Organic quality The benefits

Nr. 4 May 00 1st edition

FiBLDOSSIER Quality and Safety of Organic Products

Food systems compared

Coop supports the «Innate Quality of Organic Food» project with money from the Coop Naturaplan Fund.

Content Sustainable food

2

Organic quality: the benefits

3

Food quality: a many-sided concept

4

Literature reviews

6

Nutritionally desirable substances Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Vitamins Minerals Secondary metabolites Antioxidant potential Dry matter content

8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10

Nutritionally undesirable substances 11 Pesticide residues 11 Mycotoxins 11 Heavy metals and environmental contaminants 12 Nitrate 12 Drug residues Pathogenic microorganisms and parasites

12 12

Organic food and health

13

Enjoyment

14

Functional suitability

15

Holistic methods Imaging techniques Fluorescence excitation spectroscopy Electrochemical analysis

16 17 17 17

Processing

18

Process quality

20

Summary

22

References

23

Publication details

24

Sustainable food

Organic is the best basis Eating organic is not sufficient in itself to make us healthier. But organic products are an important part of a sustainable and healthy diet. This dossier sets out the facts about the quality of organic products and shows how organic products differ from non-organic products in terms of quality and safety. “No pesticide residues; better taste; healthier for us and better for the environment”. These are the expectations stated most often by consumers regarding organically produced food. Instead of synthetic chemical sprays and quickacting mineral fertilizers, organic farmers use natural methods of plant protection and organic fertilizers. Because of the different methods of production and processing, one can expect that there will be a difference in quality compared to conventionally produced foods (see opposite page). We will not become healthier just by eating organic. However, eating organic is an important component of a sustainable and healthy diet. Different dietary habits have different impacts on our health and the environment, as well as different economic and social impacts. Choosing a healthy and sustainable diet also includes paying attention to regional, seasonal foods, processed so as to retain their nutritional value, packaged in an environmentally

Quality and Safety of Organic Products

friendly way – and let us not forget an enjoyable eating experience. Numerous studies have analysed the impact of organic production methods on product quality and drawn comparisons with products from conventional farming. It is difficult to generalize, however, on the basis of the results of individual studies on quality. This is because food quality is not just determined by the method of production, but also by the variety chosen, the location, the climate and post-harvest factors. Studies that summarize and evaluate the results of several individual research studies are therefore of particular value. As the importance of organic farming has increased, such literature reviews have been carried out in many European countries in recent years. This dossier examines the various aspects of food quality and presents a summary of current knowledge on the subject. The primary focus is on product quality. Dossier

Organic quality

The benefits The quality of organically produced foods is a result of the way in which they are produced – in other words without the use of artificial substances, and in a welfare-oriented, resource-saving and environmentally friendly way. Quality is determined not by individual product characteristics but by the whole process of production and processing. Unnecessary impacts are avoided at every stage of production and processing. Crop fertilization: the natural way In organic farming, nitrogen-fixing leguminous crops are grown, and farmers fertilize crops using manure and slurry from their own farm. In addition, farmers are allowed to purchase a limited amount of other organic fertilizers. Using organic material from green manure and crop residues ensures that the soil has a balanced supply of organic matter and nutrients.

Plant protection: specific and far-sighted No synthetic chemical substances are used for plant protection in organic farming. The key principle is prevention: by selecting plant species and varieties that are suited to the location and ensuring that that there is adequate organic matter in the soil, organic crops are less vulnerable to disease. A well-managed crop rotation system also helps to protect plants from soil-borne pathogens and pests and reduce weeds. The use of beneficial organisms is purposefully promoted for pest management. Processing: as natural as possible and without the use of genetic engineering ‘Less is more’ is the motto underlying the processing of organic foods. The use of synthetic chemical processing aids is prohibited, as is the use of genetically modified organisms (GMO) or GMO products (e.g. enzymes). A large number of additives, including ‘nature-identical’ or artificial flavourings or flavour-enhancers, are prohibited.

Livestock management: species-appropriate – for welfare and health The welfare of the animals is a central concern, so the natural habits and needs of the animals are taken into account. Animals have access to an open-air free-range area and, depending on the species, to pasture. Animal health is promoted by ensuring that livestock keeping and feeding is geared towards optimizing conditions for their development and welfare.

Dossier


Food quality

A many-sided concept

Many different people are concerned with the issue of food quality: farmers, food processors and traders, consumers, researchers, nutrition experts, legislators and regulatory authorities. Correspondingly, the term ‘food quality’ covers a range of aspects.

Physiological nutritional value Here, a distinction is made between characteristics that enhance or impair nutritional value.* Nutritionally desirable substances:  primary nutrients: protein, carbohydrates and fats  vitamins  minerals  plant secondary metabolites (e.g. antioxidants)  dry matter, dietary fibre Nutritionally undesirable substances:  pesticide residues  nitrate content  heavy metal content  mycotoxins  drug residues  pathogenic organisms and parasites  allergens *The above division is based on current knowledge within food science. The categorization of substances as nutritionally desirable or undesirable may be subject to change as new knowledge emerges.

