Optimum Ship weather Routing using GIS

OPTIMUM SHIP WEATHER ROUTING USING GIS DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO KERALA UNIVERSITY OF FISHERIES AND OCEAN STUDIES In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN REMOTE SENSING & GIS BY MARY DELLA OST-2013-23-01

SCHOOL OF OCEAN STUDIES AND TECHNOLOGY KERALA UNIVERSITY OF FISHERIES AND OCEAN STUDIES PANANGAD KOCHI-682506

NANSEN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTRE, INDIA

SEPTEMBER 2015

Abstract

The success of ship weather routing is dependent upon the validity of the forecasts and the routing agency’s ability to make appropriate route recommendations and diversions. Anticipated improvements in a routing agency’s recommendations will come from advancements in meteorology, technology, and the application of ocean wave forecast models for the mariners. Optimum ship routing is the art and science of developing the best route for a ship based on the existing weather forecasts, minimum fuel consumption and special ship requirement. In this study, we suggest some optimum routes for the vessels and monitor the voyage after confirming the voyage from the vessel. The existing practice of weather routing has been analysed using the software Netpas. The principal conditions for successfully solving complex weather problem are also explained. Discussed about different types of marine navigations. In this study report we have considered three optimum ship route using the software NETPAS and recommend QGIS/ ArcGIS as a supporting devise for creating Optimum ship weather route which was not considered in the available Netpas software. Hence this new approach in integrating the weather forecast data into the GIS platforms will be a sophisticated tool for mariners to avoid areas of severe weather events that can confront in their voyage. Here we recommend QGIS/ ArcGIS software for ship weather routing that will give a clear idea about the weather and updated route for the voyage. By this process of initial route selection and continued monitoring of progress for possible changes in the forecast weather and sea conditions along a route, it is possible to maximize both speed and safety. Suggest QGIS as a supporting system for Weather Routing Companies and also for the Mariner's as an open source. Instead of nautical charts they can also use Georeferenced Charts. This service provides the optimum weather routing information more clearly.

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CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this dissertation entitled “Optimum Ship Weather Routing using GIS” is a bonafide record done by Ms. MARY DELLA (Reg. No: OST-2013-23-01) under my supervision and guidance, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN REMOTE SENSING AND GIS OF KERALA UNIVERSITY OF FISHERIES AND OCEAN STUDIES and that no part thereof has been presented before any degree, diploma or similar titles.

Dr. K. Ajith Joseph Sr. Scientist & Executive Director NERCI (Supervisor in charge)

Dr.S.Rajendran Head Remote Sensing & GIS School of Ocean Studies and Technology KUFOS, Panangad September, 2015

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DECLARATION

I, MARY DELLA hereby declare that this dissertation entitled “Optimum Ship Weather Routing using GIS” is a bonafide record of work done by me under the guidance of Dr. K. Ajith Joseph., Ph.D. Executive Director, Nansen Environmental Research Center, Kochi- 682 016, Kerala, India, during the period from May to September and the project has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree/ diploma/ fellowship or other similar title, of any other University or Institution.

Mary Della (Reg.No: OST-2013-23-01)

Panangad 17-09-2015

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ACKNOWLEDEMENT

I own my heartful thanks to my Dissertation guide, Dr. K. Ajith Joseph, Sr. Scientist & Executive Director, Nansen Environmental Research Centre India, for his eminent guidance, authentic knowledge, compassionate support, valuable suggestions and providing necessary facilities in the study.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Rajendran, Head of the Department, KUFOS, Panangad for his valuable help and support and Asst Prof. Sreenal Sreedar, Asst Prof. George Basil, Guest Lecture Nandhini Vishwa, Lectures, KUFOS for their timely assistance.

I would like to thank my advisor Capt. George Ambrose for his encouragement and technical support.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to all project assistants and Research scholars in the NERCI, Cochin especially for their support and co-operation.

I also extend my thanks to my MSc classmates for their help and constant support.

I express my special thanks to my Family for their support, love, care, co-operation and encouragement to fulfil my work.

Above all I very much thankful to God almighty for the multitudes of his tender mercies and abounding grace that has made it possible for me to complete this project…………

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Table of Content Preface Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables 1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 History of Ship Routing 1.2.1 Early Ship Routing Tools 1.3 Several Ways of Ship Routing 1.4 High Traffic Area 1.5 Chart Works 1.6 E-navigation 1.6.1 Digital Equipments used in E-navigation 1.7 Environmental Factors and Special Zones to be considered in the Ship Routing 1.7.1

Effects of Environmental Factors

1.7.2

Tropical Depressions / Storms

1.7.3

Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

1.7.4

Sulphur Emission Control Areas(SECAs) or Emission Control Areas(ECAs)

1.7.5

Anti-Piracy Areas

1.8 Aim and Objectives 1.9 Review of Literature 2

Materials and Datasets 2.1 Netpas, QGIS and ArcGIS 6

2.2 Study Regions 2.3 Methodology 3

Result and Discussions

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Summary and Conclusion

Appendices I Appendix. Acronyms Reference I Documents and Articles II World Wide Web

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List of Figures Figure 1.1 Locations of GC and RL in the northern and in the southern hemisphere Figure 1.2 Sextant Figure 1.3 Chip Log Figure 1.4 Gyroscopic compass Figure 1.5 Loran Figure 1.6 Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean Figure 1.7 A view of high traffic Area Figure 1.8 Chart work in Navigational Charts Figure 1.9 E- navigation equipment Figure 1.10 E-navigation systems Figure 1.11 Automatic Identification System (AIS) Figure 1.12 Navigational text messages (NAVTEX) Figure 1.13 Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) Figure 1.14 Electronic Chart Display Information System (ECDIS) Figure 1.15 Storm Figure 1.16 Path and Track of the Storm Figure 1.17 An image of Tropical Revolving Storm Figure 2.1 Weather Service Beta Figure 2.2 Surface pressure data from Passage Weather Figure 2.3 Significant Wave Height and Wave Direction from Ocean Weather Figure 2.4 Surface Wind Speed and Direction from Passage Weather Figure 2.5 A view of Singapore East OPL Figure 2.6 A view of Chennai Port Figure 2.7 A view of Balboa Port Figure 2.8 A view of Port of Yokohama

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Figure 2.9 A view of Visakhapatnam Port Figure 2.10 A view of Port of Amsterdam Figure 2.11 Location map of the study region (Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Balboa, Yokohama and Amsterdam) Figure 2.12 Netpas Distance software Figure 2.13 Port Finder Figure 2.14 Distance between Chennai to Singapore displayed on the screen Figure 2.15 Estimated the distance between Singapore to Chennai Figure 2.16 Estimated the amount required for the fuel for the voyage Figure 2.17 Create the voyage Figure 2.18 Enter the details necessary for the voyage Figure 2.19 Created route is displayed on the screen Figure 2.20 Typhoon Key Figure 2.21 Route with the weather forecast data Figure 2.22 Great Circle voyage planning from Balboa to Yokohama Figure 2.23 Great Circle route with ECA region Figure 2.24 Rhumbline route from Balboa to Yokohama Figure 2.25 Rhumbline voyage planning from Balboa to Yokohama Figure 2.26 Great circle route passing through ECA region Figure 2.27 Currents in North Pacific Ocean Figure 2.28 Rhumbline and Great Circle Voyage plan from Balboa to Yokohama Figure 2.29 Great Circle route with weather forecast data Figure 2.30 Voyage from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam Figure 2.31 voyage through Cape Town (Africa) Figure 2.32 JWLA015 (2nd Aug 2010) Figure 2.33 JWLA016 (16th Dec 2010) Figure 2.34 JWLA016 Up to Mumbai

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Figure 2.35 JWLA016 Max Avoid Route Figure 2.36 Voyage from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam with max avoiding the piracy area Figure 2.37 Create the voyage Figure 2.38 Ship weather route from Singapore to Chennai Figure 2.39 Shortest path Figure 2.40 Optimum Ship Routing map Figure 2.41 Optimum Ship Routing map using ArcGIS. Figure 3.1 Optimum ship routing during unfavourbale weather conditions generated using QGIS Figure 3.2 Optimum ship routing during unfavourbale weather conditions generated using ArcGIS. Figure 3.3 Flow diagram showing the different steps to be consider for optimum ship weather routing

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List of Tables Table 1.1 Tools of Modern Navigation Table 1.2 B eau fo rt wi n d s cal e Table 1.3 Dougl as S ea S cal e Table 1.4 S wel l Table 1.5.: Routing services and support systems, Hinnenthal (2008) Table 2.1 Example for Weather Forecast data of Singapore from Fleet Weather Table 2.2 Example for Weather Forecast data of Chennai from Fleet Weather Table 2.3 Example for Weather Forecast data from INCOIS Table 2.4 Attribute table for wind speed Table 2.5 Attribute table for wave height Table 2.6 Attribute table for pressure Table 2.7 Attribute table for Ship route from Singapore East OPL to Chennai Table 2.8 Attribute table for High Pressure Table 2.9 Attribute table for Low Pressure Table 2.10 Attribute table for Wave height Table 2.11 Attribute table for Wind Speed Table 2.12 Attribute table for Ship Route from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam Table 3.1 Names of the Shipping Companies

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Global logistics management in business operations has become more important than ever due to globalization, rapid growth of Asian economies, and the increasing volumes of international trade. In this regard, transportation in the marine sector is becoming a more strategic business function as transport costs account for a larger percentage of the cost of goods sold and hence an increasing interest in reducing transportation costs in synergy with increasing route efficiency in the shipping industry. . Maritime transportation plays a key role in international trade when compared to air transportation as it represents a low cost mode for high volume and long-distance shipments, and less expensive. Hence, maritime transportation is responsible for the majority of longdistance shipments in terms of volume. Almost 90% of the world's trades are carried by ships, and for the vast majority of these trades, there are few or no alternatives to transportation by ships. This has resulted in the increased capacities of the ships. According to the review of maritime transport by UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development), more than seven million tons of goods are carried by ship annually. In this context, selection of optimum and safe ship route for transportation and trade is very important. It becomes necessary due to hindrances in navigation during the ocean voyage due to the presence of Seamounts, Volcanoes, icebergs and anthropogenic influences like threats from pirates, avoidance of emission control as well as pollution control waters and occasional formation of severe weather events during the voyage. In this regard, many a number of ship cruises were met with accidents and have sunk due to the lack of specific safe ship routes. Ship routing or managing the ship traffic can be easily called the most important aspect of entire maritime industry. Considering the management of ship traffic, especially in regions of high traffic load or congested areas, ship routing comes as even more important task. The practice of following predetermined routes for shipping originated in 1898 and was adopted, for reasons of safety, by shipping companies which operates passenger ships across the world. Ocean Explorers set shipping routes a long time ago, most of which are still in use today. Managing those routes along with the new ones has become a herculean task. But the new technologies for the same come as a boon. Ship routing can be done in several ways. It has several motives behind it, the core principle of which remains to ensure all ships reach their destination safely. Ship routing is done not only for managing marine traffic but predicting weather conditions too based on the data collected during the ship voyages. Satellite imagining and better wireless communication systems also prove highly advantageous for this purpose. 12

1.2 History of Ship Routing The first Western civilization known to have developed the art of navigation at sea were the Phoenicians, about 4,000 years ago (c. 2000 B.C.E.). Phoenician sailors accomplished navigation by using primitive charts and observations of the Sun and stars to determine directions. In the Stone Age itself people started their navigation through ocean in search of food and also for travelling. A Mesolithic boatyard has been found from the Isle of Wight in Britain. Maps, compasses, astrolabes, and callipers are among the early tools used by ocean navigators. In the modern era, these tools have been largely replaced by electronic and technological equivalents. Despite these early beginnings, it would take many centuries before global navigation at sea became possible. Until the fifteenth century, mariners were essentially coastal navigators. Sailing on the open sea was limited to regions of predictable winds and currents, or where there was a wide continental shelf to follow. Further ventures were enabled by the development of scientifically and mathematically based methods and tools. Different types of early ship routing tools are described here.

