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"0" )*4/ +) * !5 !& 6!7%66898& % ) 2 : ! * & /- ;9M. fragrans>Piper nigrum>Nigella sativa >C. longa (40.160%). Oils of M. fragrans, A. indica and P. nigrum produced the highest toxicity with a dose of 0.25% (w/w) as a surface treatment of the wheat grains. [9]

5) Xie et al. (1995) studied the repellency and toxicity of azadirachtin and ‘Neem’ extracts to three stored product insects, viz., Cryptoletes ferrugineus, Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum. Tribolium castaneum was proved to be more sensitive to the repellent action of ‘Neem’ than the other two species.

6) Rahim (1998) evaluated the Neem-extract containing azadirachtin against Rhizopertha Dominica, on wheat, stored up to 48 weeks.

7) Lale and Mustapha (2000) evaluated the efficacy of four dosages (25, 50,75 and 100 mg) of ‘Neem’ seed oil, applied on cowpea seeds, for reducing their productive potential of Callosobruchus maculatus, in three storage devices (two unventilated and one ventilated), over a period of three month.

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Literature review Chapter 03

8) Jilani et al., (2003) investigated the growth-inhibition-effect of Neem-seed oil, obtained from different localities of Pakistan, upon the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), in the laboratory conditions, and established significant reduction in progeny at a concentration of 250 ppm, in case of all the samples

9) Nazli et al., (2003) appraised the ‘Neem’ seed oil, in the laboratory studies, as an insect repellent against red flour beetle. 10) Zaid iet al., (2003) compared extracts of ‘Neem’, turmeric and Sweet flag as insect repellents against Sitotroga cerealella, under laboratory conditions and found that the acetone-extract of Neem was the most effective botanical insecticide.[9] 11) In 1942,Salimuzzaman Siddiqui extracted three bitter compounds from neem oil, which he named as nimbin, nimbinin, and nimbidin respectively.

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Geographical distribution Chapter 04 Geographical Distribution:

4.1 Overview of neem in the world: The neem tree is native to India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Senegal, Srilanka, and Thailand. It has since been transplanted to many parts of the world, including several countries in Africa, South America, Latin America, the Caribbean, Middle East, and others (Agro Forestry Tree Database). In the United States, neem is grown in Florida and California. [11]

4.2 Overview of neem in Ethiopia: Ethiopia is located in the tropical region as a result the weather condition makes a suitable environment for the growth of neem tree and about 65-75% of the conditions in Ethiopia are appropriate for plantation of the tree. There are about 25 places that neem tree has observed in Ethiopia (IRLI, department of ICIPE-Ethiopia). Partially, it is found in the following regions, Gambella, Jijiga, and Umera etc. [11]

4.3 Neem in other countries: Neem’s reputation as a reliever of sickness has travelled to far off countries in tropical Africa where it was introduced a century ago and even Latin America, where it was introduced in the past decade. In Kenya and neighbouring countries in eastern Africa, Neem in Kiswahili language is known as ‘Mwarunaini’ meaning the reliever of 40 human’s disorders. In Niger in West Africa the most often usage of Neem oil also is for medicinal purpose. [11]

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Geographical distribution Chapter 04 Some other species of neem obtained in various regions are given bellows: 4.3 Azadirachta Siamensis: Azadirachta siamensis grows in Thailand, where the seeds and young leaves of the so called "sweet" neem are used as additions to many spices. The leaves are about twice as large as in Azadirachta indica and less bitter. The seeds are also considerably larger and the kernels are rather of an emerald green than white. The medical uses of Azadirachta siamensis in Thailand are similar to those of Azadirachta indica in India (Mattias Giger 2011).

4.3 Azadirachta excelsa: Azadirachta excelsa grows in remote areas of Malaysia and the Philippine islands. It grows up to 160 feet (50 m) tall and is found deep in the mostly inaccessible rainforests. Because of its scarcity Azadirachta excelsa, like Azadirachta siamensis, is not used extensively for commercial products but plays a role in some indigenous medicines such as anti-malarial. (Mattias Giger 2011).

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Description of neem tree Chapter 05

Description of Neem Tree: Neem is truly a tree with roots firmly embedded in the cultures of its people. For 2000 years in India, Neem twigs have been chewed on to clean teeth, Neem leaf juice applied on skin to treat disorders, Neem tea drunken as a tonic, and Neem leaves placed in the home to ward away bugs . [12] Its fruit (about the size of an olive) are eaten raw or cooked, and young twigs and flowers are sometimes eaten as vegetables. The fruit is also a major food source for birds and bats (they eat the pulp, not the seed), among others. The gum (resin), which is colorless, sticky, and malodorous, is also a high-protein food additive used in Southeast Asia, known as “neem glue”. Even the leaves are a source of food; they are used as fodder in the dry season (Agro Forestry- Tree Database). In Gambella also, children eat the pulp when it becomes yellowish. Neem also has important fuel uses: the wood is used as firewood and to produce excellent-grade charcoal, and the oil is used as lamp oil throughout India. The timber, although it has a rough grain and does not polish well, is used locally to make furniture. Its popularity in being used to make furniture is partly due to its insect repellent properties, for insects are deterred from coming near the furniture or the items inside. The wood is also popular for fencing and construction. In addition, the tree bark has 12% to 14% tannins, which makes it a good source for tannin chemicals (Agro Forestry Tree Database). Neem has a well-developed root system that can extract nutrients from lower soil levels, making it an important agent in erosion control because it is virtually droughtresistant.