Enjoyment Enjoyment and sensory quality of a product are determined by  appearance (colour and shape)  smell, taste, aroma  consistency

Functional suitability Functional suitability determines whether a product is technically/physically appropriate for household, commercial or industrial use. Important criteria are:  boiling, frying, baking attributes  yield  length of time a product will keep, its price, and time required for preparation

4


Dossier

Processing quality The processing of organic foods is guided by the principle that it must remain authentic and retain as much of its nutritional value as possible. Processing requirements, restrictions and prohibitions are set out in law concerning the use of:  additives  processing aids  enzymes and microorganisms  genetically modified organisms (GMO)  ionizing radiation

Process quality The process quality of a food assesses the impact that producing the food has on the environment. It takes into account the whole process, from agricultural production to processing. Important components of process quality include:  resource use (e.g. energy, phosphorus)  soil functions  water quality  eutrophication  acidification  emissions and global warming  animal protection and livestock management  eco-toxicity  toxicity to humans  species and biotope diversity  landscape amenity  ethical issues such as child labour

Legal quality The quality standards that foods must meet in legal terms are determined by the legislative provisions currently in force. Laws and regulations at national level1 and EU regulations2 have been put in place to guarantee food safety and protect consumers from deception. The Codex Alimentarius3 established by the international organizations FAO and WHO contains a set of standards relating to food and food safety, providing a point of reference that is used internationally.

Inner quality Inner quality or ‘vital quality’ describes food attributes that cannot be measured using conventional research methods alone. Holistic research methods do justice to the phenomenon of life in ‘whole’ foods, in other words, without chemically reducing them to their individual component substances, and to recognize the living, functional whole that is more than the sum of its parts.7 Methods such as these are used to assess the capacity of a food to maintain its order and structure.5 In holistic concepts, foods that retain their order and structure are associated with higher quality.

Dossier


5

Literature reviews

Putting organic and c

The overview table below summarizes the results of seven literature reviews carried out between 1995 and 2003. The comparison focused primarily on the quality and safety of products of plant origin produced according to organic and conventional methods. Much less research has been carried out to date concerning foods of animal origin.

Woese et al. 199530/31

Worthington 199832

Heaton 200113

Bourn & Prescott 200234

Undesirable substances

Desirable substances

Quality in terms of nutritional physiology Minerals







Protein content









Protein quality Vitamins







Plant secondary metabolites



Nitrate



Pesticide residues





Pathogenic microorganisms Heavy metals





















Suitability Suitability for baking – wheat









Sensory quality Enjoyment

Woese et al. 1995 Study by the Berlin-based German Federal Institute for Consumer Health Protection and Veterinary Medicine (Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV)) Quality comparison based on highly heterogeneous research studies Only in some cases is there an indication of the scientific rigour of the studies cited Primarily results of chemical/physical analysis Holistic methods given only incidental consideration.

 

Worthington 1998 Study by the NutriKinetics institute for alternative medicine, Washington DC Few indications of the scientific rigour of the studies cited Food safety issues only partially considered Holistic methods not considered.

Organic products score better than conventional products Organic products have a slight advantage Quality and Safety of Organic Products

 

Heaton 2001 Study commissioned by the British organic organization, the Soil Association Critical appraisal of the studies cited Studies chosen on the basis of clear selection criteria Summary of the key results of all the quality studies Holistic methods not comprehensively considered Further research requirements indicated.

Bourn & Prescott 2002 Study produced by the Department of Food Science, University of Otago, New Zealand; Highly critical appraisal of the scientific quality of the studies cited Brief description of each study, covering products, research design, constituents analysed, key results Holistic methods given only incidental consideration Further research requirements indicated.

Organic products score less well than conventional products Organic products have a slight disadvantage Dossier

conventional foods to the test Ist Bio wirklich besser? Fakten zur Qualität biologisch erzeugter Lebensmittel

Ergebnisse einer Studie von Dr. Alberta Velimirov und Dr. Werner Müller

Bio-Gemüse & Bio-Obst: Mehr Vitamine, mehr Mineralstoffe, weniger Schwermetalle, höhere Gehalte an sekundären Pflanzenstoffen, höhere Trockenmassegehalte, bessere Haltbarkeit, weniger Nitrat, geringere Pestizid-Rückstände, kaum Lebensmittelzusatzstoffe, frei von Bestrahlung, schmeckt besser, günstigere Lichtspeicherkapazität Bio-Getreide & Bio-Hülsenfrüchte: Höherer Gehalt an essenziellen Aminosäuren, geringere Pestizid- und Schwermetall-Rückstände, geringere Mykotoxin-Belastung, Tiere bevorzugen Bio-Getreide, günstigere Lichtspeicherkapazität Tierische Bio-Produkte: Günstigere Fettsäurezusammensetzungen, höhere ernährungsphysiologische Qualität bei Eiern, höheres Eigewicht, geringere Pestizidund Antibiotikarückstände, geringere Aflatoxin-Belastung, gentechnikfrei, günstigere Lichtspeicherkapazität, günstigere P-Werte

Velimirov & Müller 20036

Tauscher et al. 20034

Afssa, 200335

Overall trend Quality in terms of nutritional physiology

 

S.3 Bio-Gemüse & Bio-Obst

S.5 Bio-Getreide & Bio-Hülsenfrüchte







Minerals







Protein content





Protein quality

S.6 Tierische Bio-Produkte







Vitamins


















Nitrate









Pesticide residues



Pathogenic microorganisms



Heavy metals

 









Suitability







Suitability for baking – wheat Sensory quality





Velimirov & Müller 2003 Study commissioned by the Austrian producers’ association BIO ERNTE AUSTRIA Few references to methodology in the appraisal No appraisal of scientific quality Presents primarily results that show organic products in a favourable light Detailed presentation of health risks associated with residues Holistic methods considered.



Tauscher et al. 2003 Status report on evaluation of food produced using different methods, commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture (BMVEL) Interdisciplinary working group Comprehensive appraisal of product and process quality Detailed consideration of holistic methods Gaps in current knowledge and research requirements highlighted.