1.2.1 Early Ship Routing Tools Determining latitude can be accomplished relatively easy using celestial navigation. In the Northern Hemisphere, mariners could determine the latitude by measuring the altitude of the North Star above the horizon. The measured angle in degrees was considered the latitude of the ship.

a. Mariner's Compass One of the earliest human-made navigational tools used to aid mariners was the mariner's compass, which was an early form of magnetic compass. Early mariners thought the mariner's compass was often inaccurate and inconsistent because they did not understand the concept of magnetic variation, which is the angle between true north (geographic) and magnetic north. It was primarily used when the Sun was not visible to identify the direction from which the wind was blowing.

b. Nautical Charts During the mid-thirteenth century, mariners began realizing that maps could be helpful in navigation and began keeping detailed records of their voyages. Thus, the first nautical charts were created. These charts were not very accurate, but were considered valuable and often kept secret from other mariners. There was no latitude or longitude labelled on the charts, but between major ports there was a compass rose indicating the direction to travel. (The term "compass rose" comes from the figure's compass points, which resemble rose petals.) Basically there are two types of charts used for Ship routing, Gnomonic Chart and Mercator Chart. •

Gnomonic Charts were used in the olden days for navigating the vessel. Only Great Circle tracks can be plot on the Gnomonic Charts. 13

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Mercator Charts are being used for navigation now a days. But Great Circle tracks cannot be plotted directly on Mercator Charts so that great circle tracks will be divided equally and plot as Rhumb lines on Mercator Charts. b.1. Rhumb Lines and Great Circles Tracks

The principal advantage of a Rhumb line is that it maintains constant true direction. A ship following the rhumb line between two places does not change its true course. A Rhumb line makes the same angle with all meridians it crosses and appears as a straight line on a Mercator chart. For any other case, the difference between the Rhumb line and the great circle connecting two points increases (1) as the latitude increases, (2) as the difference of latitude between the two points decreases, and (3) as the difference of longitude increases. On a Mercator chart, a Great circle appears as a sine curve extending equal distances each side of the equator. The Rhumb line connecting any two points of the Great circle on the same side of the equator is a chord of the curve. Along any intersecting meridian the Great circle crosses at a higher latitude than the Rhumb line. If the two points are on opposite sides of the equator, the direction of curvature of the great circle relative to the Rhumb line changes at the equator. The Rhumb line and Great circle may intersect each other, and if the points are equal distances on each side of the equator, the intersection takes place at the equator. A Great circle is the intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane passing through the centre of the sphere. is the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the sphere, and is the shortest distance along the surface between any two points. Any two points are connected by only one great circle unless the points are antipodal (180° apart on the Earth), and then an infinite number of great circles passes through them. Every great circle bisects every other Great circle. Thus, except for the equator, every Great circle lies exactly half in the Northern Hemisphere and half in the Southern Hemisphere. Any two points 180°apart on a Great circle have the same latitude numerically, but contrary names, and are 180° apart in longitude. The point of greatest latitude is called the vertex. For each Great circle, there is a vertex in each hemisphere, 180° apart in longitude. At these points the great circle is tangent to a parallel of latitude, and its direction is due east-west. On each side of these vertices, the direction changes progressively until the intersection with the equator is reached, 90° in longitude away, where the great circle crosses the equator at an angle equal to the latitude of the vertex. Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter distance along the great circle between two points, rather than the longer Rhumb line. The arc of the Great circle between the points is called the Great circle track. If it could be followed exactly, the destination would be dead ahead throughout the voyage (assuming course and heading were the same). The Rhumb line appears the more direct route on a Mercator chart because of chart distortion. The Great circle crosses meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance between them is less. This is why the Great circle route is shorter than the Rhumb line (fig 1.1).

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Figure 1.1 Locations of GC and RL in the northern and in the southern hemisphere

c. Astrolabe, Sextant, and Chip Log Some of the early instruments used to assist sailors in determining latitude were the cross-staff, astrolabe, and quadrant. The astrolabe dates back to ancient Greece, when it was used by astronomers to help to identify time, and was first used by mariners in the late fifteenth century. It was used to measure the altitude of the Sun and stars to determine latitude.

Figure 1.2 Sextant

Around 1730, an English mathematician, John Hadley (1682–1744), and an American inventor, Thomas Godfrey (1704–1749), independently invented the sextant. The sextant provided mariners with a more accurate means of determining the angle between the horizon and the Sun, moon, or stars in order to calculate latitude. During those days they take a site of sun in the morning so they get the altitude of horizon with the help of sextant (fig 1.2). After obtaining sun's altitude, the navigating officer will calculate the latitude with the help of "nautical Almanac"(publication which was published in 1767). They can also calculate longitude at meridinal passage (merpass) with this sextant. The Navigating officer measures the angle when the sun is at the meridinal passage (It is about noon) it can be 5 or 10 minutes to 12 in order to calculate the longitude using "nautical Almanac".

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Figure 1.3 Chip Log

During the sixteenth century, the chip log was invented and used as a crude speedometer (fig 1.3). A line containing knots at regular intervals and weighted to drag in the water was let out over the stern as the ship was underway. A seaman would count the number of knots that went out over a specific period of time and the ship's speed could then be calculated.

d. Longitude and the Chronometer Throughout the history of navigation, latitude could be found relatively accurate by using celestial navigation. However, longitude could only be estimated, at best. This was because the measurement of longitude is made by comparing the time-of-day difference between the mariner's starting location and new location. Even some of the best clocks of the early eighteenth century could lose as much as 10 minutes per day, which translated into a computational error of 242 kilometres (150 miles) or more. In 1764, British clockmaker John Harrison (1693–1776) invented the seagoing chronometer. This invention was the most important advance to marine navigation in the three millennia that open-ocean mariners had been venturing into sea. In 1779, British naval officer and explorer Captain James Cook (1728–1779) used Harrison's chronometer to circumnavigate the globe. When he returned, his calculations of longitude based on the chronometer proved correct to within 13 kilometres (8 miles). From information he gathered on his voyage, Cook completed many detailed charts of the world that completely changed the nature of navigation. In 1884, by international agreement, the Prime Meridian (located at 0° longitude) was established as the meridian passing through Greenwich, England.

1.2.2 Modern Ship Routing The following paragraphs illustrates the different types of tools used for modern navigation and are briefly explain under table1.1. The twentieth century brought important advances to marine navigation, with radio beacons, radar, the gyroscopic compass, and the Global Positioning System (GPS). Most ocean going vessels keep a sextant onboard only in the case of an emergency.

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Table1.1 Tools of Modern Navigation

Illustration

Description

Application

Dead reckoning or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP.

Used at all times.

Pilotage involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.

When within sight of land.

Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs.

Used primarily as a backup to satellite and other electronic systems in the open ocean.

Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means, including:

Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C.

Losing ground to GPS.

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Radar navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar's use as a collision avoidance system.

Primarily when within radar range of land.

Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to determine position.

Used in all situations.

a. Gyroscopic Compass The gyroscopic compass (or gyro compass) (fig 1.4) was introduced in 1907. The primary benefit of the gyro compass over a magnetic compass is that the gyro is unaffected by the Earth's, or the ship's, magnetic field, and always points to true north.

Figure 1.4 Gyroscopic compass

b. Radar The first practical radar (short for "radio detection and ranging") system was produced in 1935. It was used to locate objects beyond range of vision by projecting radio waves against them. This was, and still is, very useful on ships to locate other ships and land when visibility is reduced. c. Loran The U.S. navigation system known as Long Range Navigation (Loran) (fig 1.5) was developed between 1940 and 1943, and uses pulsed radio transmissions from so-called "master" and "slave" stations to determine a ship's position. The accuracy of Loran is measured in hundreds of meters, but only has limited coverage. 18

Figure 1.5 Loran

d. GPS In the late twentieth century, the global positioning system (GPS) largely replaced the Loran. GPS uses the same principle of time difference from separate signals as Loran, but the signals come from satellites. As of 2002, the system consisted of 24 satellites, and gave the mariner a position with accuracy of 9 meters (30 feet) or less.

1.3 Several ways of ship routing a) Standard optimum ship routing service Optimum ship routing is the art and science of developing the "best route" for a ship based on the existing weather forecasts, ship characteristics, and cargo requirements. For most transits, this will mean the minimum transit time that avoids significant risk to the vessel, crew and cargo. The goal is not to avoid all adverse weather but to find the best balance to minimize time of transit and fuel consumption without placing the vessel at risk to weather damage or crew injury. The routing goal may not always be to reduce the time of transit. Sometimes the goal will be to reduce fuel consumption or to keep a vessel on a regular schedule. Route planning normally will start by reviewing the appropriate Pilot Chart Atlases (Fig.1.6) and Sailing Directions (Planning Guides) to determine the normal weather patterns, weather risks and prevailing ocean currents. The routing service then reviews recent weather patterns and weather forecast charts to determine the most likely conditions during the course to the voyage and what route options there might be.