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Description of neeem tree Chapter 05

5.1 Botanical Description: The Neem tree (Azadirachtaa indica), a member of the Meliaceae family (Mahogany family) (Agro Forestry Treee Database), is also called the Indiann neem tree, Indian lilac, and Margosa tree. Neem populations are heterogeneous in all respects, owing a known to have greatly to differences in soiil and climate. The trees themselves are genetic variation in height, branching b type, leaf form, and color (Munoz-Valenzuela 2007). Agro Forestry Tree Height generally ranges frrom 15 to 25 m, or even 30 m (A Database) with limbs of 15 m in length. Neem has a large, round crown of about 10 meter. These foliage proportions providde for shade nearly m (maximum 20 m) in diam year-round (Agro Forestry Tree T Database). [2]

Figure 5.11: Neem Tree (Agro Forestry Tree Database)

Shiny dark green leaves aree innately compound (leaflets attached in two rows to the main vein. ϭϰ

Description of neeem tree Chapter 05

The 10 to 12 serrated leaflets on each leaf are 7 cm long by 2.5 cm m wide (MunozValenzuela 2007) and the leeaf blade is glabrous. When damagedd, the leaves emit a garlic odor.

Figure 5.2: Neem leaves

White flowers are found ass inflorescences with joined sepals. The T fruit is yellow, fleshy, about 1 to 2 cm long, and has one (infrequently, two) seeds.

Figure5.33: Neem seed, Fruit and flower (left to right)

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5.2 Neem Composition: Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first scientist to bring the antihelminthic, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral constituents of the Neem tree to the attention of natural products chemists. In 1942, he extracted three bitter compounds from neem oil, which he named as nimbin, nimbinin, and nimbidin respectively. The process involved extracting the water insoluble components with ether, petrol ether, and ethyl acetate and dilute alcohol. The provisional naming was nimbin (sulphur-free crystalline product with melting point at 205 °C, empirical composition C7H10O2), nimbinin (with similar principle, melting at 192 °C), and nimbidin (creamcolored containing amorphous sulphur, melting at 90–100 °C). Siddiqui identified nimbidin as the main active anti-bacterial ingredient, and the highest yielding bitter component in the neem oil. These compounds are stable and found in substantial quantities in the Neem. They also serve as natural insecticides. [13] The composition of various parts of neem is given bellows: A. Neem Fruit (fresh): 1. Greenish Brown Kernels - 30% 2. Other Shell, Pulp etc., - 70% B. Neem Seed: Shell - 55.3% Kernel - 44.7% C. Neem Kernel Oil Content: - 46-48% D. Other Ingredients: 1. Azadirachtin - 0.3% 2. Nimbidin - 1.2 – 1.6% 3. Nimbin - 0.1% 4. Nimbinin - 0.01% ϭϲ


5. Vepinin - 0.15% On an average, Kernels contain between 2 and 3 mg. of Azadirachtin Per gram of Kernel. Indian Neem tree is the gold mine for treating ailments of the wound.

5.3 Natural Habitat: Neem can grow in tropical and sub-tropical regions with semi-arid to humid climates. Neem will typically experience a mean annual rainfall of 450-1200 mm, mean temperatures of 25-35ºC and grow at altitudes up to 800 m.a.s.l. The species is drought-tolerant, and thrives in many of the drier areas of the world. There is, therefore, considerable interest in neem as a means to prevent the spread of deserts and ameliorate desert environments, e.g. in Saudi Arabia (Ahmed et al, 1989), and western India (Gupta, 1994). In Saudi Arabia, several thousand neem trees have been planted on the Plains of Arafat near Mecca to provide shade and relief from the intense desert heat for Muslim pilgrims (Ahmed et al., 1989).[2] Neem grows on all types of soils, including clay, saline and alkaline soils, but does well on black cotton soils (NRC, 1992). It can tolerate dry, stony, shallow soil with a waterless sub-soil, or places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan near the surface. In Niger, neem was found to utilize groundwater at depths of 6-8 m, whereas an adjacent crop of millet extracted water from the top two meters of soil (Smith et al., 1997). Neem does not tolerate water-logging, is fire-resistant and has a unique property of calcium mining which neutralizes acidic soils (Gunasena and Marambe, 1998). The species is a light demander and when juvenile, neem will push up vigorously through scrubby vegetation. It is hardy, but frost tender and does not withstand excessive cold, especially in the seedling and sapling stages .It coppices and pollards well and also produces root suckers. [15]

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Table: 5.1: Summary of the ecological requirements of neem are given bellows:[16] Factor

Circumstances

Reference

Temperature

Frost sensitive, especially seedlings.

Chaturvedi (1993)

Shade temperature - 30-35ºC; e.g. \2Sri Gunasena&Marambe Lanka;

(1998)

21-32ºC up to shade temperatures of Schmutterer(1995), 50ºC. Rainfall

Benge (1988)

450-1200 mm/yr; as low as 250 mm/yr. Chaturvedi (1993) 500-1150 mm/yr.

Gill & Roy (1993)

400-1200 mm/yr.

Schmutterer (1995)

145 F (Azatin) ; 55.6 degrees F (Margosann)

Vapor pressure:

>2 m mmHg at 25 degrees C (Azatin) ; 44mm m at 20 degreees C (Margosan)

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Neem oil Chapter 07

Source: every part of Neem but seed kernel is good source and in Neem oil 0.03% is present. In seed kernel maximum conc. of Azadirachtin A is 50000 ppm. 7.1.1.7 C-Secomeliacins: This is a large and important group containing the most complex compound and it is specifically containing to neem. The 3 important subgroups in this form are, nimbin, salanin, and azadirachtin. There are 22 members of nimbin and salanin group have been isolated from Neem. Salanin has anti-feedant and detorant properties.