Enjoyment

Organic products of plant origin  contain markedly fewer value-reducing constituents (pesticides, nitrate); this enhances their physiological nutritional value  are just as safe as conventional products as regards pathogenic microorganisms (mycotoxins, coli bacteria)  tend to have a higher Vitamin C content  tend to have higher than average scores for taste  have a higher content of health-promoting secondary plant compounds  have a lower protein content; this can mean that grain produced for bread is less suitable for baking

Afssa, 2003 Study by the French government’s Institute for Food Safety Interdisciplinary working group Studies chosen according to clear selection criteria Focus: food safety, health and nutritional value of organic products Process quality given incidental consideration Appraisal of herbal medicine and homeopathy in veterinary medicine Holistic methods not discussed.

No difference No comment made or no general conclusions drawn Dossier



The more, the better Proteins Proteins, like fats and carbohydrates, count among the primary nutrients. Due to the fact that only organic nitrogen is used as fertilizer, organic grain tends to have a lower protein content. This alters its attributes as a baking product. On the other hand, organic grain has a more balanced profile in terms of essential amino acids.35 Little research has been carried out on the protein quality of other plant products.

Constituent Proteins Amino acids

Product Grain Grain

Content compared with conventionally produced product 10–20% lower4 More balanced profile35

Carbohydrates For carbohydrates, the available data show no difference between organic and conventional products. Intensive research is currently under way into the dietary fibre group, but there are no studies comparing organic and conventional products.

Milk Org

8,7

Conv

Fats

2,8

Linoleic acid in mg/g milk fat Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in the milk fat of cows, based on the example of one organic (= org) and one conventional (= conv) holding in Thuringia, Germany (average over two years).80 Constituent Beneficial fatty acids

The differences in animal feed used in organic and conventional production can influence the nutritional value of milk and meat.45/46/47/48/80 Some studies have shown that milk and meat from organically farmed livestock has a better fatty acid profile in terms of its physiological nutritional value. The ratio of essential Omega-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, for example, tends to be higher in organic milk. A diet containing the optimum range of fatty acids is particularly important for preventing cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Product Milk, cheese, meat

Content compared with conventionally produced product 10–60% higher45/46/47/48/80

Potatoes Org

Vitamins

102,6

Conv

90,9

Ascorbic acid mg/100 g dry matter1 Ascorbic acid content of potatoes based on a long-term research project in the field with organic (= org) and mineral (= conv) fertilizer (average levels at harvest over two years).81 Constituent Vitamin C

8

There is little data available, other than for vitamin C and pro-vitamin A (as betacarotene). For beta-carotene, no significant difference between the two production systems was found. A slightly higher vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content was observed in the case of various organically produced fruits and vegetables. This trend may have been due to physiological factors. Again, a direct relationship was observed between nitrogen fertilizer use and the water, protein, vitamin C and nitrate content of the harvested product. For example, a plant produces more antioxidant ascorbic acid when it is subjected to oxidative stress.51

Product Milk, vegetables, fruit


Content compared with conventionally produced product 5–90% higher13/33/49/50/81/97 Dossier

Minerals In the case of vegetables and fruit, the research findings reveal no differences in mineral content that can be specifically related to production methods. The same applies to grain for bread-making, given comparable levels of minerals and trace elements with conventional and organic fertilizer.4 In the case of some types of fruit, the results to date show that organic products tend to have a slightly higher magnesium and iron content.4

Apples Org

2,75


Conv

Many substances synthesized in the secondary metabolism of plants are regarded as having health-promoting properties, due to the fact that they exert an antioxidant, anti-microbial, immunomodulating, anti-inflammatory or carcinoprotective action in the concentrations in which they occur naturally.52/53. Some of these substances are synthesized by the plant as a defence against pests and diseases. The secondary metabolite content of organic vegetables is estimated to be 10 to 50 per cent higher than in the equivalent conventionally produced foods.51 One reason for this may be that the use of plant protection products is limited in the case of organically produced plants. The plants thus have to work harder to defend themselves against external influences and as a result produce larger quantities of particular secondary metabolites. There are many questions that remain unanswered in this regard, and further research is required.

Flavanol in mg/100 g dry matter

2,37

Flavanol content of apples from holdings under organic and conventional management. Averages for ten holdings over three years.70

Antioxidant potential The antioxidant potential of a particular food – assessed using various scientifically recognized methods – is determined by the sum total of all of the antioxidant compounds it contains. Antioxidants in food are involved in cell damage and cell ageing, and therefore have a role in the prevention of disease.

Of the few studies that have so far been carried out to examine plant secondary metabolites in organic and conventional foods, the majority have focused on the antioxidant polyphenols (see illustration on page 10). Organically produced fruit and vegetables tend to have a higher polyphenol content than conventional equivalents.35/54/78 A study conducted by FiBL and the Université de Bourgogne in Dijon55 has shown that wines from organic holdings also have higher average levels of the phytochemical resveratrol, a polyphenol that occurs particularly in grape skins and which, due to the production process, is found primarily in red wines (see diagram below).

Location (paired holdings)

Constituent Product Content compared with conventionally produced product Plant secondary metabolites Vegetables, fruit, maize, wine 10–50% higher51/54/78/79/71

0,1 0,1

Aubonne Sierre

conventional konventionell

0,0

organic biologisch

5,3

0,9 0,8

Neuenburg

White wines

0,2 0,3

Neuenburg

13,9 12,7

Neuenburg Ligerz

8,0

Peissy

8,0

11,0 13,5

Morges

Red wines

14,9

17,6 23,6

Morges 0

5

10

15

20

25

32,8 30

35

Resveratrol content in ppm

Comparison of resveratrol content of Swiss wines from organic and integrated viticulture (1997 grape harvest).55 Dossier


9

Secondary metabolite content of organic and conventional products: overview of results of available studies Polyphenols

15, 56



56

Carotenoids

65

56

59

58



60

59



61

67



57



61



62



79,55



69



64





68



95

Glycoalkaloids

63, 71, 97

Glucosinolates

66



89



= see references

 = organic has higher content than conventional = no difference

 = organic has lower content than conventional

Dry matter content The dry matter content of organically produced leaf, root and bulb vegetables tends to be higher (by up to 20 %) than in conventionally produced equivalents.13 Research results for fruit vegetables and fruit, on the other hand, often show no significant difference.13/34/35 Reduced water content means that the product has a higher nutrient density, and this can be considered a positive attribute.

