechdi3 1

Institut Supérieur Agronomique de Chott Meriem, BP 47, 4042 Chott Meriem (Tunisie) ; email : [email protected] 2 Direction Générale de la Protection et du Contrôle de la Qualité des Produits Agricoles, 30 Rue Alain Savary, 1002 Tunis (Tunisie) ; e-mail : [email protected] 3 FAO, Plant Production & Protection Division (AGP), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome, (Italy) ; e-mail : [email protected] La morelle jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. # SOLEL) est originaire du continent américain. Actuellement, elle est considérée une plante exotique envahissante (PEE) dans les cinq continents. En 2008, la FAO a lancé un programme de coopération technique (TCP/RAB/3102) entre le Maroc et la Tunisie pour la gestion des plantes envahissantes et en particulier SOLEL. Les activités de ce programme ont duré 18 mois (juillet 2008-décembre 2009) et l‘un de ses objectifs était l‘installation de trois Ecoles Champs Paysans (CEP) sur la lutte intégrée contre SOLEL. Ces CEP ont concerné trois régions du pays (Kairouan, Sidi Bouzid et Mahdia) et ils ont impliqué environ 75 agriculteurs et techniciens. Les participants se sont rencontrés au moins sept fois, à raison d‘au moins 3 heures par rencontre. Le programme des rencontres prévoyait des échanges et des activités aux champs relatifs à la caractérisation de SOLEL (identification et bio-écologie) et les moyens de lutte contre cette espèce (sarclages manuel et mécanique, désherbage chimique, co-compostage, cultures étouffantes, etc.). Ces CEP étaient une bonne occasion d‘analyser avec les agriculteurs et les techniciens agricoles les pratiques actuelles de lutte contre SOLEL et de leur proposer des pratiques alternatives pour mieux gérer cette espèce. Introduction En Tunisie, plusieurs plantes exotiques sont introduites dans le pays de façons intentionnelle ou accidentelle. L‘absence d‘un système de gestion des Plantes Exotiques Envahissantes (PEE) et l‘insuffisance des moyens matériels et humains pour surveiller le territoire afin d‘empêcher l‘introduction et l‘établissement de ces espèces a permis à la morelle jaune (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. # SOLEL) d‘entrer dans le pays, de s‘y établir silencieusement durant quelques décennies et de devenir envahissante depuis quelques années (Mekki, 2007). SOLEL est une mauvaise herbe très redoutable dans son aire d‘origine (Boyd et al., 1984). Les parcelles fortement infestées sont souvent abandonnées et leur valeur foncière et locative est très réduite. De plus, cette plante est reconnue comme toxique pour les animaux et elle menace la biodiversité des milieux infestés. Elle est très fréquente dans les milieux perturbés (bordures de routes, aménagements paysagers, pâturages, cultures, etc.). Dans la région méditerranéenne, elle figure sur la liste A2 des PEE de l‘Organisation Européenne de Protection des Plantes (OEPP) et est recommandée pour réglementation. En Tunisie, elle a été signalée pour la première fois en 1985 240 Oral presentations 2nd Workshop on Invasive alien plants in Mediterranean type regions of the world

à l‘office des terres domaniales d‘El Alem - délégation de Sbikha. On présume qu‘elle n‘était pas présente dans le Pays avant 1960 (Mekki, 2006). Actuellement, elle est rapportée dans 16 gouvernorats du pays (Tableau 1). Tableau 1 - Distribution géographique de la morelle jaune en Tunisie (DGPCQPA1, 2009) Gouvernorat Superficie infestée (ha) Biotopes infestées2 Kairouan 20 000 TC, TNC Sidi Bouzid 15 000 TC, TNC Sousse > 100 TC, TNC Sfax > 70 TC, TNC Ariana > 30 TC, TNC Manouba < 10 TC, TNC Mahdia < 10 TC, TNC Zaghouan < 10 TC, TNC Monastir < 10 TC, TNC Ben Arous < 10 TC, TNC Nabeul