Figure 7.3 Salanin

7.1.2 B) NON-ISOPRENOID constituents: 7.1.2.1 (Poly) phenolics (Flavonoids): The Neem leaves were reported to contain two flavonoids,quercetin and Isorhamnetin. The flowers were to contain kaempferol, myricetin and quercetin.The occurrence of a new isoprenylatedflavanone, nimbaflavanone(8,3’-di- isoprenyl-5,7dihydroxy-4’-methoxyflavanone) in leaves is also reported. 7.1.2.2 Carbohydrates and Proteins: The gum exudates from the stem were found to be a very complex condensate proteins and hetero polysaccharides. The proteins are linked very tightly tothe polysaccharides, which constitute the major components. A variety of smaller gum components have been identified after drastic degradation of the complex, e.g., Dglucose, D-glucuronicacid, L-arabinose, L-fructose, mannose, xylose etc were reported. The amino acid composition of the gum was also invested and it has been found the most abundant was aspartic acid. Among others serine and threonine were also found. ϯϭ

Neem oil Chapter 07

Polysaccharides Gla and Glb: Gla is composed of a repeating unit consisting of one molecule of Į-L-arabinose and five molecule of Į-D-glucose. The arabinose is linked (1-6) to one of the glucose molecules which are mutually linked (1-4). Glb is a branched arabinofucoglucan containing a main chain of (1-4) Į-D-glucose molecules substituted in the 6 position with side chains of Į-L-arabinose molecules and in the 4 position with 3-O-substituted fucose molecules. Polysaccharides GIIa and GIIIa: GIIa is composed of the following repeating unit: -Į-D-glu-1-4- Į-D-glu-1-3- Į-D-glu-6-1- Į-L-ara ϲ

ŐůƵсŐůƵĐŽƐĞ

ĂƌĂсĂƌĂďŝŶŽƐĞ

͗

Į-L-ara GIIIa is a branched arabinofucoglucan contains a main chain of (1-4)-linked Į-Dglucose molecules substituted in the 6 position with side chain of Į- arabinose and ȕL-fucose. Polysaccharides GIIIDO’2 Ia and GIIIDO’2IIa: GIIIDO’2 Ia is a branched fucogalactoglucoarabian containing a main chain of (1-5)-linked L-arabinose molecules and (1-4) linked D-glucose molecules. GIIIDO’2 IIa is contains the following repeating unit: -6-glu-1-4-glu-1-5-ara-1-5-ara-

4

3

:

:

1

1

Gal

fuc

ŐůƵсɲͲͲŐůƵĐŽƐĞ ĂƌĂсɲͲ>ͲĂƌĂďŝŶŽƐĞ ŐĂůсɴͲͲŐĂůĂĐƚŽƐĞ ĨƵĐсɴͲĚͲĨƵĐŽƐĞ

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Neem oil Chapter 07

Two functionally different immune modulators, one methanol insoluble, high molecular weight saccharide-containing fraction and the other, methanol-soluble, low molecular weight fraction were isolated from aqueous bark extract. 7.1.2.3 Sulphurous Compounds: A number of cyclic tri- and tetra sulfides were identified from the steam distillate of the fresh matured leaves by GC-MS analysis. Several di- and trisulphides were also identified by capillary GC-MS analysis of the headspace volatiles from crushed seeds. Di-npropyldisulphide was shown to be the major compound.[2] [21] Table 7.2: Some important compounds along with their properties given as follow: [2] Name

Mol. form.

Mol. Wt.

MP

Sources

Azadirachtanin

C32H40O11

600

225

L

Azadirachtanin A

C35H44O16

720

165

S

Nimbin

C30H36O9

540

201

SBW

Salannin

C34H44O9

554

167

S

Nimbolin A

C26H32O2

674

180

W

Azadirachtol

C32H46O6

526

-

F

Nimbidinin

C28H34O6

442

282

S

Nimolicinolic acid

C26H34O6

482

92

F

Sugiol

C28H38O10

452

208

S

Azadirone

C26H36O4

436

-

S

Azadirachtol

C32H46O6

526

-

F

Epoxy

C28H34O5

466

-

S

Nimbinene

C28H34O7

482

134

SLB

Salannol

C32H42O8

554

208

S

Where: L= Leaf, S= Seed, W=wood, B= Bark, F=Fruit ϯϯ

Neem oil Chapter 07

Table: 7.3: The composition of various fatty acids obtained from neem oil is given as follows: Fatty acid

Composition (%)

Myristic Acid

0.2-2.6

Arachidic Acid

0.8-3.4

Linoleic Acid

2.3-15.8

Palmitic Acid

13.6-16.2

Stearic Acid

14.4-24.1

Oleic Acid

49.1-61.9

7.2 Importance of Neem Oil: Some of the main importance of Neem oil are: 7.2.1 Skin conditions: Neem has remarkable effect on chronic skin conditions that often fail to respond to medical drugs, acne, psoriasis, eczema, ringworm and even stubborn warts are among the conditions that can clear up easily when high quality, organic neem oil used. Medical drugs can produce harmful side effects such as rashes, allergic reactions and redness. In addition neem oil can be used as an excellent component of cosmetics to help clear, beautify and rejuvenate the skin. 7.2.2 Stomach Ulcers: Neem has proven successful in treating stomach ulcers. Its antihistamine and antibacterial compounds can reduce inflammation and destroy ulcer causing bacteria. 7.2.3 Cancer: Neem has been tested externally on many types of cancers including skin cancer, and internally against lymphocytic cancer. Its polysaccharides and limonoids have reduced cancerous tumors in numerous scientific studies.