10


Dossier


Even a little is too much

The regulations and directives on organic farming view the agricultural holding as an integrated system, promote the precautionary principle and expressly prohibit the use of non-natural substances in production and processing. As a result, potential food safety risks are often reduced in organic farming.

Average pesticide content

Pesticide residues Numerous studies have demonstrated that organic products contain considerably less pesticide residues than conventional products – if indeed any at all.44/86/87 However, organic products can only be as good as the environment in which they are produced. Even organic products may contain small amounts of pesticide residues. One reason may be drift from neighbouring conventionally managed fields. But contamination resulting from previous conventional production and inadequate separation during transport, storage, processing and trade are also possible. In a few rare cases, residues have also been found due to the use of prohibited pesticides. Pestizidrückstände

Fruit, vegetables

0,002

Org Conv

0,4

0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45

mg/kg

Average pesticide content of foods from organic and conventional production.87

Fruit: on average 550 times lower than conventional87 Vegetables: on average 700 times lower87

Mycotoxins Because organic farming does not involve the use of fungicidal agents, organic products are assumed to contain higher levels of mycotoxins. Numerous studies have refuted this assumption.37/38/39/40/41/42/43/93 Problems may arise due to mistakes made in storage or transport (e.g. moisture level too high); such mistakes are unrelated to the cultivation system. Inspection of processing and storage processes, as is usually carried out for products from organic production, helps to ensure early detection and elimination of risks. Cereal grains with mould fungus on an artificial culture medium. In a suitable environment, fungi like these can produce mycotoxins. Mycotoxins

Wheat, barley, maize, rice, baby food, apples, cocoa

Cultivation system does not influence mycotoxin content37/38/39/40/41/42/43

Heavy metals and other environmental contaminants Contamination of foods with heavy metals and other environmental contaminants may occur irrespective of production method.4/35 Some heavy metals are toxic even in very small quantities. These include lead, cadmium and mercury. Heavy metals may reach agricultural areas via gas emissions and deposits from traffic and industry. Another source of heavy metal contamination is sewage sludge. This is why the use of sewage sludge is prohibited in organic farming. Copper can accumulate in the soil and damage soil ecology. For this reason, the use of copper as a treatment for fungal diseases is tightly restricted, both under the EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 and under national provisions. In Switzerland, the use of copper for conventional and organic farming is restricted to between 1.5 and 4 kg pure copper per hectare per year, depending on the crop. Dossier


11

Nitrate

Frozen spinach Org

659

Con.

1011

Nitrate in mg/kg

Nitrate content of organic (14 samples) and conventionally produced (39) spinach.87 Nitrate

Organic vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach or chard, have a markedly lower nitrate content than conventionally produced vegetables.33/87 There are two explanations for this: the nitrogen in organic fertilizer is organically fixed and only becomes available to the plant via the microorganisms in the soil. As a result, the plants absorb the nitrogen more slowly and more in keeping with their needs than when synthetic nitrogen fertilizer is used. In addition, the amount of nitrogen used on organic holdings is generally lower, because the number of head of livestock that can be kept on a given area is restricted.

Vegetables, lettuce

As a rule, products from conventional farming contain 10–40% more nitrate than organic vegetables33/87/43

Drug residues Under organic production methods, the use of antibiotics is only permitted if an animal becomes sick. Prophylactic use is prohibited. The time that must elapse before milk, for example, may be sold again following antibiotic treatment is twice as long as under conventional livestock management. Pathogenic microorganisms and parasites Organically produced foods of plant origin are at no greater risk of being contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms than conventional foods.13/34/36 There are very few studies investigating the risk of microbial and parasitic infection in foods of animal origin.35

Risks posed to humans by pesticide use in developing countries Developing countries have become major growth markets for pesticides. This is because many export products such as bananas, pineapples or palm oil are grown as monocultures and are thus highly susceptible to disease and infestation by pests. Millions of people are poisoned by this sort of pesticide use every year.82 14% of all occupational accidents and 10% of fatalities among agricultural workers can be attributed to pesticide poisoning.83 Industrial countries too, such as Japan, for example, have also reported 43 deaths as a result of the herbicide Paraquat.84 The main reason for such incidents is that plantation workers are given inadequate training in the use and storage of pesticides, and many workers are illiterate and cannot read the instructions for use themselves. Moreover, washing facilities and medical care are often lacking. In addition, at least 100,000 tonnes of pesticide stocks in developing countries pose a threat to the environment and to public health.85

1


Dossier

Organic food and health

Much more research needed Organically produced foods frequently contain higher levels of plant secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, flavonoids and fatty acids.15/78 From risk studies relating to cancer, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, we know that some of these secondary plant compounds have health-promoting properties. According to current knowledge, it is particularly due to their buffering effect against free radicals – highly reactive intermediate compounds generated in the process of energy metabolism – that plant secondary metabolites are able to reduce cell damage and ageing. However, much more research is needed in this area. Organic products a safer option Conventional fruit and vegetables are increasingly exceeding legal threshold levels and the majority of contaminated fresh foods contain residues of several pesticides.90/91 In view of this, organic products offer consumers a safer option. Various studies have shown the direct impact of individual substances on health, such as the higher rate of miscarriage associated with pesticide application around women in the third to eighth week of pregnancy,88 reduced fertility among a group of fruit farmers and wine-growers in Austria,89 and the innumerable cases of poisoning among agricultural workers in developing countries. Since 1999, the incidence of contamination with multiple pesticides has risen sharply.91 Research is urgently needed to examine whether and which health risks are associated with multiple residues.