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Figure 1.6 Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean

A preliminary routing message is transmitted to the master of a vessel prior to departure with a detailed forecast of expected storm tracks, an initial route proposal with reasoning behind the recommendation and also the expected weather conditions to be encountered along that route. Sometimes alternate route options may be offered based on various forecast scenarios. This allows the master to better plan his route and offers an opportunity to communicate with the service any special concerns that he or she might have due to special cargo requirements or ship condition. Once the vessel departs, the vessel's progress is monitored closely with weather and route updates sent as needed. The benefits of optimum ship weather routing is primarily in reducing operating costs, increasing the safety of the crew and minimizing risk for damage to the vessel and cargo. The savings in operational cost come about by reducing transit times, fuel consumption and cargo and hull damage as well as more efficient scheduling of dockside activities. Additional savings come from increasing the service life of the vessel and reduced insurance costs. Various studies (Fearnleys, 2002, Bowditch, 2002) have shown that optimum ship routing savings in time and fuel range from 2-4% to as much as 8-10% depending on the type of vessel, season and ocean. On average savings should run between 4-8%. Given and average savings of 4% and a bunker price of about $900/ton, a ship burning 50tons of fuel per day would see savings of over $1400/ton on fuel costs alone during a 7 day transit, not to mention the savings in transit time.

b) Weather data System This weather data system is also one of the most commonly used ways for regulating and monitoring ship routes. This efficient system stores and graphically presents weather forecast up to 16 days and makes it available directly onboard. Key factors like surface pressure, winds, significant wave heights, swell, tropical storm information, current conditions, ice information etc can directly assessed and delivered onboard through this system e.g. Bon Voyage Weather data System. This can be further cross checked with authorities to know about the traffic from that route.

c) Satellite imaging Satellite imaging comes as one of the most efficient tools for ship routing. Any shipping route can be checked upon at any given time using the satellite images from that region. The latest development in this field includes use of Synthetic Aperture Radar for satellite imaging. This technology allows taking high resolution images of different cloud and 20

light conditions. It can prove exceptionally useful in ice covered regions of the world, making marine navigation in ice covered parts of the world much easier and safer. All these ship routing systems can only provide information about the best route to take for a particular voyage. However, to know about which route is most suitably available, a standardized authority needs to regulate ship traffic all over the world. To make matters simpler, currently, all the shipping traffic is controlled according to the guidelines set by a single international organization. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) looks into maintaining all the shipping routes to keep the traffic smooth and avoid accidents. All the governments adhering to guidelines of this organization follow a standardized protocol. The key points of ship routing as mentioned by IMO are: • • • • • • •

•

Ship routing is done with prime motive of traffic management. Taking into account activity over a particular shipping route, appropriate traffic lanes need to be set to avoid accidents. All the key elements for ship routing are well defined. These elements include traffic lanes, separation zones and roundabouts. Traffic lanes are provided only for purpose of one way traffic. Such shipping routes are found mainly in congested regions so as to avoid ships being stuck in a spot. Separating zones are given special importance as they help in maintaining different traffic lanes simultaneously. They also help in keeping a tab on ships moving in opposite directions. IMO defines recommended routes for vessels in a particular region or on a particular voyage. These routes are the generally routes with undefined width and are safest for travel. Deep water routes are monitored and defined especially for underwater marine traffic. Such routes are surveyed for clearance of sea bottom and are devoid of any submerged articles that could hinder the vessel’s journey. Precautionary areas are especially defined by IMO as areas where extra caution is advised. Locating and monitoring such areas becomes one of the many key functions performed by various nations under IMO’s guidelines. Traffic volume and flow direction is carefully regulated at all times on such maritime shipping routes. IMO also defines ‘Areas to be avoided’ as the shipping routes which are almost prohibited for ship navigation because of extreme danger they pose. Such routes could be considered dangerous for a certain class or all types of vessels. All these maritime shipping routes are further demarcated and managed by participating governments. IMO and its guidelines are established as a means of regulating ship traffic better. It was proposed in 1963 when idea of a centralized body for maintaining marine traffic was put forth. Ever since, all the participating nations have performed the responsibility of ensuing ships sailing follow these guidelines.

1.4 High Traffic Area Handling a ship in congested or high traffic areas (Fig.1.7) is not an easy task. Congested waters are high density traffic areas were a vessel is likely to collide with another vessel if ship navigation is not carried out in the right manner. As there are several vessels present in the vicinity, chances of collision or any other form of accident is very high. In such conditions, follow the instructions from Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) and Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) and follow the correct traffic line.

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Figure 1.7 A view of high traffic area

a. Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) Vessel Traffic services (VTS) is for identifying and locating vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby ships. A Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) is provided by a competent authority to improve the efficiency of vessel traffic movement and improve safety of navigation within port approaches or through hazardous areas; for example, through a TSS (Traffic Separation Scheme). Within the territorial sea (12 nautical miles), a VTS can be mandatory.

b. Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) A Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) is a traffic-management route-system ruled by the International Maritime Organization or IMO. TSSs are used to regulate the traffic at busy, confined waterways or around capes. Traffic separation schemes and other ship routing systems have now been established in most of the major congested, shipping areas of the world, and the number of collisions and groundings has often been dramatically reduced. Well-known TSS locations include: The English Channel, German Bight, Singapore, and Cape Horn. The Dover Strait was the first International Maritime Organisation (IMO) approved Traffic Separation Scheme in the world in 1967.

1.5 Chart works Previously navigators used to depend solely upon nautical charts, which were actually plotted on papers and were the official database of the government authorized hydrographic departments. Those charts used to give a two dimensional view of the sea or river bed and its topography to assist safe navigation.

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Figure 1.8 Chart work in Navigational Charts

Charts also indicate navigational hazards, sudden elevations on the sea bed, wrecks that block the navigation channel in restricted water, any kind of local man-made structures, position of the bridges, ports, structures on shore, position of the guiding buoys, turrets, obelisks and other shore references. These charts were prepared by the hydrographic departments and were updated after certain gaps, which made navigation vulnerable to sudden changes on the sea bed of the channel. Physical charts also used huge space block in the chart room on the bridge where charts were placed. To avoid this Electronic Nautical Charts (ENC) were developed to move on from the paper to the digital variety. There are two main types of ENCs (Electronic Navigational Charts), the raster chart and the vector chart. While the first is merely a scanned variety of the earlier paper navigational charts discussed, the second is more data oriented. Though they are hidden, the data at a particular position are instantly given when sought for (with a click of the mouse or pressing a button). This disclosure is achieved when the ENC is customized by the navigational software, like ECDIS or Electronic chart Display Information System. All the electronic nautical charts conform to the guidelines of International Hydrographic Organization. Moreover, these charts are regularly updated according to the resolution adopted by the IMO which invited governments of member countries to conduct hydrographic surveys and publish and disseminate nautical information for safe navigation. The member governments should coordinate amongst themselves, wherever necessary, to timely update the information and ensure greatest possible uniformity in the published charts. Chart work (Fig 1.8) is the art of laying a safe course, fixing the position and reassuring that position, while steering the ship on that course. It is also one of the top-tier skills which decide the competency of a ship navigator. Chart work is a skill of accuracy and precision. The safety of navigations depends upon the quality and reliability of chart plotting. Hence chart plotting should be done it with utmost care and attention. A wrong course line or position can mislead the vessel and can probably make way to accidents.

1.6 E-navigation The main aim of e-Navigation is to enhance navigation safety of the ships while simultaneously reducing the burden on navigational officers. A well coordinated and 23

systematic system under e-navigation can considerably increase the efficiency of the ships not only at the sea but also at the ports. Moreover, global standardization of such systems would reduce complexity in ship’s operation and substantially improve safety at the sea. The inception of e-Navigation concept took place way back in the year 2006, when the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided to include a well-defined strategy to integrate new and existing navigational tools for enhancing handling and safety of ships at the sea. In the past few decades, the shipping industry has gone through a series of technological advancements. Just like in any other field, massive digitization of machinery and equipment has been seen in the shipping industry as well. Modern ships use digital equipment (Fig.1.9 & Fig.1.10) such as AIS, ECDIS, Integrated Bridge Systems, Automatic Radar Plotting Aids, Long Range Identification and Tracking, Global Maritime Distress and Safety System ((GMDSS) it is a system to provide rescue facilities or rescue operation to save life at sea). And several other sophisticated electronic navigational tools. The main aim of the e-Navigation concept is to develop a system which can properly organize all the ship’s data at one place in order to help improving navigational safety of the ships.

Figure 1.9 E- navigation equipment

Human error during ship navigation has been termed as one of the prime reasons for maritime accidents. Though the number of accidents at sea has reduced lately, a lot needs to be done in order to reduce navigational errors as a result of human negligence. The matter of concern is that in spite of highly advanced equipment systems used in modern ships, accidents related to navigation continues to occur. A series of electronic technologies, both ship and shore based, are used to improve the situational-awareness and decision making of navigation officers. These systems also help in search and rescue during emergency, responding to any form of marine pollution from ships, improving port and ship security, and planning and executing cargo operations. However, maritime accidents still continue to take place around the world.

Figure 1.10 E-navigation systems 24

Several maritime organizations both public and private, along with IMO are working towards making a robust e-Navigation system within maritime international framework.

1.6.1 Digital equipments used in E-navigation a. Automatic Identification System (AIS) The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automatic tracking system (Fig.1.11) used on ships and by vessel traffic services (VTS) for identifying and locating vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby ships, AIS base stations, and satellites. When satellites are used to detect AIS signatures then the term Satellite-AIS (S-AIS) is used. AIS information supplements marine radar, which continues to be the primary method of collision avoidance for water transport.

Figure 1.11 Automatic Identification System (AIS)

b. Navigational text messages (NAVTEX) NAVTEX (Navigational text messages) is a system (Fig.1.12) to deliver local weather reports and navigational warnings to ships operating in coastal areas. It is an international automated direct printing service for promulgation of navigational and meteorological warnings and urgent information to ships.

Figure 1.12 Navigational text messages (NAVTEX)

c. GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress and Safety System)

• • •

It is a system to provide rescue facilities/ rescue operations to save the life at sea. This system contains a number of equipments to send and to receive distress messages from ship. Components of GMDSS VHF (Very High Frequency) - radio capable of DSC (Digital Selective Calling) Emergency position-indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) Search and Rescue transponder (SART) 25

• •

MF/HF radio installation capable of transmitting and receiving on all distress and safety frequencies using DSC Inmarsat C Satellite systems is two-way store and forward communication system that can handle data and messages transmitted in data packets in ship-to-shore, shore-toship and ship-to-ship direction. d. Radar and ARPA

Radars were introduced during World War II and effectively used by war ships for tracking and detection. Radar technology has improved immensely from post-WWII period to the present and the application of computer technology to commercial marine radar sets resulted in the introduction of Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA). ARPA provides all the necessary information for the radar users and helps in saving a lot of critical time from observing a target and finding the data using radar plotting and calculations. Collision avoidance and detection data is thus readily available to the radar users in no time, just by a click on the target. A marine radar with automatic radar plotting aid (ARPA) capability can create tracks using radar contacts. Development of ARPA started after the accident when the Italian liner SS Andrea Doria collided in dense fog and sank off the east coast of the United States. ARPA radars started to emerge in the 1960s and, with the development of microelectronics. ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) is a computerised additional feature to the Radar (Fig.1.13). ARPA takes feed of the own ships course and speed, and target’s course and speed, and calculates the collision avoidance data and simplifies the need for the users to calculate the data themselves. The system can calculate the tracked object's course, speed and closest point of approach (CPA) and time of closest point of approach (TCPA), thereby knowing if there is a danger of collision with the other ship or landmass. ARPA provides various other additional features and controls as well.

Figure 1.13 Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA)

e. Electronic Chart Display Information System (ECDIS) Built on the advent of modern electronics, ECDIS (Fig.1.14) is bringing in a whole new level of performance by transferring all chart work elements onto an electronic display 26

screen. This allows the seamless integration of Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC) (an ENC is a vector database chart created by a national hydrographic office for use with an ECDIS), GPS position fixing and other navigational tools, including radar, echo sounder, AIS and NAVTEX. Multiple functions are made available with just one click on the computer keyboard, a tap on an icon or the use of a mouse.