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Neem oil Chapter 07

7.2.4 Diabetes: Neem has been found to reduce insulin requirements for diabetics by up to 50% for non key tonic, insulin fast and insulin-sensitive diabetes without altering blood glucose levels. 7.2.5 Hearts Disease: Neem has been scientifically tested for its ability to reduce blood pressure, blood clots, heart irregularities and cholesterol levels. Since the antihistamine effects of nimbidin found in neem leaves have been found to cause blood vessel to dilate, it may be why neem can reduce high blood pressure. A recent study showed that neem lowered high cholesterol levels in only one month. 7.2.6 AIDS: Neem contains potent immune modulating polysaccharide compounds which may be responsible for increasing antibody production, while other components in neem appear to stimulate immune function by enhancing cellular mediated response. This dual action helps the body ward off the multiple infections so commonly see with AIDS. 7.2.7 Fungi, Parasites and Viruses: Neem has been proven under strict laboratory conditions to successfully kill harmful fungi, parasites and viruses. Even though its mode of action is not yet known, neem does kill beneficial intestinal flora or produce side effect. [2]

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R Requirements and potential of neem oill in BD Chapter 08

Requirements and potentiaal of neem oil in Bangladesh: 8.1 Country Background: The area of Bangladesh iss 147,570 sq. kilometer. It is one off the most densely populated countries of the world. w Its population (as per SVRS Reeport) is 16 million (1st of July 2011) and 979 people p live in per square km area. Banngladesh is divided [23] into 7 divisions, 64 administtrative districts and 481 Upazilas (sub districts). d

As most of the parts of Banngladesh are plain land, it is favorable to construct Neem oil plants. A small hill tractt area occurs in Sylhet, Mymensingh, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) regions which are suitable for neem tree plantation.

F Figure8.1: Soil Map of Bangladesh [23] ϯϲ

Requirements and potential of neem oil in BD Chapter 08

8.2 The main Factors as why ‘Neem oil from neem plant’ is needed in Bangladesh are: • To protect the rapid depletion of forest resources, • To maintain the ecological balance, • In agricultural sector various types of insecticides are used. They are not only toxic to insects, but also to human being. Most of active compounds are persistent type (DDT), hence causes environmental pollution. • To reduce the toxicity and to form healthy environment for agriculture. • Also cheap sources of raw material of Ayurvedic. •

Used in cosmetic sector.

• Can be an revolution in industrial sector • To protect the environment from toxic pesticides •

To implement another sector of national development

• To ensure toxic free food for national population • To increase the facility of solving unemployment problem in Bangladesh. • Also can an alternative source of energy. 8.3 Potential of neem plant for producing neem oil and potential of neem oil in Bangladesh: [24] [25] The Neem has adapted to a wide range of climates. It thrives well in hot weather, where the maximum shade temperature is as high as 49° C and tolerates cold up to 0° C on altitudes up to 1500 today; the Neem is well established in at least 30 countries world-wide, in Asia including Bangladesh.

8.3.1 Temperature condition: Bangladesh has modest seasonal variations in temperature, and mostly warm temperatures throughout the year due to the prevailing tropical/subtropical climate. ϯϳ


The country experiences a hot summer of high humidity from late March to late June, a somewhat cooler but still a hot and humid monsoon from late June through October and a cool dry winter from November to the end of February. Day temperature ranges from 7 to 12 degree centigrade in the cool months and in the other months it varies between 23 to 30 degree centigrade.΀ϰϲ΁

The Normal minimum and maximum temperature in Bangladesh is illustrated in the following table: Table 8.1: Normal minimum and maximum temperature in Bangladesh [23]

Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Max.

25.2 27.8 31.6

33.2 32.9 31.9 31.1 31.4 31.5 31.5 29.5 26.4

12.5 15.1 19.6

23.1 24.5 25.6 25.6 25.7 25.4 23.6 19.2 14.2

Temp. Min. Temp.

8.3.2 Soil Condition: The Neem grows on almost all types of soils including clayey, saline and alkaline soils, with pH up to 8.5, but does well on black cotton soil and deep, well-drained soil with good sub-soil water. Unlike most other multipurpose tree species, it thrives well on dry, stony, shallow soils and even on soils having hard calcareous or clay pan, at a shallow depth. [23] [46]

8.4 General soil types of Bangladesh: 8.4.1 Floodplain soils: They are divided into different sub-types, such as - calcareous alluvium, noncalcareous alluvium, calcareous brown floodplain soils, calcareous grey floodplain ϯϴ


soils, calcareous dark grey floodplain soils, non-calcareous grey floodplain soils, non-calcareous brown floodplain soils, non-calcareous dark grey floodplain soils. 8.4.1.1 Calcareous Alluvium Soils are stratified or raw alluvium throughout or below the cultivated layer. They are calcareous throughout or part of it and lack in having diagnostic subsoil horizon. This alluvium on the active Ganges floodplain mainly comprises brownish grey to pale brown sandy and silty deposits, which are moderately calcareous. Soils on the Lower Meghna estuarine floodplain are slightly calcareous grey to olive, finely stratified silts. 8.4.1.2 Calcareous Brown Floodplain soils They have cambic B-horizon that is predominantly oxidised, containing lime in the profiles. They comprise pale brown to olive brown, friable, loamy and clay soils occurring on the upper parts of ridges on the Ganges river floodplain and on the river bank of the Ganges tidal floodplain.

8.4.2 Hill soils (Brown Hill soils): Occupy gentle to very steep slopes of northern and eastern hills. These soils have been developed over consolidated or unconsolidated rocks, which are imperfectly to excessively drain. But some of them are very shallow soils overlying rock or iron pan at less than 25 cm depth.