Experiments involving animal feed24/25 In experiments involving animal feed, a comparison is made of two groups of animals kept in identical conditions fed with organic and conventionally produced foods respectively. The impact on various physiological parameters (e.g. fertility) is then investigated.

Few food studies available Food studies involving people with defined organic and non-organic diets are very costly and are therefore rarely conducted. An eight-week pilot study involving a group of nuns in a convent who were given foods produced according to biodynamic and conventional methods during the study period provided interesting indications that an organic diet resulted in an improvement – in some cases significant improvement – in participants’ physical and spiritual well-being and disease resistance potential.77 Another interesting study reports on a group of post-natal women who ate mainly organic food for a period of five months; at the end of this period there was a marked increase in unsaturated fatty acids (especially Omega3s and CLA) in their breastmilk.92 As a substitute for food studies involving people, animal studies are often conducted where the animals are given different types of feed or a choice of feed (see diagram below).

Systematic review: Animal health* with organic and conventional feed No difference in growth parameters No difference in fertility parameters More rapid weight gain

Worse health with organic feed, shorter lifespan 1

8

Number of studies

Higher fertility, fewer stillbirths and miscarriages

12 Reduced susceptibility to illness

Reduced neonatal mortality Reduced semen motility with conventional feed * rats, mice, rabbits, hens and bulls

Dossier

Sources13/23

Twelve of the animal feed studies reviewed showed that there were health benefits for animals fed with organic products (green). Eight studies were unable to identify any difference (blue); in one study, the group that was fed organic products scored worse (red).


13

Enjoyment

Taste can be measured

Research results to date, mainly relating to fruit and vegetables, have shown that organic products tend to taste more enjoyable. Lower water content may make a positive contribution to enjoyment of some organic vegetables, because this means that the plant constituents – including the substances affecting taste – are present in greater concentrations. The texture of fruit and vegetables is also enhanced by having a lower water content. However, production conditions in organic and conventional farming systems are not the only factors that influence this. Enjoyment of an apple, for example, will depend on its consistency and texture (crisp or floury), and on the balance between its sugar and acid content. Other constituents, such as bitter substances, will determine whether or not a carrot is tasty. All these characteristics are influenced by the variety chosen, the soil quality, the microclimate (e.g. whether an apple has grown in the shelter of the tree or completely exposed to the sun), the macroclimate (amount of sunshine, warmth, moisture), and the time of harvesting (degree of ripeness). Many reviews comparing organic and conventional products fail to take adequate account of these multiple influencing factors and are therefore less meaningful from a scientific point of view. Research carried out under rigorous conditions, however, shows that organic production methods have considerable potential to generate high sensory quality. This is demonstrated, for example, in a multi-year study of fruit farming comparing five conventional farms with five organic holdings.70 Few scientific studies have so far examined the sensory quality of milk products, meat and eggs. Further well-controlled comparative studies are needed both for plant and animal foods. Studies involving a choice of feed20/24/25 Animals are allowed to choose between equal quantities of the same type of feed, but originating from different production methods, for example. The animals’ preferences are recorded. Omnivorous laboratory rats are particularly well suited to such experiments due to their discriminating eating behaviour. The rats are initially cautious when tasting the feed newly presented to them; they then choose whichever they find most palatable and begin to eat more. Their instinctive eating behaviour is likely to be influenced by external (smell and taste) and internal factors (psychological state). Even the slightest residues of pesticides could play a role in experiments involving a choice of feed.

58

Prior to storage 48,6

Conventional 47,4

42

After storage

Wheat (1994) 68

32

Apples (1995)

Organic Conv

58

49,4 44,7

42 0

Carrots (1999) 81

19

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Quantity eaten in per cent Org


Overall sensory evaluation of organically and conventionally produced apples Organic

Red beet (1993)

14

Sensory evaluation21/22 Evaluators trained in accordance with DIN standards, with trained senses and sensory memory, can achieve results that can be subjected to statistical analysis. The appearance, smell, taste, consistency, and overall impression of foods are assessed using standardized methods of testing.

Conv

10 20 30 40 Overall assessment

50

Apples from paired holdings were subjected to organoleptic evaluation (on a scale of 0 to 100 points) by trained personnel. The apples were assessed before and after storage.70

Dossier

Functional suitability

Organic: drawing conclusions The available information on the processing attributes of organic and conventionally produced products relates mainly to cereal products. Due to its higher protein content and different protein quality (higher gluten content) – both of which are a consequence of intensive nitrogen fertilizer use – conventionally produced wheat is frequently better at meeting the requirements of customary bakery technology. Such technical disadvantages can be overcome, however, by using appropriate methods of bread making (e.g. using a sourdough starter instead of yeast). Organic potato growing presents considerable challenges. In order to meet the quality standards for processing, every detail of cultivation, harvesting and storage must be absolutely right. The advantage of organic potatoes is that they generally have a higher starch content due to fact that less nitrogen fertilizer is used. Particular disadvantages include the frequent incidence of certain diseases and pests (dry core, slugs and wire worm) and the tendency to produce smaller tubers. In addition, long-term storage of organic potatoes is problematic because the only permitted sprouting inhibitor, caraway oil, is less effective than conventional products. As a result, the reducing sugar content of the potatoes may be increased. Processing such potatoes at high temperatures (e.g. roasting, shallow frying or deep-frying) produces acrylamide. To prevent this, the most appropriate varieties are grown, storage management is adapted to suit the purpose of the potatoes, and the sugar content of each individual batch is checked prior to sale or processing. Several studies on post-harvest behaviour have found that organically farmed products have better storage performance compared to conventionally farmed products.16/72/74/75 Advantages included lower storage losses resulting from weight loss, shrinkage and rot, for example. Some studies showed no difference between organic and conventional products.15/25/76