Figure 1.14 Electronic Chart Display Information System (ECDIS)

The additional capabilities of ECDIS are endless, from having reference materials like weather charts and tidal data readily available, to the ability to set pre-warning alarms for navigational hazards and incorporating record-keeping. The system is set to totally change the way navigation is carried out at sea, while making the whole process easier, safer and far more effective. At the same time, any process which can be carried out on a paper chart can also be done on ECDIS. f. IBS (Integrated Bridge Systems) An Integrated Bridge System (IBS) is a combination of systems, which are interconnected to allow a centralized monitoring of various navigational tools. IBS allows acquiring and control of sensor information of a number of operations such as passage execution, communication, machinery control, and safety and security. g. LRIT (Long Range Identification and Tracking) The Long-Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system provides for the global identification and tracking of ships.

1.7 Environmental Factors and Special Zones to be considered in the Ship routing The mariner's first resources for route planning in relation to weather are the Pilot Chart Atlases and the Sailing Directions (Planning Guides). These publications give climatic data, such as wave height frequencies and ice limits, for the major ocean basins of the world. They recommend specific routes based on probabilities, but not on specific conditions. So many of lives are put at risk because of bad weather that can occur due to the lack of weather forecast data. The requirements for ship routing become more strict and the weather forecasts become more significant in Weather Routing. So they are depend on the weather routing companies for safe navigation.

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Ship weather routing develops an optimum track for ocean voyages based on forecasts of weather, sea conditions, and a ship's individual characteristics for a particular transit. Within specified limits of weather and sea conditions, the term optimum is used to mean maximum safety and crew comfort, minimum fuel consumption and minimum time underway. The ship routing agency, acting as an advisory service, attempts to avoid or reduce the effects of specific adverse weather and sea conditions by issuing initial route recommendations prior to sailing, recommendations for track changes while diversions, and weather advisories to alert the commanding officer or master about approaching unfavorable weather and sea conditions which cannot be effectively avoided by a diversion. Adverse weather and sea conditions are defined as those conditions which will cause damage, significant speed reduction, or time loss. The initial route recommendation is based on a survey of weather and sea forecasts between the point of departure and the destination. It takes into account the hull type, speed capability, cargo, and loading conditions. The ship's progress is continually monitored and if adverse weather and sea conditions are forecast along the ship's current track, a recommendation for a diversion or weather advisory is transmitted to the ship. By this process of initial route selection and continued monitoring of the ship's progress for possible changes in the forecast weather and sea conditions along a route, it is possible to maximize the ship's speed and safety. However, the navigational environment is far more complex, the strong wind, waves and ocean currents may severely affect ships' safety, speed, fuel consumption in bad conditions. Thus the problem of how to design a safe-economic route is a key consideration in weather routing based on the results of the weather forecast and marine forecast into ship routing which is kernel in weather routing.

1.7.1 Effects of Environmental Factors Important environmental factors in ship routing are those elements such as the atmosphere and ocean which may produce a change in the status of a ship transit. In ship routing, wind, waves, fogs, ice, and ocean currents should be considered. While all of the environmental factors are important for route selection and surveillance, optimum routing is normally considered if the effects of wind and seas can be optimized.

a. Effects of wind The effect of wind speed on ship performance is difficult to determine. In light winds (less than 20-knots), ship loss speed in headwinds and gain speed slightly in following winds. For higher wind speeds, ship speed is reduced in both head and following winds. This is due to the increased wave actions, which even results in increased drag from steering corrections in following seas, and indicates the importance of sea conditions in determining ship performance. In dealing with wind, it is also necessary to know the ship’s sail area. High winds will have a greater adverse effect on a large, fully loaded container ship or cargo carrier than a fully loaded tanker of similar length. This effect is most noticeable when docking, but the effect of beam winds over several days at sea can also be considerable. 28

In 1806 Admiral F. Beaufort invented and introduced a scale used to estimate the force of the wind on the basis of the effects that it has on the sea surface and the sailing ships. The Beaufort scale is easy to learn and is still in use nowadays. Without any measuring instruments and only by observing the nature one may quickly and quite accurately determine the wind speed. The Beaufort scale (table 1.2) is used to empirically determine the wind intensity. The determination is based chiefly on the observation of the state of the sea and the wave types or objects located on the land; no measuring instruments are used. Table 1.2 Be a u fo r t w i n d s c a l e

°B

Description

For use at sea

Wind Wind Wave km/h Mm/h length [m]* 0-1 0-1 -

Wave height [m]* -

0

Calm

Sea like a mirror.

1

Light air

Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed, but without foam crests.

2-6

1-3

to 5

0.1-0.2

2

Light breeze

Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced. Crests have a glassy appearance and do not break. Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered white horses.

7-12

4-6

to 15

0.2-0.3

3

Gentle breeze

13-18

7-10

to 25

0.6-1.0

4

Moderate breeze

Small waves, becoming longer, fairly frequent white horses.

19-26

11-16

to 50

1.0-1.5

5

Fresh breeze

Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced form, many white horses are formed. Chance of some spray.

27-35

17-21

to 75

2.0-2.5

6

Strong breeze

Large waves begin to form, the white foam crests are more extensive everywhere. Probably some spray.

36-44

22-27

to 100

3.0-4.0

7

Near gale

Sea heaps up and white foam from 45-54 breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the direction of the wind.

28-33

to 135

4.0-5.5

29

8

Gale

Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into spindrift. The foam is blown in well marked streaks along the direction of the wind.

55-65

34-40

150200

5.5-7.5

9

Strong gale

High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind. Crests of waves begin to topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect visibility.

66-77

41-47

150200

7.010.0

10

Storm

48-55

to 250

9.012.5

11

Violent storm

Very high waves with long over 78-90 hanging crests. The resulting foam in great patches is blown in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole, the surface of the sea takes on a white appearance. The "tumbling" of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like. Visibility affected. Exceptionally high waves (small and 91medium sized ships might be lost for a 104 time behind the waves). The sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along the direction of the wind. Everywhere, the edges of the waves are blown into froth. Visibility affected.

56-63

to 300

11.514.0

12

Hurricane

The air is filled with foam and spray. The sea completely white with driving spray, visibility very seriously affected.

over 63

and longer

15.0 and higher

over 104

b. Effects of wave Wave height is the major factor that affects ship performance. Wave action is responsible for ship motions which reduce propeller thrust and cause increased drag from steering corrections. The relationship of ship speeds to wave direction and height is similar to that of wind. In heavy waves, exact performance may be difficult to predict because of the adjustments to course and speed for ship handling and comfort. Although the effect of wind wave and swell is much greater for large commercial vessel than that of wind speed and direction, it is difficult to separate the two in ship routing. The Douglas sea scale (table 1.3), also called the "international sea and swell scale", was devised in the 1920s by Captain H.P. Douglas, who later became vice admiral Sir Percy Douglas and hydrographer of the Royal Navy. Its purpose is to estimate the roughness of the

30

sea for navigation. The scale has two codes: one code is for estimating the sea state, the other code is for describing the swell of the sea. Table 1.3 D o u g l a s S e a S c a l e

Height [m] h1/3*

State of the sea

0

0

Calm sea

1

to 0,1

Sea rippled

2

0,1 - 0,5

Smooth

3

0,5 - 1,25

Slight

4

1,25 - 2,5

Moderate

5

2,5 - 4,0

Rough

6

4,0 - 6,0

Very rough

7

6,0 - 9,0

High

8

9,0 - 14,0

Very high

9

over 14,0

Phenomenal

31

Table 1.4 S w e l l

Degrees

Description

0

No swell

1

Very Low (short and low wave)

2

Low (long and low wave)

3

Light (short and moderate wave)

4

Moderate (average and moderate wave)

5

Moderate rough (long and moderate wave)

6

Rough (short and heavy wave)

c. Effects of Fog One of the most dangerous conditions to navigate a ship is restricted visibility because of fog, heavy rain or dust storm. Fog, while not directly affecting ship performance, should be avoided as much as feasible, in order to maintain normal speed in safe conditions. Extensive areas of fog during summertime can be avoided by selecting a lower latitude route than one based solely upon wind and seas. Although the route may be longer, transit time may be less due to non controlled reduction in speed in reduced visibility. In addition, crew fatigue due to increased watch keeping vigilance can also be reduced.

d. Effects of Ocean Currents Ocean currents influence a significant routing problem, and also a determining factor in route selection and diversion. This is especially true when the points of departure and destination are at relatively low latitudes. The important considerations to be evaluated are the difference in distance between a great-circle route and a route selected for optimum current. , w. For example, it has proven beneficial to remain equator ward of approximately 22°N for westbound passages between the Canal Zone and southwest Pacific ports. For eastbound passages, if the maximum latitude on a great-circle track from the southwest

32

Pacific to the Canal Zone is south of 24°N, a route passing near the axis of the Equatorial Counter current is practical because the increased distance is offset by favourable current. Direction and speed of ocean currents are more predictable than wind and seas, but some variability can be expected. Major ocean currents can be disrupted for several days by very intense weather systems such as hurricanes and by global phenomena such as El Nino.

e. Effects of Ice The problem of ice is twofold: floating ice (icebergs) and deck ice. If possible, areas of icebergs or pack ice should be avoided since they can cause collision unless its drifting is properly detected. Deck ice may be more difficult to contend with from a ship routing point of view because it is caused by freezing weather associated with a large weather system. While mostly a nuisance factor on large ships, it causes significant problems with the stability of small ships.

f. Effect of Latitude Generally, the higher the latitude of a route, even in the summer, the greater are the problems with the environment. Certain operations should benefit from seasonal planning as well as optimum routing. For example, towing operations north of about 40° latitude should be avoided in non-summer months if possible.

1.7.2 Tropical depressions / Storms Rough weather situation has been faced at least once or more by every seafarer during the course of his/her career. Some of the most common forms of heavy or rough weather are tropical depressions or storms generated due to varying atmospheric pressures over different parts of the earth. Beaufort wind scale, (Ref table 1.2) criteria classifies strong winds as near gale, gale, strong gale, storm, violent storm and hurricane based on ascending magnitude of wind force. Movement of sun causes pressure belts to shift and thus varying temperatures over land masses and water bodies causes pressure differences. Tropical depressions occur mostly in middle latitudes. A depression may often develop and travel in any direction in both the hemispheres.

Figure 1.15 Storm

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A tropical depression forms when a low pressure area is accompanied by thunderstorms that produce a circular wind flow with maximum sustained winds below 39mbh. It is therefore very important for a mariner to predict the location, magnitude and path of the storm, which are required to avoid these regions or navigate with caution while in navigating these areas. Following are a few precautions which seafarers must follow while encountering storms or navigating in areas of their frequent occurrence.