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Table 8.2: Various types of soil in Bangladesh [23] General soil type

Area (ha)

(%)

Floodplain soils

9,718,722

78.96

Calcareous Alluvium

591,796

4.81

Non-calcareous Alluvium

562,242

4.57

Calcareous Brown Floodplain soils

478,518

3.89

Calcareous Grey Floodplain soils

170,767

1.39

Calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain soils

1,434,678

11.66

Non Calcareous Grey Floodplain soils

3,387,153

27.52

Non Calcareous Brown Floodplain soils

383,312

3.11

Non Calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain soils

1,599,645

13.00

Black Terai soils

83,408

0.68

Acid Basin clays

348,994

2.84

Acid Sulphate soils

226,647

1.84

Peat

130,005

1.06

Grey Piedmont Soils

215,279

1.75

Made-land

106,278

0.86

Hill soils (Brown Hill Soils)

1,561,472

12.69

Terrace soils

1,028,030

8.35

Shallow Red-Brown Terrace soils

72,549

0.59

Deep Red-Brown Terrace soils

189,380

1.54

Brown Mottled Terrace soils

34,235

0.28

Shallow Grey Terrace soils

265,427

2.16

Deep Grey Terrace soils

352,152

2.86

Grey Valley soils

114,287

0.93

Total soil area

12,308,224

100.00

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8.3.3 Rainfall condition: Neem tree needs little water and plenty of sunlight. The tree grows naturally in areas where the rainfall is in the range of 450 to 1200 mm. However, it has been introduced successfully even in areas where the rainfall is as low as 200 – 250 mm. It cannot withstand water-logged areas and poorly drained soils. The average annual rainfall varies from a maximum of 5,690 mm in the northeast of the country to minimum of 1,110 mm in the west. It is estimated that a Neem tree has a productive life span of 150 – 200 years. [23] [46]

8.3.4 Altitude condition: Roughly 80 % of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain. The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. Although altitudes up to 105 meters above sea level occur in the northern part of the plain, most elevations are less than 10 meters above sea level; elevations decrease in the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast, the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The Chittagong Hills rise steeply to narrow ridge lines, generally no wider than 36 meters, with altitudes from 600 to 900 meters above sea level. At 1,052 meters altitude, the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at MowdokMual, in the southeastern part of the hills. West of the Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal that rises to a final chain of low coastal hills, mostly below 200 meters, that attain a maximum elevation of 350 meters. West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in south.[23][46] ϰϭ

Production process of neem oil Chapter 09

Production process of neem oil: 9.1 Raw materials:

1) Neem leaves/bark/fruit/seed: This is the major raw material of any neem oil plant. 10-12 years old Tree yield 5-8 kg Seed, 20 years and above 20-30kg every year. The neem seed usually contain 4045% of neem oil. Fruiting age: 3-5 Yrs. Fully productive: in 10 yrs. Normal production: 30-50kg of Fruit/annum. Neem Seeds have considerable economic significance due to a variety of commercial usages. Quality of Seed determines the commercial value. One tone of neem seed is processed; it gives 1.5 Kg of Azadirchtin 200 kgs of neem oil and 780 kg of neem cake.

2) Water : Water is most widely used in extraction process. Mechanically extraction process usually uses 4 cups of water for 2lbs of seed. Amount of water for pulping is 50% of Kg of fresh fruit. Warm water is also used for depulping process. Water also used for various washing, rinsing of various equipment.

3) Solvent: In solvent extraction process, we used soxhlet extraction (used solvent n-hexane) and agitated-extraction vessel (by ethanol and n-hexane). The oil extracted by n-hexane and ethanol is tested for some parameters and it is observed that there is no much variation in the quality of the oil extracted by n-hexane and ethanol except that the color of oil extracted by ethanol is darker than the oil extracted by n-hexane; this indicates that ethanol is a good solvent for oil. But Neem oil extraction using nhexane is profitable.

ϰϮ


4) Disinfection chemicals: For storage, the seeds should be disinfected by some means, e.g. calcium hypochlorite, and dried in the sun or by heating devices to achieve moisture content lower than 7%. 9.2 Production process: The neem oil production can be done in three scale sizes; they are1) Large scale production( industrial sector) 2) Medium scale production( small industrial sector) 3) Small scale production( house-hold purpose)

9.2.1 Large scale production (industrial sector): The process involves the following steps: 9.2.1.1 Collection: Naturally Ripened fruits drop on the ground are to be collected within 1-2days for further processing. 1. Fruits with yellowish color should be harvested. 2. Fruits should be harvested by shaking tree branches as well as by plucking fruits and if possible spread a cloth, tarpaulin under the tree. 3. Fresh fruits should be collected in the morning. 4. Fruit should be transported in baskets and or gunny bags. 5. These fruits should not be mixed up with semi dried fruits collected through Sweepings. Moisture in Commercial Neem Fruits to be 6–9% and after drying 5%. 6. Impurities like stones, dusts and metals were removed by hand. [14]

9.2.1.2

Pulping:

1. Collected fruits should be kept immediately in warm water to avoid fungal growth. These fruits may be kept in water from 12-24 hours to further soften the pulp. 2. Such Water soaked fruits should be macerated with the help of gunny bags. ϰϯ


3. Mechanized scrubbers, macerators and washers can also be used for larger quantities. 4. The seed along with water is send to the dryer for removal of moisture.

9.2.1.3 Drying: 1. Seed should be spread in thin layers for drying. 2. Jute gunny bags or perforated sheets should be used for drying seed. 3. Small tray driers using hot flue gases from a furnace have also been fabricated. 4. Sun drying in open space / or partially covered space is preferable. However, in cloudy, rainy weather use of Fans, and hot air blowers are suggested. 5. In dried seed moisture level of 9 – 15% is reasonable (as against 40 – 50% moisture at the time of collection of fruits). 6. Germination rate of fresh seed is 90% which would drop to 40% in 30 days and less than 5% in 60 days.

9.2.1.4 Decorticating: After drying the seeds are decorticating in a decorticator.

9.2.1.5

Storage:

1. Cold Storage of seed prolongs its shelf life. 2. Dried Seed should be stored in airy containers, jute bags or perforated bags at room temperature under moisture free conditions: can be stored up to one year but never store in plastic bags. 3. The seeds should be stored in a shady and airy place. This is one of the main problems, especially on village level, due the lack of space in the huts of the poor collectors.