A special challenge for processing: potatoes and wheat

Testing the storage performance of carrots grown under different fertilizer regimes.73 Top left: carrots with high mineral fertilizer input. Bottom right: Carrots with low inputs of rotted farmyard manure. Studies on post-harvest behaviour measure a variety of direct parameters such as loss of water and substance, accumulation of harmful substances and microorganisms, and physiological parameters such as respiration, and enzymatic, defence and hormonal activity. Dossier


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Holistic methods

Food as part of the w In the holistic approach of organic farming and organic food processing, the question ‘what is life?’ arises, and, along with it, ‘what attributes does food need to have to provide optimum support for life processes?’4 For this reason, alongside the methods of chemical analysis, ‘complementary’ or ‘holistic’ methods have been developed that focus less on quantifying individual constituents of food,4/5 and more on the ‘vitality’ of the original food with its functional characteristics. The premise on which this is based is that ‘the living whole is more than the sum of its parts’.4 In combination with the customary methods of analysis, these complementary methods may provide us with additional information that has a bearing on quality.

Order and structure as parameters for quality Complementary research methods largely examine whole foods, in other words, foods that have not been broken down into their chemical or physical components.7 This enables assessment of a food’s capacity to maintain its order and structure.5 In holistic concepts, foods that retain their order and structure are associated with higher quality.

Defining the concept of ‘inner quality’ The Louis Bolk Institute in the Netherlands has defined the term ‘inner quality’. The concept encompasses all the attributes that together make a (plant) product typical of its species, ripe, flavourful, palatable and ensure that it will keep adequately. These attributes are generated in the course of an organism’s development as a result of the interplay (‘integration’) of the continuously ongoing processes of ‘growth’ and ‘differentiation’. These processes can be influenced significantly by cultivation measures (e.g. organic farming methods).9

Network for food quality research FQH (International Research Association for Organic Food Quality and Health) is a network of European research institutions that have specialized in research into the relationship between organic food and human health. The validation of holistic methods is an important aspect of this work. The background for this research is provided by the need of consumers, organic producers, industry and trade for scientific results in this field (www.organicfqhresearch.org).8

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Various research institutions have recently been engaged in the study of holistic methods12 with a view to standardizing and validating them in accordance with ISO 17025 standards. Holistic methods are expected to help provide answers to the following three questions: 1. Can reproducible differences be ascertained between production management systems? 2. If such differences can be identified, what causal factors are responsible for them? 3. What is the significance of these differences in terms of health? Interpreting the results achieved with holistic methods is often highly complex. There are no generally recognized principles relating to the significance of differences in structure, order, form or difference in the form-retaining capacity of foods.4 Further research is therefore needed. The three most important holistic methods are explained below.4/10/11/12

Dossier

hole Image-forming methods

Copper chloride crystallography.

Image-forming methods5 include copper chloride crystallization (biocrystallization), capillary dynamolysis (‘Steigbild’ method) and circular chromatography.10/14 As their name suggests, these methods produce pictures, either by crystallization of a copper chloride solution with a dilute extract of a product, or by drying the dilute extract in a salt solution on chromatographic paper. Interpreting the shapes and forms of the resulting images, which can provide a kind of illustration of the inner quality, the life force of a product, is difficult.72 These image-forming methods have hitherto been used primarily for testing plant products. With the aid of such methods, it has proved possible to differentiate repeatedly between coded samples of products from organic and conventional production systems. This has also been achieved in the context of a research project12 aimed at developing and validating holistic methods for wheat from the DOK trial. In another FiBL study,15/70 samples of apples of the Golden Delicious variety from different production systems were identified using copper chloride crystallization. Moreover, the results correlated closely with those of the standard quality and sensory evaluation tests. Of all the holistic methods, this is the one most frequently used. In ten out of eleven tests it was possible to distinguish between production methods.

Fluorescence excitation spectroscopy17/18 Following excitation with light of one or several colours, food samples produce measurable, ultra-weak photon emissions (also called ‘biophotons’) of varying intensities. With the aid of fluorescence excitation spectroscopy, is it possible to ascertain the species-typical stage of development of the plant or product.12 After the image-forming methods, this is the second most frequently used complementary method. Seven out of eight studies identified differences between production systems.

Measuring fluorescence emissions.

Electrochemical analysis19/20 Electrochemical attributes such as pH, redox potential and electrical conductivity are measured in a watery medium. These three parameters are used to calculate a so-called P-value. From the results of the analysis it can be concluded that the less ‘stressful’ the product’s development, the more reduced the product (in other words, it is more electron-rich and thus of greater nutritional value in physiological terms). The use of this method has yielded varying results. The technique is susceptible to interference. Three studies enabled a distinction to be drawn between the different production methods. Four studies failed to show any differences. Equipment for determining P-value Dossier


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Processing

Natural and closely supervised Alongside fresh products such as fruit, vegetables and fresh meat, organic products naturally also end up on the consumer’s plate in processed form. The products that come into this category range from yoghurt, bread, salad dressings and juices to pizza and potato crisps. Processed organic products on the one hand contain raw materials produced in accordance with organic farming methods; on the other, special organic processing regulations also apply.96 Fundamental provisions concerning the processing of organic foods are set out at three levels: 1. By government legislation (e.g. EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 and the Swiss organic farming ordinance) 2. Via labelling schemes (e.g. Demeter, Bioland, Naturland, Bio Suisse) 3. Through specific standards applied by food processors or trade.