Figure 1.16 Path and Track of the Storm

The weather routing agency can provide the weather reports containing predicted path of the Tropical depression. Weather report and weather fax give warnings well in advance about unsettled weather conditions and also provide prior information regarding the legs of a voyage where rough weather is expected a sheltered passage or alternate route can be carefully planned to divert the vessel timely when required. Once presence of a storm or depression is confirmed proper instructions should be given to keep away from the centre of the Storm. It is vital to establish distance of the vessel from it, location of the eye of the storm, centre of the depression, and storm’s track and path. Estimated forecasting position and track of the storm should be monitored by the agency and give instructions for the ship so that mariners can avoid storms centre at a safe distance. It is advisable to keep at least 250 miles away from the centre of a storm however some companies prescribe specific distances in their Safety Management Manuals. Similarly, a prudent check is required on the stability condition of the vessel and its compliance with intact stability criteria. Provide instructions while changing speed, angle, and direction: Often waves associated with a storm or depression causes reduction in intact stability of vessel with a threat of capsizing or rolling of vessel to very large angles. From fig.1.16, we can refer to the following terms, *Track: A curve formed by previous known positions of a storm centre. *Path: A curve formed based on predicted positions of a storm centre.

1.7.3. Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) All seafarers are well familiar with the term ‘TRS’ or Tropical Revolving Storm – an intense rotating depression (a region of low pressure at the surface) which develops over the 34

tropical oceans. It consists of a rotating mass of warm and humid air and creates thunderstorms with strong winds, flooding rain, high waves, damaging storm surge etc. Convectional forces are involved, normally stretching from the surface of such a depression up to the tropopause. Once the tropical cyclone strengthens and has winds between 39 and 73 MPH, we call it a "tropical storm." An image of a TRS is given in Fig.1.17. Some of the important characteristics of a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) that are: • • • • • •

They appear smaller size than temperate depressions They form near the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, a zone of instability They have nearly circular isobars No fronts occur (a front is the boundary between two air masses, often distorted by warmer air bulging into the colder air) They result in a very steep pressure gradient They have great intensity

Figure 1.17 An image of Tropical Revolving Storm

The weather routing agencies can monitor the storm closely, for they broadcast comprehensive warnings and alerting messages with respect to known storms. The weather routing agency provides the informations containing: Swell, Atmospheric pressure, Wind, Clouds and Visibility. Although it is unlikely to sail into a storm with all navigational aids and communication systems in place (shore based as well as ship based), shore personnel generally chalk out an alternate passage plan to avoid such a tropical storm in good time (in liaison with the company and assigned route). To avoid it altogether, they should follow the instruction given by the agencies.

1.7.4. Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) or Emission Control Areas (ECAs) Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) or Emission Control Areas (ECAs) are sea areas in which strict controls were established to minimize airborne emissions (SOx, NOx, ODS, VOC) from ships as defined by Annex VI in MARPOL (Marine Pollution) Protocol.

35

MARPOL Protocol (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) are explained here for further informations: •

MARPOL Annex1- Prevention of pollution by oil & oily water Special area for oily water disposal

Here the discharge of oil in the water must be not more than 15ppm. E.g. North Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, English Channel, Gulf Area, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea. •

MARPOL Annex 2- Control of pollution by noxious liquid substances in bulk

It started to be enforced on April 6, 1987. It details the discharge criteria for the elimination of pollution by noxious liquid substances carried in large quantities. It divides substances into and introduces detailed operational standards and measures. The discharge of pollutants is allowed only to reception facilities with certain concentrations and conditions. No matter what, no discharge of residues containing pollutants is permitted within 12 miles of the nearest land. Stricter restrictions apply to "special areas". •

MARPOL Annex 3- Prevention of pollution by harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form

It started to be enforced on July 1, 1992. It contains general requirements for the standards on packing, marking, labelling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications for preventing pollution by noxious substances. The Annex is in line with the procedures detailed in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, which has been expanded to include marine pollutants. The amendments entered into force on January 1, 1991. •

MARPOL Annex 4- Pollution by sewage from ships

It started to be enforced on September 22, 2003. It introduces requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage from ships. •

MARPOL Annex 5- Garbage Management regulation

Special areas where disposal of any garbage including food waste and cargo residues are not allowed. E.g. Baltic sea, Black sea, English Channel, Gulf Area, Mediterranean Sea, Antarctic Sea. •

MARPOL Annex 6- Prevention of Air Pollution

It introduces requirements to regulate the air pollution being emitted by ships, including the emission of ozone-depleting substances, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulphur Oxides (SOx), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and shipboard incineration. It also establishes requirements for reception facilities for wastes from exhaust gas cleaning systems, incinerators, fuel oil quality, for off-shore platforms and drilling rigs and for the establishment of SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAs). Ship can use fuel oil with sulphur 36

content maximum of 3.5%/mass any part of the world except in the ECA (Emission Control Area). In ECA region the sulphur content in the fuel oil should not exceed more than 1%/mass. Following are the special areas for ECA: North Sea, English Channel, Baltic Sea, US water (200NM away from base line), Hawaii Island.

1.7.5. Anti Piracy Areas Piracy is typically an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea.. It does not normally include crimes committed against people travelling on the same vessel as the perpetrator (e.g. one passenger stealing from others on the same vessel). The term has been used throughout history to refer to raids across land borders by non-state agents. The English "pirate" is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek (peiratēs). When one ship passes through high risk area and the ship is captured by the pirates, they will demand for ransom money to release hostage. The owner of the ship will most of the time accept the demand and pay the ransom money through the mediator in order to release the hostage. Even though the owner needs to pay ransom money they will not compromise with the safety of the staffs onboard the ship. So they will take any chance to put life of staffs in danger. In light of this, the ship fleet managers will take some safety measures when they passing through the high risk area. For the security purpose vessels should receive the armed guards before they enter the high risk area. They also will bind the wire in the ship body. And the most important safety measure is that they have to take premium for the high risk area. But when the ship is passing through the high risk area (war risk area) its premium increase. Considering the different aspects of ship routing explained above, the present study focuses with the following aims and objectives.

1.8 Aim and Objectives • • •

To develop an understanding on ship routing and recommend Optimum routes to Ships. To introduce the Netpas Software and also to show how ship routing is done with this software. To introduce QGIS and ArcGIS and to show how the ship weather routing is done using this application in order to provide GIS as a supporting system for Optimum Weather Routing.

1.9 Review of Literature The world’s seaborne trade has experienced a notable increase to that of the world fleet capacity. The world trade in 2002 is estimated to be 5.625 million tons representing a 33% increase during the last decade (Fearnleys, 2002).

37

The interest in ship routing and maritime transportation in general has been increasingly growing in recent years. Christiansen et al. (2007) gave a recent comprehensive survey about the field, emphasizing the differences between land and maritime routing. The first study of ship routing and scheduling was performed by Ronen (1983). Ten years later, a second paper by the same author (Ronen, 1993) surveyed works on ship scheduling and related topics for the period 1982–1992.

Christiansen et al. (2007) stated that commercial ship operations is normally divided into three types: Liner, tramp and industrial shipping. Liner operation means that the sailing route is fixed, and the ports that need to be visited are pre-defined. Tramp ships follow the available cargo, this is similar to how a taxi operates. Industrial shipping means that the operator normally owns both the vessel and the cargo. The objective of tramp shipping is to maximize the profit, but for liner and industrial shipping, the objective is to minimize the cost. Bunker fuel prices has a great impact on the marine transportation, and the ship owners cost priority changes with the fuel price. Before the oil crises in 1970’s, the minimum time routes were most often recommended. However, when the fuel prices are high, minimizing the fuel consumption has a higher priority. Weather routing can be an e fficient way o minimizing the fuel cost.

In more modern times weather routing was applied by implementing statistical data over ocean areas in route planning. The first example of this is Matthew Fontaine Maury who in the 19th century collected data from ships’ log books and made the data available for other vessels. He also generated route recommendations for the di fferent seasons a large influence on the transit time. Bowditch (2002) stated: Average transit time on the New York to California via Cape Horn route was reduced from 183 days to 139 days with the use of his recommended seasonal routes. Weather routing of ships is increasingly recognized as an important contribution to safe, economical and reliable ship routes. Weather routing is used in deep sea shipping, typically large ships travelling in the transcontinental oceans. A ship can access the weather forecast by satellite, and update the recommended route one or two times a day. Weather routing agencies provides route recommendations. There are several large weather routing agencies, and with increasing knowledge about the weather and currents there has been a rise in the number of agencies, Thomson (2011). In SAR measurement of Ocean Sea surface wind and wave for operational ship routing describes the safety of shipping and it is a growing concern. The causes of shipping casualties are various, while over 30% of the casualties are due to bad weather. Heavy sea state and severe weather conditions have caused the loss of more than 200 large cargo vessels within 20 years between 1981 and 2000. Remote sensing techniques, particularly the active microwave radar provides global sea surface observations for detecting heavy sea state and bad weather independent of clouds and sunlight and therefore it can contribute to shipping safety. In the present paper, based on a case analysis of ship accidents caused by adverse weather situation, we demonstrated the potential of using space borne remote sensing supporting for shipping security (Xiao-Ming Li Lehner. ; Bruns, 2011).

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Most ocean shipping companies do the planning of fleet schedules manually based on their experience. Only a few use optimization-based decision support systems (DSS). A computer-based decision support system for vessel fleet scheduling presents Turbo Router, a decision support system for vessel fleet scheduling, as well as some of the experience gathered from a research project to develop commercial software that is now used by several shipping companies. Perhaps the most important experience is that when designing such systems, the focus should be directed more to the interaction between the user and the system than the optimization algorithm, which has often been the case (Fagerholt, K.2004). Ship routing and scheduling with flexible cargo sizes describe a real planning problem in the tramp shipping industry. A tramp shipping company may have a certain amount of contract cargoes that it is committed to carry, and tries to maximize the profit from optional cargoes. For real long-term contracts, the sizes of the cargoes are flexible (Bronmo, G., Christiansen, M., F.agerholt, K., & Nygreen, B. 2006).

In shipping, we usually distinguish between three modes of operation: industrial, tramp and liner (Lawrence, 1972). Scheduling short-term marine transport of bulk products gives support system which is used daily to optimally dispatch shipments of bulk products by ships (Bausch, D.O., Brown, G. G., & Ronen, D.1998) An optimization-based Decision Support System for ship scheduling based on the typical optimization models are briefly reviewed and classified by Kim, S.-H., & Lee, K. -K. 1997. The performance of the system has been tested and examined using various ship scheduling scenarios and thereby the effectiveness of the system is validated satisfactorily. A combined ship scheduling and allocation problem show that the proposed approach works, and optimal solutions are obtained on several cases of a real ship planning problem (Fagerholt, K., & Christiansen, M.2000a). Kobe university have done some research on numerical ship navigation based on numerical forecast models (Shigeaki, 2008, 2010; T. Soda, 2012; Chen, 2013). The environment of ship sailing is very complex, the single factor or accumulation of several environmental factors cannot reflect the effect of environmental factors on the ship performance(Y. Cai & Y. Wen et.al 2014). Johannessen et al., 1994. Has demonstrated the use of SAR images for real time monitoring of northern sea route as part of an ESA project. In Ice watch - Ice SAR Monitoring of the Northern Sea Route by Johannessen et al. (1997) described the use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images from satellites is a technology which is playing an increasingly important role in operational sea ice monitoring. SAR images, with a resolution of 100 m, can distinguish different ice types and map leads, polynyas, shear zones, land fast ice, drifting ice and location of the ice edge. The SAR is the only instrument which provide high resolution images under different cloud and light conditions.