ϰϰ


9.2.1.6

Pulverizing :

The dried Neem kernel was crushed in attrition mill with sieve size 2mm. The sample was sieved using vibrating shaker with set of sieves sizes arranged in descending order 1.8mm, 1.4mm, 1mm, 0.85mm, 0.71mm, 0.425 and 0.2mm to obtain particular sizes of 0.4 0.71mm, 0.71-0.85mm and 0.85-1.4mm. This is because to investigate the effect of particles size on yield and quantity of oil.

9.2.1.7 Extraction: The costs of the extraction plants vary accordingly: the higher the level of azadirachtin required, the more expensive are the plants. Considering the solubility of the leading component azadirachtin, it is clear that only polar solvents should be used for extraction. Still, the cold pressed neem oil could contain up to 0.6% azadirachtin A. Water and alcohol are the best solvents. Often methanol is the preferred alcohol because of the availability and price. Four different types of technologies are available; the types first described being the most commonly used ones: [27] A) Extraction with alcohol (also called one-step extraction) B) Azadirachtin-enriched extract (also called two-step extraction) C) Extraction using centrifuges D) Extraction with Supercritical CO2.

A) Extraction with alcohol (also called one-step extraction): The neem seeds are crushed into crude powder and extracted with ethanol or methanol by maceration or percolation. The alcohol should have only low water content, and its quality (purity) is also important. The alcoholic extracts contain the active ingredients. Using the movingϰϱ

Production process of neeem oil Chapter 09

bed contacting method, thhe kernels will be stirred for 3-4 houurs by an overhead stirrer in a mixing-settlingg tank. After decantation of the crudde cake, the neem solution is drained out, filttered and passed to the next proceduree. The dilute neem solution will be further evaaporated until a specific volume - calledd the "concentrated extract" (CE) has been achiieved, and the solvents are recycled. Neem kernels contain a large percentage of oil (up to 48%, averagee 40%), which is of considerable value on its own. The oil disturbs the extracttion of the active w be best to remove the oil withh solvents such as ingredients. Therefore it would hexane or by cold pressing with an oil expeller. It is also possiblee to remove the oil c or freezing to separate the oil. The de-oiled neem content from the extract by cooling cake could be further extractted with methanol to gain the azadirachhtin.

Figure 9.1: Flow F Sheet of batch extraction of neem oil usin ng alcohol.

ϰϲ


Finally the solution obtained can be bottled and supplied to the consumer. The process solvent extraction is basically a process of diffusion of a solvent into oilbearing cells of the raw material resulting in a solution of the oil in solvent.The solvent extraction method recovers almost all the oils and leaves behind only 0.5% to 0.7% residual oil in the raw material. In the case of mechanical pressing the residual oil left in the oil cake may be anywhere from 6% to 14%. [27] [28]

B) Refined neem extracts - azadirachtin-enriched extracts (also called two-step extraction plant): This two stage extraction process is a mechanical extraction followed by solvent extraction. As raw material for neem-based extract processing, Neem seeds (Azadirachta indica) is used. The following Figure shows the two stage schematic diagram of Neem-based extract processing plant resulting with equipment. A certain kilogram of dried Neem seeds was used in the process. The seeds firstly decorticated to obtain the seed kernel, then crushed and finally pressed to separate neem oil using mechanical extraction. By moving-bed contacting extraction technique, defatted neem cake will be extracted with solvent in an agitated-extraction vessel. After decantation of crude cake in mixing-settling tank, the neem solution is drained out, then filtered and evaporated until a specific volume; the so-called concentrated solvent-neem-based extract of the oil attains its quality. After quality measurement, the concentrate could be formulated for specific purpose as different commercial grade. Eventually, the product will be bottled and shipped to the consumer.

ϰϳ


Neem seed

Decorticating Neem Kernel

Crushing Neem powder

Oil Expelling

Neem oil

Defated cake

Extraction Diluted extract

Evaporation

Recovery solvent

C) Extraction using centrifuges: ŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƚĞĚĞǆƚƌĂĐƚ Figure: 9.2 Flow sheet of two stages Neem-based extract processing plant resulting with equipment

C) Extraction using centrifuges: This technology is used to produce high quality oils. In a further extraction step it can be used to gain azadirachtin. In a pilot plant a powder containing 15% azadirachtin has been gained from the cake.

ϰϴ


D) Supercritical fluid extrraction: This technology has recentlly been used in India in a joint ventuure with a German company and is considered a very "elegant" technology from thee technical point of view. The technology is rellatively environmentally friendly, usinng CO2 under high pressure and a transport caarrier. Very little is known about exxperience with this technology so far. Extractionn using supercritical fluid, the oil prodduced has very high purity; however the operatinng and investment cost is high. [29]

Fig9.3: Extraction unit

9.2.1.8

Distillation:

Miscella contains 12% to 18% 1 solvent. During distillation, solveent evaporates first due to its lower boiling poinnt (60 to 80 °C) leaving clean oil behindd. Distillation is performed in three stages under vacuum to ensuree that no oxygen is present when the oil is heated to a high temperature. Presence of Oxygen will make the oil rancid. First evaporaation takes place in an Economizer annd is followed by a Flasher leaving practically only o oil behind. This oil is further treateed with open steam to ensure that no solvent stays s behind. The solvent vapors thuus produced passes through an Oil Vapor sepaarator to separate out any oil particles trapped with the solvent vapors before passinng on to a Condenser.