EU organic farming regulation 2092/91

The EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 covers:  raw materials from organic production a  positive list of the 36 permitted additives for plant products (for animal products, the provisions of individual EU Member States apply) a  positive list of permitted processing aids a  positive list of the maximum 5% permitted conventional raw materials for use in exceptional cases (e.g. special spices); this list is updated annually processing methods: general  prohibition of techniques involving genetic engineering (e.g. no genetically modified cultures of microorganisms or enzymes) prohibition of the use of ionizing  radiation  annual inspection and certification by an independent inspection body.

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The requirements of the EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 form the basis for designating a product as organic. There are hardly any binding regulations and legal provisions concerning how organically produced raw materials should be processed. Within the EU organic farming regulation, Annex VI sets out the terms under which a processed food may be designated as an organic product. The permitted ingredients, additives and aids for processing raw materials of plant origin are listed here. In conventional food processing, there are currently around 300 permitted additives. The EU organic farming regulation permits only 36. Processing of meat products is regulated by the provisions in force in individual EU Member States; in Switzerland, it is covered by the provisions of the organic farming ordinance. In terms of processing techniques, both the EU organic farming regulation and the Swiss organic farming ordinance prohibit the use of genetic engineering and ionizing radiation. More detailed provisions relating to processing techniques can be found in the standards set out by individual labelling associations.

Labelling organizations The processing standards of organic associations are in some cases much tougher than the national and European regulations. In the German-speaking countries, for example, there are detailed regulations on the most important aspects of food processing. The most important principles are freshness, careful processing to ensure product quality is maintained, using as few additives as possible, and authenticity. Freshness Even the best processing methods cannot compensate for poor quality raw materials. For this reason, there are regulations governing the storage of raw products. The Bio Suisse regulations on milk, for example, precisely stipulate the maximum period of time that may elapse between milking and processing. Processing techniques The high quality of the raw materials must be maintained during processing. The gentlest possible technical procedures must therefore be applied. Organic fruit juices, for example, may not be produced from concentrate, a process called re-diluting. In general, the product should be subjected to the minimum possible heat Dossier

or pressure during processing. In the production process, the content of sensitive constituents is monitored as an indicator of careful processing. For example, inactivation of particular enzymes indicates inappropriate pasteurization of milk. Additives The number of permitted additives is further restricted by the labelling associations. The use of synthetic ascorbic acid (vitamin C), for example, is not permitted. As an alternative, organic acerola fruit powder, which has a high vitamin C content, may be used. The use of flavourings is likewise prohibited, as flavour is supposed to derive from the ingredients and should be retained by careful processing. Authenticity Authenticity is the benchmark for all organic processed foods. It means that a ‘cream sauce’ must actually contain cream and not a mixture of skimmed milk, highly refined palm oil, water, emulsifiers, and only a trace of cream. In order to be able to recognize that this principle has been adhered to, some associations stipulate that the product should carry an indication of the processing method, the origin of the raw materials, and any processing aids used (e.g. declaration of enzymes used in bread making).

Processing techniques that are not permitted — Examples from various labelling schemes

No sterilizing

No rennin substitute: no use of chymosin produced using genetically modified organisms as a substitute for calf-stomach rennin. Rennin is used for coagulating proteins.

No indirect souring (i.e. only souring using cultures in the butter cream; no addition of lactic acid or concentrated cultures

No colourings, no use of natural flavourings

No use of smoke flavourings, no formed meat, no restructured meat produced using enzymes

Additional standards laid down by labelling organizations and associations Minimal use of additives and processing aids: shorter list of permitted additives than under the EU organic farming regulation, e.g. prohibition of flavourings Careful processing: process ing techniques permitted on a product-specific basis; exclusion of certain processing methods, e.g. no homogenization of milk in the case of Demeter Authenticity: expanded regula tions on labelling Environmentally friendly packaging, e.g. prohibition of chlorinated films Transport, e.g. prohibition of air  transport Note: These are selected examples and do not apply to all labelling organizations and associations.

Areas regulated by food processors and trade environmentally friendly processing, e.g. to ISO 14000 standards environmentally friendly packag ing, e.g. compostable packaging materials ‘regionality’: produced, proc essed and sold in the region certification according to social criteria, e.g. Max Havelaar or TransFair

No production of juice from concentrate

Note: The above are selected examples and do not apply to all labelling organizations and associations Dossier


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Process quality

Environmental impact Numerous studies have been carried out in recent years to estimate and assess the impact of agricultural production on the environment. The following table provides a summary of the environmental impact of organic farming compared to conventional production methods.

Environmental impact: comparison of organic and conventional farming systems4/26/27/28 Organic farming is

Indicator

Much better

Better

The same

Worse

Much worse



Biodiversity and landscape

Agricultural genetic resources are more abundant, including insects and microorganisms Greater diversity and frequency of wild flora and fauna Organic farming contributes to landscape diversity Organic fields link near-natural biotopes better



Soil

Higher humus content, greater physical stability, better water-retention capacity, resulting in reduced risk of erosion More biological activity, more biomass, quicker nutrient recycling, better soil structurer Greater abundance of symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi

Water

 No risk of synthetic plant protection substances leaching into the groundwater or surface water

Considerably lower nitrogen leaching rate

Climate and air

 Lower greenhouse gas emissions, fewer reactive substances from plant protectant applications

Enhanced CO2 sequestration in the soil



Energy

Markedly lower consumption of direct energy (fuels and lubricants) and indirect energy (fertilizers and pesticides) for a given area Good energy efficiency (energy input in relation to yield); with the exception of a few crops, better than under conventional farming

 0

Most of the studies arrive at this result Quality and Safety of Organic Products

The study findings are in this range Dossier

Animal protection on organic farms From the point of view of animal protection, process quality is enhanced by:  keeping breeds that are appropriate for the location  optimizing rather than maximizing potential output  appropriate feed  appropriate livestock management conditions  appropriate veterinary health management  careful slaughter procedures to minimize stress to the animals In organic agriculture, livestock management conditions are adapted to suit our fellow creatures, the animals, and not the other way round.