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Table 1.5.: Routing services and support systems, Hinnenthal (2008)

Tab. 1.5 gives an overview over the main routing agencies and services. The table is obtained from Hinnenthal (2008). A typical agency will provide both onshore and onboard guidance. The agency will give a recommendation prior to the departure, and by monitoring the ship’s position recalculations will be performed during the voyage. Several agencies also provide post voyage analysis, where they evaluate the ship’s performance with regard to speed, fuel consumption and emissions. With this information the agency can recommend the optimal operational condition as well as the frequency of maintenance. Several nations 40

provide meteorological data that can be used for ship routing. Weathernews Inc. is the world’s largest private company providing this data, oceanroutes.com (2013). A prediction method of Speed and power of a ship in a seaway is described here. In determining the speed, two factors are considered: the natural speed reduction due to added resistance caused by wind, waves, etc. and the voluntary speed reduction by the ship’s Captain, in order to prevent severe motions (J.M.J Journee and J.H.C. Meijers 1980). Some Economical Aspects of the Routing of Ships shows to analyse the effects of routing on the economy of a ship (J.H.C. Meijers 1980). In Prediction Table for Marine Traffic for Vessel Traffic Service Based on Cognitive Work Analysis describes Vessel Traffic Service, (VTS) is being used at ports and in coastal areas of the world for preventing accidents and improving efficiency of the vessels at sea on the basis of “IMO RESOLUTION A.857 (20) on Guidelines for Vessel Traffic Services.” Currently, VTS plays an important role in the prevention of maritime accidents, as ships are required to participate in the system. Ships are diversified and traffic situations in ports and coastal areas have become more complicated than before. The role of VTS operator (VTSO) has been enlarged because of these reasons, and VTSO is required to be clearly aware of maritime situations and take decisions in emergency situations. In this paper, we propose a prediction table to improve the work of VTSO through the Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA), which analyzes the VTS work very systematically. The prediction tool supports decisionmaking in terms of a proactive measure for the prevention of maritime accidents (Weintraub et.al April 2013). In Commercial Arctic shipping through the Northeast Passage: routes, resources, governance, technology, and infrastructure (Farre et.al 2014) describes the renewed interest in the Northeast Passage or the Northern Sea Route is fuelled by a recession of Arctic sea ice coupled with the discovery of new natural resources at a time when emerging and global markets are in growing demand for them. Driven by the expectation of potential future economic importance of the region, political interest and governance has been rapidly developing, mostly within the Arctic Council. However, this paper argues that optimism regarding the potential of Arctic routes as an alternative to the Suez Canal is overstated. The route involves many challenges: jurisdictional disputes create political uncertainties; shallow waters limit ship size; lack of modern deepwater ports and search and rescue (SAR) capabilities requires ships to have higher standards of autonomy and safety; harsh weather conditions and free-floating ice make navigation more difficult and schedules more variable; and more expensive ship construction and operation costs lessen the economic viability of the route. In an approach for efficient ship routing (Weintraub et.al 2013)shows Ship routing problems are a particular kind of routing problems where the vehicles to be routed are vessels or ships, usually in maritime environments. Ship routing has unique features, including overnight trips, disjoint time windows, not necessarily pre-specified routes, and a great uncertainty derived from weather conditions. We discuss aspects related with data gathering and updating, which are particularly difficult in the context of ship routing. Additionally, we present a GRASP algorithm to solve this problem.

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2. Materials and Datasets 2.1 Netpas, QGIS and ArcGIS Netpas, QGIS and ArcGIS are the software used in this work. The Seafuture Inc is a professional marine software develop company known as Netpas. Netpas Distance is a port distance table providing 12,000 ports and 0.1 billion distance data with (S) ECA, Weather forecasting, Piracy alert and other power functions. It is developed under consideration of user-friendly UX & UI with various functions to enhance and support your daily work more effectively. Netpas use the wind and pressure data obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Wave data used in this software has been obtained from the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Centre (FNMOC). It does not imply an affiliation with NOAA and FNMOC. Merely they takes their information which is in public domain.

Figure 2.1 Weather Service Beta

QGIS is a cross-platform free and open-source desktop Geographic Information System (GIS) application that provides data viewing, editing, and analysis capabilities. We get the Weather data from FleetWeather, PassageWeather, Oceanweather inc. and INCOIS. Table.2.1 to Table.2.3 show the weather data for Singapore, Chennai as an example for a particular day of the cruise. Similarly, Fig.2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 show the surface pressure data, significant wave height and surface wind for the study region respectively. Alternatively, a weather data information for the Indian seas provided by INCOIS is also shown here as forecast data (Table 2.3) that can be used for planning ship weather routing.

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Table 2.1 Example for Weather Forecast data of Singapore from Fleet Weather

Table 2.2 Example for Weather Forecast data of Chennai from Fleet Weather

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Figure 2.2 Surface pressure data from Passage Weather

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Figure 2.3 Significant Wave Height and Wave Direction from Ocean Weather

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Figure 2.4 Surface Wind Speed and Direction from Passage Weather

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Table 2.3 Example for Weather Forecast data from INCOIS

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2.2 STUDY REGIONS 2.2.1 Singapore East OPL Currently the world's second-busiest port (Fig.2.5) in terms of total shipping tonnage, it also trans-ships a fifth of the world's shipping containers, half of the world's annual supply of crude oil, and is the world's busiest transhipment port. The Port of Singapore consists of the collective facilities and terminals that conduct maritime trade handling functions in the harbour which handle Singapore's shipping. Vessels calling at Singapore for bunkers often anchor "Outside Port Limits" (OPL) to avoid port charges and pilotage fees. There are two OPL anchorages off Singapore; the Eastern OPL and the Western OPL. The area east of Johor Shoal Buoy and the entrance to the Johor Strait form the Eastern OPL Anchorage. Vessels anchored in the Eastern and Western OPLs may experience tidal currents of up to 4 knots. The depth of water is between 20 to 30 metres.

Figure 2.5 A view of Singapore East OPL

2.2.2 Chennai Port Chennai Port, formerly known as Madras Port, is the second largest port of India, behind the Nhava Sheva Port, and the largest port in the Bay of Bengal. The port is located at a Latitude of 13.0844° N and Longitude of 80.2899° E (Fig.2.6). The port has a current depth of 17 m (56 ft) and is capable of handling fourth-generation vessels up to 150,000 DWT. It is going through an expansion and will have a depth of 18–22 m (59–72 ft), a continuous quay length of 2 km (1.2 mi) and back-up area of around 100 ha (250 acres).

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Figure 2.6 A view of Chennai Port

2.2.3 Balboa The Port of Panama City (Balboa) is a very largest port in the Panama. The port is located at a Latitude of 08° 58'N and Longitude of 079° 33'W (Fig.2.7). The Port of Balboa covers 182 hectares and contains five berths for containers and two multi-purpose berths. In total, the berths are over 2.3 thousand meters long (7.4 thousand feet) with alongside depth of 17 meters (55.8 feet). The Port of Balboa has four super post-Panamax, ten post-Panamax, and eight Panamax quay cranes. The Port of Balboa is also equipped with 51 rubber-tired gantry cranes, I reach stackers, 19 empty container handlers, and 21 forklifts. The Port of Balboa also contains 2.1 thousand square meters (22.6 thousand square feet) of warehouse space.

Figure 2.7 A view of Balboa Port 49

2.2.4 Port of Yokohama The Port of Yokohama is operated by the Port and Harbour Bureau of the City of Yokohama in Japan. It opens onto Tokyo Bay. The port is located at a latitude of 35.27– 00°N and a longitude of 139.38–46°E (Fig.2.8). To the south lies the Port of Yokosuka; to the north, the ports of Kawasaki and Tokyo. It is a naturally blessed port with a spacious water area on the eastern side and undulated hills on the northern, western and southern sides. In addition to its natural assets, the port has been equipped with various facilities, such as inner and outer breakwaters, that protects the port from the effects of winds and tides. The Port of Yokohama's Mizuho Quay is 170 meters (557.7 feet) long with an apron width of 20 meters (65.6 feet) and a depth of ten meters (32.8 feet). This Port of Yokohama pier can accommodate vessels of 10 thousand DWT.

Figure 2.8 A view of Port of Yokohama

2.2.5 Visakhapatnam Port Visakhapatnam Port is one of the leading major ports of India. It is the major port in Andhra Pradesh. It is India's second largest port by volume of cargo handled. The Port is located on the east coast of India in between Chennai and Kolkata at a latitude of 17°42'00''N and longitude of 83°23'00''E(Fig.2.9) and the time zone is GMT+5:30. Bestowed with natural deep-water basins, the outer harbour is capable of accommodating vessels up to 200,000DWT and draft up to 18.1meters. The inner harbour is capable of accommodating fully laden Panamax vessels with draft up to 14.5m, with tidal range of maximum of 1.82 m is also advantages.

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Figure 2.9 A view of Visakhapatnam Port

2.2.6 Port of Amsterdam The Port of Amsterdam is a seaport in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The port of Amsterdam is a tide less port located on the bank of a former bay named the Ijsselmeer and the North Sea Canal, with which it is connected to the North Sea. The port was first used in the 13th century and was one of the main ports of the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century. Today, the Port of Amsterdam is the second largest port in the Netherlands, the largest being the Port of Rotterdam. 52.4120°N 4.8079°E (Fig.2.10). Amsterdam Terminal has a total surface area of 880,000m2 and maximum depth of 14.6m.

Figure 2.10 A view of Port of Amsterdam

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2.3 Methodology

Considering the different aspects of navigation, three different routes are planned, viz: Singapore East OPL to Chennai, Balboa to Yokohama and Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam (Fig.2.11).

Figure 2.11 Location map of the study region (Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Balboa, Yokohama and Amsterdam)

Different steps employed for the application of Netpas software is explained in detail below with pictorial representation in Fig.2.12 to Fig.2.37. First open the Netpas Distance Software.

Figure 2.12 Netpas Distance software 52

2.3.1 Voyage planning from Singapore East OPL to Chennai First we have to find the distance, for that select Port Name and then Find port type Singapore East OPL and press OK.

Figure 2.13 Port Finder

Click on the Calendar in the Departure select the date then press OK. Then select the next port of destination, viz: Chennai same as above, then click on Get Distance (F9) and it will displayed on the screen.

Figure 2.14 Distance between Chennai to Singapore displayed on the screen

Figure 2.15 Estimated the distance between Singapore to Chennai 53

For the simple estimation of the amount required for the fuel for their route, click on the Simple Estimation. Then a box is open. We can select the currency in Dollars or Euros. To calculate the amount click on the tab near the Price to get the price of fuel per litre.

Figure 2.16 Estimated the amount required for the fuel for the voyage

For Creating the Voyage, Click on Create Voyage then two boxes are opened.

