as praise and favor. On the surface, it does seem reasonable that educators would use external rewards to motivate students since most societies reward ...
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way.Howevet a quick look at someof the motivation researchand how it relates pracrice ro schoollibr*ians insrrucrional might leadto a differentconclusion. Drive theories,an earlymotivation perspective, proposedthat aa organismt behavioris determinedby drives (Freud1914, suchassexand aggression l9l5), hunger,rhirst, and avoidanceof pain (Hull 1943).Over time, however, it becameclearthat, typically,developing peopleaswell asanimalsexhibited many complexbehaviorsthat could not be explainedthrough drive theories,such ascuriosityand the persistentneedto explore surroundingenvironments(Berlyne I 060rHarlow I 950).Theories of moLiva-
studieswith participantsrangingin age from preschoolto adult.
Appropriate Use
Versus Controlling lnformationalFeedback
tion basedon an organismicapproach begar to spring up (e.g.,Csikzentmilalyi 1975, 1990; Deci and Ryan 1975, 1985; Vroom 1964).Thererheories emphasizing
more competent. However, if the person
feedback or a reward contingent on spe-
Are thereappropriateusesofrewards? Cenainly.Rewardsthat arerelevant to the behavioror performancecan be motivating.For example,if an educator wantsto rewardstudentsfor their reading performance,appropriarerewardsthat would likelyre"ulrin conrinuingmotivarion wouldbe Lhingslikegir ing rherra bookmark,a book oftheir choice,a customizedbooklist,more time to read, etc. Giving rewardsthat areirrelevantto the task(e.g.,a pizzaparty,extratime on m:y temporarily morirhepJayground) vatesomestudents,but only for the next reward radrer than for the task itseli and can actually demotivate studentswho are alreadyintrinsicallymotivatedby the task (Small2009).
cific behavior),that sense of beingcontrolledwill counterbalance the effect informarional feedback of and reduceintrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 2002). The difference, researchers havefound, is the interpersonalcontext surroundingthe giving of rewardsor feedback. Here is a look at an exampleofcontrolling versusinformationalfeedback.If, after completing a researchproject,the schoollibrariansaysto the student,"Your project is excellent.I reallylike it and y"" make me proud," the indicationis that the librarianis the dispenserof approval, that the studenthascompliedwirh rhe librarian's wishes,and that the goal of the taskis for the studentto pleasethe librarian. However,ifthe Iibrariansays,"Your project meetsall ofthe requirements in the assignmentrubric we designed asa class,and we agreethat this makes an excellentand completeproject,"the librarian is conveyingthat the studenthas showncompetencefor the msk. Having studentsgive input in the assessment designgivesan extraboostto student auronomy,supportingthe developmentof intrinsic motivation.
Praisefor an accomplishmentofa learningtaskis a common rewardin education.Howevet most ofthe research on praiseie.g..Dweck2000:Amabile 1996; Brophy 1981)hasrevealedthat the way praiseis typicallygivencan havethe samenegativeeffectson studentmotivation asother extrinsicmotivators,i.e., decrease students'confidence,feelingsof autonomy,creariverhinking and problem solving,and overallintrinsic motivation. Forrunately,rhe judicioususeofsincere praiseemphasizingthe accomplishedtask, combinedwith supportand encouragemenr that focuseson students'effon and hard work ratherthan on their abilities, can havea positiveimpact on their learning motivation (Dweck2000; Hitz and Driscoll1989). In his book Drlza: TheSurprisingTiwth about lVhatMotiuatesUl, Daniel Pink {2009)d isringuishes algorichmlc berween setofsteps tasks(followingan established or principlesto reacha singlearsweror t and heuristictask:(u