ϰϵ


9.2.1.9

Condensation:

Solvent vapors are formed both in the Desolventisation Section as well as in the Distillation Section and need to be condensed. Special floating head types help quick and easy removal of tubular bundles for periodical cleaning. 9.2.1.10 Final solvent recovery: The air that is being ejected out of the system contains traces of solvent. In order to recover these traces, a special final vent air stripping column has been provided. It comprises of a main Absorber to give a large contact surface. It is partly filled with groundnut oil to absorb the solvent vapors from the air. The oil and solvent mixture is distilled later to recover the solvent. 9.2.1.11 Meal/Cake treatment section : The extracted and desolventised meal is transported to the bagging section by means of a Conveyor fitted with cooling arrangements. 9.2.2

Medium scale production( small industrial sector):

The following steps are involves 9.2.2.1

Shelling or dehulling:

The oil-bearing seeds need to be separated from their outer husk or shell. This is referred to as shelling, hulling or decorticating. Shelling increases the oil extraction efficiency and reduces wear in the expeller as the husks are abrasive. In general some 10% of husk is added back prior to expelling as the fiber allows the machine to grip or bite on the material.

After decortications the shell may have to be separated

from the kernels by winnowing. At small scale this can be done by throwing the material into the air and allowing the air to blow away the husk Milling is carried out to reduce the size of particles and improve the efficiencies of extracting oil.[30]

ϱϬ


9.2.2.2

Heating or condittioning:

Pre-heating the seeds prior to expelling improves the release of the t oil by breaking h is spreading the cell walls and by thinninng the oil. The most basic method of heating the seed on a black plastic shheet exposed to the heat of the sun for 15 minutes. Stoves can be used either with a pann for 5 minutes or with a double-boilerr for 15 minutes. 9.2.2.3

Expelling:

A wide range of makes andd sizes of expellers are available. Motoor driven gains are now common in South Assia where they are used for mustardd and rapeseed oil extraction. Ram presses use a lever mecchanism to produce high pressures on a piston that forces the oil out of the seed. Mannual ram presses can be tend to be harrd work. Hydraulic presses use a hydraulic pumpp to exert a high pressure on the seed.

Figu ure9.4: Expelling of neem seed

9.2.2.4

Filtration:

The crude expelled oil conttains solid particles. These can be rem moved by allowing the oil to stand and then filttering the clear oil by gravity through fine cloth. A better but more expensive method is pumping the crude oil through a filteer press.

ϱϭ


9.2.2.5

Clarification:

Filtering will remove insoluble contaminants such as fiber but fresh extracted oil will also contain moisture, resins and colorants from the seed. Clarification is a relatively simple method of removing these unwanted elements and can be done by letting the oil stand undisturbed for a few days and then separating the upper layer, or by using a clarifier in which the oil is held in a tank with a heat source. This can be an old oil drum above a fire or commercially available equipment. The oil is boiled to drive off water and to destroy naturally occurring enzymes and contaminating bacteria. After heating the oil is allowed to stand and the contaminants separate out. The oil is filtered through a cloth and is reheated to ensure that all the moisture has been removed. [30] 9.2.2.6

Refining:

In many local markets further refining is not required as the complex flavors of unrefined oils are preferred. International markets tend to prefer lighter less intense oils for cooking which means further processing of the oil. There is a series of refining processes that can be carried out after the oil has been filtered. 9.2.2.7

De-odorizing:

Volatile compounds that produce bad odors can be eliminated through the process of sparing, i.e. bubbling steam through the oil, under a vacuum. 9.2.2.8

Wintering:

Allowing the oil to stand for a time at low temperatures so that glycosides, which naturally occur in the oil, with higher melting points solidify and can then is removed from the oil by filtering. Over time glycerides can degrade releasing fatty acids into the oil increasing the acidity levels and reducing the quality. 9.2.2.9

Neutralization:

Fatty acids can be neutralized by adding a sodium hydroxide solution, also known as caustic soda, or by stripping, which is a similar process to de-odorizing. ϱϮ


Seed Storage

Cleaning

Decortications Shelling

Milling Grinding

Oil Expelling

Cake

Crude Oil

Filtering

Deodorizing

Neutralizing

Fig: 9.5 Flow sheet of basic steps involved in processing oil seeds in medium scale. ϱϯ


9.2.2.10 Bleaching: Some oils have a very dark color to them that is unpopular with consumers. The appearance of the oil can be lightened by bleaching. 9.2.2.11 De-gumming: Degumming is a way of treating seed that have high phosphotide content. The phosphotide, which makes a gummy residue, is removed by mixing the oil with 2 or3 % water. This hydrated phosphotide can then be removed by settling, filtering or centrifuged. 9.2.2.12 Packaging: The packaging should be stored in airtight and moisture-proof containers in a cool, dark location to ensure a long shelf-life. 9.2.2.13 Marketing: The viability of any oil extraction enterprise depends to a considerable extent on the sale of the oil cake for use in animal feeds and other sub-products. Markets for oil cake must be investigated and demand established before starting the enterprise.

9.2.3 Small scale production( house-hold purpose): The following steps are involved: [31]

a) Lay a few handfuls of the seeds on the counter and roll over them with the rolling pin. Crush them completely and sit the finished seeds inside the cloth bag. Continue to crush seeds in this fashion until all the seeds are crushed and bagged. A ghani is a pestle and mortar that is traditionally animal powered. Its capacity is approximately 40 kg a day although this will vary depending on the size, strength and number of animals used. Animals need to be replaced after 3 or 4 hours work as they tired.

b) Sit the bag down inside the bucket and pour the water through the inside of the bag. This allows the oils to flow out of the bag and into the bucket. If you find that this will not produce enough oil for you, you can always increase the ϱϰ


amount of seeds and water used. To do this, simply doublee the seeds to 4 lbs. w to 10 cups. and then double the water

c) Allow the bag to sit in i a sieve on top of the bucket over nigght. This will allow the remaining oil to seep s out of the bag and into the buckeet for collection the following morning. Collect C the oil and use as needed.