Figure 2.17 Create the voyage

Insert the FO and DO, FO: 590MT (means 590 metric ton fuel oil is stored in the vessel before starting the voyage), DO: 80MT (means 80metric ton diesel oil is also stored) then click OK. (LSFO and LSDO is not required in this voyage). In the Type column we can see that both are in loaded condition so we have to change the type of second port as: Discharging (Or we have to change it as Ballast, loaded, Discharge, Bunker, and Canal). Then insert Voyage NO: 01/L/15 (means first loaded voyage in 2015), type M.V: Rigel (name of the vessel), Call Sign: LAZS5 (means call name of vessel) then select Great circle line or Rhumbline points. In this voyage we select Rhumbline points. 54

Speed CP Ballast: 13 knots (means speed of vessel after discharge), CP Loden: 13 knots (means speed of vessel in loaded condition). Bunker Consumption In Sea FO (Ballast/ Loaden): 33MT/day (metric ton/day) (means fuel oil consumption of vessel per day during voyage in Ballast or Loaded condition). DO (Sea): 0.10MT/day (means diesel oil consumption of vessel per day during voyage. It is used to start auxiliary engine/ generator, i.e., used to start main engine). LSFO (Ballast/ Laden) and LSDO (Sea) is not used in this voyage.

In Port FO (Idle/ Work): 3.5MT/day and 6.9MT (In port main engine stop working then normally one generator is working so it requires only 3.5MT/day. Sometimes 2 or 3 auxiliary engines are used then it requires 6.9MT/day). DO (Idle/ Work): 0.10MT/day (it requires only the same amount of diesel oil used in sea). In port also LSFO (Idle/ Work) and LSDO (Idle/ Work) is not used.

Figure 2.18 Enter the details necessary for the voyage

Click Create to create our voyage.

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Figure 2.19 Created route is displayed on the screen

Then it will be displayed on screen. Check appraisal of the voyage with the help of various publications and conform vessel intended route is safe. The water depth would be checked before departure and also at the arrival port and monitor (calculate the position) the voyage and confirm that vessel is always in navigable water throughout the voyage. There after access the weather condition during the voyage. Ensure the vessel is always in a favourable weather condition in order to plan optimum voyage. After conforming the Voyage from vessel (calculate the position of vessel) the vessel performance is also monitored during the voyage and advise the vessel with required weather reports. One should also steer the vessel with amended route in case any storm or typhoon has developed on the track of the voyage which may affect adversely the performance of the voyage. For this, select Weather Service Beta to get weather. Select Typhoon key then we get the typhoon present in different region in the world.

Figure 2.20 Typhoon Key

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For the present case study, a voyage from Singapore East OPL was selected on 20/07/2015 where no typhoon has developed and the voyage reached at Chennai port on 25/07/2015. For this, monitoring of weather started on 18/7/2015. To get the weather, first set the forecast time then click on Show Weather in the Netpas software. As the weather condition was also not so bad on these dates. But only a little effect of wind in the middle of the voyage i.e. wind direction is to the northern direction. So there is a little effect on the ship.

Figure 2.21 Route with the weather forecast data

─ Blue line shows Low pressure Wind Speed and Direction

─ Red line shows High Pressure

----------Wave Height 2.3.2 Voyage planning from Balboa to Yokohama It is the biggest voyage in Pacific Ocean. It is from East to West direction. Voyage creation is same as the above. But we know there are two types of sailing tracks Great Circle sailing and Rhumbline sailing. In this voyage we compare both sailing. Already we know that Great Circle sailing is used for long sailing in the ocean passage (Pacific, Atlantic or Indian Ocean).

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Figure 2.22 Great Circle voyage planning from Balboa to Yokohama

First we construct a Great circle sailing and it takes 7,685NM it also passes through ECA or SECA (means Emission Control Area or Sulphur Emission Control Area) and the distance is 38NM.

Figure 2.23 Great Circle route with ECA region

When the vessel is passing through the Emission Control Area the ship should comply with ECA regulations upon arrival on ECA region. Seven hours before the arrival of entry of ECA region the vessel should start change over to Low Sulphur fuel oil from High Sulphur fuel oil. We know the price of Low Sulphur fuel is much greater than High Sulphur Fuel Oil.

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If weather is bad in Great Circle track and favourable in the Rhumbline track, even if Rhumbline takes more distance than Great Circle navigation, Rhumbline route can be selected because bad weather can affect the speed and safety of the vessel. So another voyage using Rhumbline sailing track can be constructed. But it takes 7777NM but ECA region is 0NM.

Figure 2.24 Rhumbline route from Balboa to Yokohama

Figure 2.25 Rhumbline voyage planning from Balboa to Yokohama

We can see that in Great Circle navigation it takes only 7,685NM and in Rhumbline navigation it takes 7,777NM. That means great circle navigation is 92NM less than the Rhumbline navigation. But Great circle navigation is passing through ECA region and it takes 38NM. We know LSFO and LSDO are more expensive than FO and DO.

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Figure 2.26 Great circle route passing through ECA region

Normally in Pacific Ocean for the voyage from Balboa to Yokohama direct Great Circle route may not be recommended to use in winter season due to heavy rough weather and ice condition in higher latitude. Then we prefer Rhumbline navigation in those days. We have to select the route depends upon the weather conditions and other external factors (current, typhoon, swell, wind, etc.) We know currents are also very important that affect the speed of the ship, which minimize or maximize the fuel consumption. In the Pacific Ocean the bulk of the Kuroshio turns east to receive the southward-flowing Oyashio Current and continues east to split off the coast of Canada and form the Alaska and California currents. The Kuroshio exhibits distinct seasonal fluctuations. It is strongest from May to August. So that currents will affect our voyage.

Figure 2.27 Currents in North Pacific Ocean

If we select the great circle voyage or the Rhumbline voyage then both routes are travelling opposite to the current's direction that can affect the speed of our ship. E.g.: In the in Great Circle navigation it takes only 7,685NM but ship can take only 12NM speed. It can take 26.7 days to complete the voyage. We can loss both time and fuel. So we have plan a 60

voyage by maximum avoiding the current effect. For that we cut the route into two first leg is Rhumbline and second leg is Great circle (means Balboa to Hawaii Island and Hawaii Island to Yokohama). Here it takes 7,912 NM but ship can take 13NM speed. It can takes only 25.3 days to complete the voyage. So this saves both time and fuel. So we have to prefer this voyage plan more than the first one. Then we select the Great Circle Navigation and click on the Edit Voyage in Voyage Summary, then we have to edit the way points.

Figure 2.28 Rhumbline and Great Circle Voyage plan from Balboa to Yokohama

After creating the voyage and conforming the voyage from vessel then we need to monitor the vessel and advise the vessel with required weather reports same as above.

Figure 2.29 Great Circle route with weather forecast data

─ Blue line shows Low pressure Wind Speed and Direction

─ Red line shows High Pressure

----------Wave Height 61

2.3.3 Voyage from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam It is also a biggest voyage. When we plan the voyage using the software we get the total distance as 7,757NM and Emission Control Area 450NM. But it is also passing through High Risk Area or Pirated Area (war risk area).

Figure 2.30 Voyage from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam

Then they will take some safety measures when they passing through the high risk area. For the security purpose vessel should receive the armed guards before they enter the high risk area. In this voyage it is from Galle (anchorage Srilanka) they receive the armed guards. To avoid the pirated area we plan a voyage through Cape Town (Africa). But it takes total distance of 11,509NM and Emission Control Area takes the distance of 450NM. It is not an Optimum route. Here is no other option to avoid ECA region because this voyage is to ECA region (Amsterdam). It is also very expensive and time consuming.

Figure 2.31 voyage through Cape Town (Africa) 62

So then we plan to avoid the pirated area in the first voyage using a tool in the software. Then click on the Anti Piracy Route. A box is open then they will show different options like the shortest route, 250NM outer route from Somalia East Coast, 600NM outer route from Somalia East Coast, JWLA015 (2nd Aug 2010) (means this circular revise the High Risk Area of the world according to the Joint War Committee on 2nd August 2010),

Figure 2.32 JWLA015 (2nd Aug 2010)

JWLA016 (16th Dec 2010),

Figure 2.33 JWLA016 (16th Dec 2010)

JWLA016 Up to Mumbai

Figure 2.34 JWLA016 Up to Mumbai 63

JWLA016 Max Avoid Route

Figure 2.35 JWLA016 Max Avoid Route

In this voyage we select JWLA016 Max Avoid Route but there is a small area that also we avoid easily by edit route in voyage summary then we get following route.

Figure 2.36 Voyage from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam with max avoiding the piracy area

In this voyage it takes 8,552NM distance that means 795NM greater than first voyage (7757NM). But in this plan we reduce the Pirated area so premium will be reduced and also more safe. Then insert all information as above. We know this voyage is to Amsterdam. It’s an ECA region. So we have to store LSFO and LSDO before starting the voyage. Similarly, Bunker Consumption during the Voyage can also be considered in two different situations, one at Sea and the other at the Port area. At Sea LSFO (Ballast/ Laden): 33MT/day (means low sulphur fuel oil consumption of vessel per day during voyage in Ballast or Loaded condition). 64

LSDO (Sea): 0.10MT/day (means low sulphur diesel oil consumption of vessel per day during voyage). At Port LSFO (Idle/Work): 3.5MT/day and 6.9MT/day (In port main engine stop working then normally one generator is working so it requires only 3.5MT/day. Sometimes 2 or 3 auxiliary engines are used then it requires 6.9MT/day). LSDO (Idle/Work): 0.10MT/day (it requires only the same amount of low sulphur diesel oil used in sea).

Figure 2.37 Create the voyage

After creating the voyage and conforming the voyage from vessel then we need to monitor the vessel same as above. The main advantage of this software is easy voyage creation and weather forecasting data. The main drawback of this software is it can focus only the Optimum Route. They cannot give importance to weather routing. So we have to put forward QGIS (Quantum GIS) as a supporting system.

2.3.4 Ship routing using QGIS Open QGIS page click on web then select Open Layers Plugin then select Bing Aerial with Label. We get a georeferenced image. So there is no need to Georeference again. Table 2.4 to Table 2.7 and also Figs 2.38-2.40 show the pictorial representation of different tasks under QGIS. Then click on the Layer select Create Layers then select New Shapefile Layer. Then a box is open. Select Type as Point or Line or Polygon. Here we select line. Make an attribute list. For this particular case study, only the Singapore to Chennai route is planned.