Socio-economic aspects It is only possible to achieve high-quality, responsibly produced foods if the production process not only takes ecological perspectives into account, but also emphasizes the importance of socially acceptable working conditions. In order to achieve this, it must be possible to sell and trade products at a price that ‘tells the truth’. For this reason, the basic standards of IFOAM, the international umbrella organization for organic farming stipulate that “social justice and social rights are an integral part of organic farming and processing”. Consequently, to ensure the world-wide operation of a system of guarantees, IFOAM works together in an alliance with organizations committed to fair trade, protecting the environment, and improving working conditions. Organic farming contributes to sustainable regional development. Conserving and revitalizing rural areas by developing a multifaceted agricultural sector that is close to nature, with the processing and sale of its produce centred on the region, is fundamentally important.

Special emphasis is laid on socially acceptable working conditions.

Psychological aspects Individual well-being relating to food consumption depends not only on the material attributes of the food, but is also determined by psychological, societal and social factors.29 The knowledge that the foods consumed originate from an ecologically sound and socially acceptable form of farming with few negative effects on biodiversity, water, soil, air and climate can have a positive effect on a person’s well-being.98 Such psychological effects of foods with a higher level of process quality must also be regarded as an important factor in terms of overall quality.

It is not only material attributes that make organic products taste better, but also psychological factors.

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Summary

In short More beneficial nutritional quality

Greater enjoyment

Optimizing functional suitability

In terms of desirable substances, organic products stand out as having higher levels of secondary plant compounds and vitamin C. In the case of milk and meat, the fatty acid profile is often better from a nutritional point of view. As regards carbohydrates and minerals, organic products are no different from conventional products. As regards undesirable substances such as nitrate and pesticide residues, organic products have a clear advantage. Other undesirable attributes can be influenced to some extent, but do not depend on the production method: mycotoxins, heavy metal content, environmental pollutants and contamination with pathological microorganisms. Organic vegetables and fruit tend to have a higher sensory quality. Alongside production method, other factors such as choice of variety, climate, soil characteristics and post-harvest management are also decisive factors.

Organic products have better storage performance. However, in the case of organic wheat and potatoes, some technical challenges still need to be met. Due to the lower protein content of organic wheat, bread-making methods need to be adapted. In the case of potatoes, functional suitability may be impaired by damage caused by disease and pests, and difficulties with long-term storage.

Promise in the area of inner quality Holistic methods are used in addition to the standard methods of analysis to arrive at a more comprehensive representation of quality. Both image-forming methods and fluorescence excitation spectroscopy enable a distinction to be made between coded samples from organic and conventional farming systems. Intensive research is currently under way to validate these methods.

More careful processing

More sustainable process quality

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Natural, authentic and retaining its original qualities: processing organic products requires particular care. Regulations defining permitted processing methods and prohibiting the use of many additives and processing aids have resulted in the development of special formulas and the use of high-quality ingredients.

Organic farming is more beneficial across a wide range of environmental aspects. This applies to biodiversity and landscape, soil, water, climate and air, and also to energy consumption. In short, organic is better for people, animals and the environment.

Dossier

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Publication details Published by: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau, FiBL) Switzerland, Germany, Austria Contributors: Thomas Alföldi, José Granado, Edith Kieffer, Ursula Kretzschmar, Marion Morgner, Urs Niggli, Alfred Schädeli, Bernhard Speiser, Franco Weibel, Gabriela Wyss (all FiBL); Wanda and Gernot Schmidt (Eco.Comm). Translation: Christopher Hay, D-Seeheim Layout and graphic design: Daniel Gorba, FiBL Image sources: Andermatt Biocontrol AG, CH-Grossdietwil: p. 3 (2) Picture archive www.oekolandbau.de: p. 3 (3), p. 5 (1), p. 21 (1) Bio Suisse, CH-Basel: p. 2 (1) Eco.Comm, Gernot Schmidt, D-Offenburg: p. 20 (3) Declaration of Berne, CH-Bern: p. 12 (2) FH Geisenheim, J. Bolanz, D-Geisenheim: p. 17 (3) Goetheanum, Uwe Geier, CH-Dornach p. 5 (3), p. 17 (1) Institute for Biodynamic Research, D-Darmstadt: p. 15 (3) Kwalis, W.M. Rammler, D-Dipperz: p. 17 (2) Schweisfurth-Stiftung, K. Schubert, D-Munich: p. 20 (5), p. 21 (2/3) All other photos: FiBL, CH-Frick In parentheses: where there are several images on one page, numbering runs from top to bottom, left to right Printed by: Brogle Druck, CH-Gipf-Oberfrick To order: www.shop.fibl.org Product reference number: 1413 Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau (FiBL), Ackerstrasse, Postfach, CH-5070 Frick, Telephone +41 (0)62 865 72 72, Fax +41 (0)62 865 72 73, [email protected], www.fibl.org Jesse Heckstall-Smith, Soil Association, Food and Farming Department, Bristol House, 40-56 Victoria Street, Bristol, BS1 6BY, UK Telephone: 0044 (0)117 914200 ISBN-10: 3-906081-89-3 ISBN-13: 978-3-906081-89-2 Price: ¤ 6.—, CHF 9.— © FiBL May 2006

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