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Table 2.4 Attribute table for wind speed

Table 2.5 Attribute table for wave height

Table 2.6 Attribute table for pressure

Table 2.7 Attribute table for Ship route from Singapore East OPL to Chennai

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Draw all this on the map

Figure 2.38 Ship weather route from Singapore to Chennai

To calculate distance and Time between the ports Click on the button in the Start in the Shortest Path ► then click on the starting point of the voyage ► then we will get the latitude and longitude values of that point ► then click on the end of the route ► then will we will also get the latitude and longitude of that point ► then select length first ► then click calculate ► then length will displayed on the screen ► then change Criterion as Time ►then click on calculate ► we will get the time also

Figure 2.39 Shortest path

To create Layout Click Project ►New Print Composer ►From Layout ►select on Add Map ► then click on the page and drag then map is open. From Layout ► select on Add Label ► then click and drag on the page ► we get an empty box ► then on the right side 'Label' is displayed as QGIS then change it as "Optimum 67

Ship Routing During Unfavourable Weather Condition" (Fig.2.46). ► then change the Font, Font Colour, Margin, Horizontal alignment, Vertical Alignment, etc. From Layout ► select Add Scalebar ► then click and drag on the page ► we get the box containing Scalebar ► then on the right side 'Scalebar' is displayed to change its properties for our convenience. From Layout ► select Add Legend ► then click and drag on the page ► we get the box containing Legend and also the attributes already we added early ► then on the right side 'Legend' is displayed we can change its properties like Legend items (can add, remove, filter, etc by click on Update all), Font, Symbols, Position and Size, etc. From Layout ► select Add Arrow or Add image to give north arrow to the layout ► then click and drag on the page ► (if Add arrow then we get a box containing arrow but here we add image ► we get a blank box and on the right side 'Picture' is displayed we select the icon under image source and select the image of north arrow we have change other properties also. Then we get the Layout image and then click on the composer select Save Project to save the layout image.

Figure 2.40 Optimum Ship Routing map

2.3.5 Ship routing using ArcGIS ArcGIS is used in order to prepare the ship weather route. Weather forecasting data of the 23-6-2015 was collected from FleetWeather, PassageWeather, Oceanweather inc. and INCOIS. Base map is calling as the chart for route preparation. Wave height, Wind Speed, Wind Direction and Surface Pressure are the parameters we can digitized using ArcGIS. The ocean data were extracted from the Open Ocean base map. Attribute for the pressure, Wind, Waves and ship route is given Table 2.8-Table 2.12 and Figure 2.41. 68

Table 2.8 Attribute table for High Pressure

Table 2.9 Attribute table for Low Pressure

Table 2.10 Attribute table for Wave height

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Table 2.11 Attribute table for Wind Speed

Table 2.12 Attribute table for Ship Route from Vishakhapatnam to Amsterdam

Figure 2.41 Optimum Ship Routing map using ArcGIS.

We the measure the length of the route using measure tool in ArcGIS.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Many weather routing service providers claim the ability to save fuel and increase safety and schedule reliability in marine traffic; yet shipping industry still found it hard and , hundreds of lives are put at risk and more than 5000 containers are lost overboard every year. P&I club reported container total losses have increased one third over 2006 and 2007, and serious partial losses have gone up 270% in the last decade. A major survey conducted by Maritime Economics and Logistics in 2007 revealed that over 40% of the vessels deployed on worldwide liner services arrived one or more days behind schedule( Henry Chen). Already the routing agencies provide the weather forecast data of every 72hrs. But the main drawback of Netpas software is that route does not give any importance to weather. They only concentrate on Optimum route (fuel and time). But our study considered safety of the mariner's by giving due weight age to weather routing. Using QGIS we can provide the pictorial representation of weather data for the mariners then it is very easy to show the change in the route due to bad weather with the weather data.

Figure .3.1. Optimum ship routing during unfavourbale weather conditions generated using QGIS

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In QGIS we measure the distance between two ports and also the time, bearing and length of the route (Fig.3.1). Similarly, using the Arc GIS also (Fig.3.2)we can measure the length of the route covering the different way points along the route the ship has to cover.

Figure .3.2. Optimum ship routing during unfavourbale weather conditions generated using ArcGIS.

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Decision Support System for optimum ship weather routing Voyage Planning

Netpas Software

Weather Forecast Data Max avoid ECA region (MARPOL regulation 6)

Max avoid piracy route

QGIS/ ArcGIS Software

Normal Route Plot Atm. pressure, wave height, wind speed and direction

Plot way points on chart

Optimum weather route

Optimum route

Confirmation and Execution of weather route

Confirmation and Execution Weather Forecast data

Unfavourable weather

Unfavourable weather Favourable weather

Favourable weather

Monitoring (Estimated Time) Figure .3.3. Flow diagram showing the different steps to be consider for optimum ship weather routing

Fig. 3.3. Explains the flow diagram for a decision support system in designing the optimum ship weather routing. In this context, we plan the voyage initially using an available software Netpas, for a normal route we plot way points on chart then we will get the Optimum route after getting the confirmation from the mariners. If the vessel is passing through the pirated area then in the Netpas, there is an option to avoid the pirated route but

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there is some limitations to avoid maximum pirated route, we can avoid maximum pirated route with the help of an expert by moving the way points. Then provide weather forecast data of up to 72hrs. If the weather is favourable then the vessel performance is monitored (calculate the position of vessel) during the voyage and advise the vessel with required weather reports. If the weather is unfavourable, then we can make use of QGIS/ ArcGIS plot atmospheric pressure, wave height, wind speed and direction and also plot updated optimum weather route that will provide a clear picture of weather data. Then after confirmation from vessel, monitor the vessel and provide the necessary instructions. Potential stakeholders for the use of proposed Ship weather routing supporting System are listed here: Table 3.1 Names of the Shipping Companies

Sl.No

Name of the Shipping Companies

1

COSCO Shipping

2

Univan Ship Management Limited

3

MSC Ship Management Company

4

Mediterranean Shipping Company

5

Great Eastern Shipping Company

6

Fleet Management Limited

7

BP Marine

8

Wallem Ship Management Limited

9

Ever Green Marine Corporation

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4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The success of ship weather routing is dependent upon the validity of the forecasts and the routing agency’s ability to make appropriate route recommendations and diversions. Anticipated improvements in a routing agency’s recommendations will come from advancements in meteorology, technology, and the application of ocean wave forecast models for the mariners. Technological advancements in the areas of satellite and automated communications and onboard ship response systems will increase the amount and type of information to and from the ship with fewer delays. Ship response and performance data included with the ship’s weather report will provide the routing agency with real-time information with which to ascertain the actual state of the ship. Being able to predict a ship’s response in most weather and sea conditions will result in improved routing procedures. Advanced planning of a proposed transit, combined with the study of expected weather conditions, both before and during the voyage, as is done by ship routing agencies, provide the greatest opportunity to achieve the goal of optimum environmental conditions for ocean transit.

Optimum ship routing is the art and science of developing the best route for a ship based on the existing weather forecasts, minimum fuel consumption and special ship requirement. For most transits this will mean the minimum transit time that avoids significant risk to the vessel, crew and cargo. Normally their goal is to minimise fuel only so most of the agency and software plan for Optimum ship routing and don't give more importance to weather data. But our goal is to find the best balance to minimize time of transit and fuel consumption without placing the vessel at risk to weather damage or crew injury. The ship routing agency, acting as an advisory service, attempts to avoid or reduce the effects of specific adverse weather and sea conditions by issuing initial route recommendations prior to sailing. It recommends track changes while underway (diversions), and weather advisories to alert the commanding officer or master about approaching unfavorable weather and sea conditions which cannot be effectively avoided by a diversion. Adverse weather and sea conditions are defined as those conditions which will cause damage, significant speed reduction, or time loss. A preliminary routing message is transmitted to the master of a vessel prior to departure with a detailed forecast of expected storm tracks, an initial route proposal with reasoning behind the recommendation and also the expected weather conditions to be encountered along that route. The initial route recommendation is based on a survey of weather and sea forecasts between the point of departure and the destination. It takes into account the type of vessel, hull type, speed capability, safety considerations, cargo, and loading conditions. The vessel’s 75

progress is continually monitored, and if adverse weather and sea conditions are forecast along the vessel’s current track, a recommendation for a diversion or a weather advisory is transmitted. Here we recommend QGIS/ ArcGIS software for weather routing that will give a clear idea about the weather and updated route for the voyage. By this process of initial route selection and continued monitoring of progress for possible changes in the forecast weather and sea conditions along a route, it is possible to maximize both speed and safety. In this study report we have considered three optimum ship route using the software NETPAS and recommend QGIS/ ArcGIS as a supporting devise for creating Optimum ship weather route which was not considered in the available Netpas software. Hence this new approach in integrating the weather forecast data into the GIS platforms will be a sophisticated tool for mariners to avoid areas of severe weather events that can confront in their voyage. Suggest QGIS as a supporting system for Weather Routing Companies and also for the Mariner's as an open source. In QGIS we measure only the distance between two ports (Fig.3.1) and also the time. But using the Arc GIS we can measure the length of the route covering the different way points along the route the ship has to cover. Instead of nautical charts they can also use Georeferenced Charts. This service provides the optimum weather routing information more clearly.

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Appendix: Acronyms AIS

-

Automatic Identification System

ARPA

-

Automatic Radar Plotting Aids

B.C.E

-

Before Christ Era

CPA

-

Closest Point of Approach

CWA

-

Cognitive Work Analysis

DO

-

Diesel Oil

DR

-

Dead Reckoning

DSC

-

Digital Selective Calling

DSS

-

Digital Support Systems

ECA

-

Emission Control Area

ECDIS

-

Electronic Chart Display Information System

E-navigation

-

Electronic navigation

ENC

-

Electronic Navigational Charts

EP

-

Estimated Position

EPIRB

-

Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon

ERS 1

-

European Remote Sensing Satellite 1

FNMOC

-

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Centre

FO

-

Fuel Oil

GC

-

Great Circle 77

GIS

-

Geographic Information System

GMDSS

-

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

GMT

-

Greenwich Mean Time

GPS

-

Global Positioning System

HF

-

High Frequency

IBS

-

Integrated Bridge Systems

IMDG

-

International Maritime Dangerous Goods

IMO

-

International Maritime Organization

INCOIS

-

Indian National Centre

Inmarsat

-

International Mobile Satellite Organization

LORAN-C

-

Long Range Navigation

LRIT

-

Long Range Identification and Tracking

LSDO

-

Low Sulphur Diesel Oil

LSFO

-

Low Sulphur Fuel Oil

MARPOL

-

Marine Pollution

MF

-

Medium Frequency

MT

-

Metric Ton

NAVTEX

-

Navigational Text Message

NOx

-

Nitrogen Oxides

NOAA

-

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NM

-

Nautical Miles

ODS

-

Ozone Depleting Substance

OPL

-

Outside Port Limits

QGIS

-

Quantum GIS

RADAR

-

Radio Detection and Ranging

RL

-

Rhumbline

S-AIS

-

Satellite AIS 78

SAR

-

Synthetic Aperture Radar

SART

-

Search and Rescue Transponder

SECA

-

Sulphur Emission Control Area

SOx

-

Sulphur Oxides

TCPA

-

Time of Closest Point of Approach

TRS

-

Tropical Revolving Storm

TSS

-

Traffic Separation Scheme

UI

-

User Interface

UNCTAD

-

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UX

-

User Experience

VHF

-

Very High Frequency

VOC

-

Volatile Organic Compound

VTS

-

Vessel Traffic Service

WW II

-

World War II

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