F

I Figuree 9.6: Neem oil extractions in house -hold purp pose

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Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 Technology selection for Bangladesh: The primary steps involves in extraction of neem oil such as collection, decorticating, drying are similar in all over the world. The only steps which vary all over the world are extraction technology.

10.1 Selection of extraction technology for large scale industry: Different processes are practiced in different countries for that purpose in large industrial sector. They are: A)Extraction with alcohol(also called one-step extraction) B)Azadirachtin-enriched extract(also called two-step extraction) C)Extraction using centrifuges D) Extraction with Supercritical CO2. 10.1.1 Extraction with alcohol (also called one-step extraction): This sort of technology is used in the medium neem-processing plants (100 - 500 t of kernels annually) such as those in Myanmar, Thailand and Kenya. The products contain between 0.3 and 1% azadirachtin A as well as many other substances (residual fat, sugar etc.).[32]

10.1.1.1 Advantages: ¾ Relatively simple technology ¾ lower investment required ¾ makes use of all products, therefore no waste ¾ possible use of the extraction plant for other products 10.1.1.2 Disadvantages: ¾ Quality of the final product is greatly dependent on the quality of the raw material ¾ Often low stability/short shelf-life of the products. ϱϲ

Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 10.1.2 Refined Neem Extracts - Azadirachtin-Enriched Extracts (Also Called Two-Step Extraction Plant): By applying special extraction procedures or further enrichment steps for alcoholic extracts, e.g. by fluid/fluid extraction, unwanted substances (such as residual oil, sugar, etc.) are separated and azadirachtin(s) and other compounds are converted in an organic phase which is easy to vaporize. After recovery of the solvents a powder extract remains with an azadirachtin content of up to 20%. The powder can be stored and used on demand to formulate an emulsified extract (EC) with 3 - 5% azadirachtin A. [32] 10.1.2.1 Advantages: ¾ products can be easily stored (less volume) and have a longer shelf-life ¾ better quality in terms of azadirachtin content ¾ easier to fulfill the registration requirements since they contain no oil or additional substances ¾ easier to formulate ¾ homogenous quality (do not vary much from batch to batch) ¾ higher concentration of azadirachtin, which is required to control certain pests ¾ less phytotoxicity by eliminating undesirable by-products such as wax ¾ possible use of the extraction plant for other products 10.1.2.2 Disadvantages: ¾ higher investment required ¾ more sophisticated technology ¾ Technology protected by patents and therefore often not available to small entrepreneurs.

ϱϳ

Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 10.1.3 Extraction using centrifuges: 10.1.3.1 Advantages: ¾ efficient exploitation of azadirachtin ¾ stable powder product ¾ neem oil, free of bitter principles ¾ Technology can be used for other oils (e.g. castor oil, etc.) 10.1.3.2 Disadvantages: ¾ very high investment costs ¾ only profitable on a large scale ¾ complicated technology ¾ no experience concerning scaling with neem ¾ Additional solvents are required. Investment costs: approx. US$ 3.5 - 5 million for a complete plant with an annual capacity of more than 2000 t of neem kernels.[32] 10.2 Selection of extraction technology for medium scale industry: Most countries in the world have large refineries producing oil from a variety of plants including sunflower, rapeseed, mustard seed, soya, maize, and palm. These large centralized enterprises have the advantage of high efficiency and reduced costs due to the economy of scale. Despite this, in many situations medium scale decentralized oil extraction can prove to be economic and provide opportunities for income generation. Most commonly, opportunities exist where: o Oil produced in the large refineries does not find its way out to more remote and distant rural areas. o High transport costs are involved in wide distribution of cooking oil, thereby increasing the price of oil.

ϱϴ

Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 o Small farmers produce oilseeds such as sunflower for sale to the large refineries which they then buy back, at high cost, in the form of cooking oil but without the valuable high protein oil cake. o The crude oil is used to produce added value products, most commonly soap. o More unusual, high value oilseeds are available. [33] 10.2.1 Methods of extraction: Five common methods are used to extract oil:

10.2.1.1 Water assisted: Here the finely ground oilseed is either boiled in water and the oil that floats to the surface is skimmed off or ground kernels are mixed with water and squeezed and mixed by hand to release the oil.

10.2.1.2 Ghanis: A ghani consists of a large pestle and mortar rotated either by animal power or by a motor. Seed is fed slowly into the mortar and the pressure exerted by the pestle breaks the cells and releases the oil.

10.2.1.3 Manual pressing: Here oilseeds, usually pre-ground, are pressed in manual presses. Some pre-heating and the addition of water can improve yields.

10.2.1.4 Expelling: An expeller consists of a motor driven screw turning in a perforated cage. The screw pushes the material against a small outlet, the "choke". Great pressure is exerted on the oilseed fed through the machine to extract the oil. Expelling is a continuous method unlike the previous two batch systems. ϱϵ

Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 10.2.1.5 Solvent extraction. Oils from seeds or the cake remaining from expelling is extracted with solvents and the oil is recovered after distilling off the solvent under vacuum. This process is usually only carried out in large scale production plants and is not suitable for small scale production.

Most small enterprises will find that small expellers are the best technology choice. Methods such as water extraction and manual pressing only produce small amounts of oil; the extraction efficiencies (the percentage recovered from a possible maximum) are low and labor requirements high. Solvent extraction while highly efficient involves very substantial capital cost and is only economic on a large scale. There is also a health and safety risk from using inflammable solvents. 10.2.2 The main risks that need to be considered are:[33]

a) The policy environment: In many countries the oil processing sector is highly politicized and regulations exist which make entering the market difficult and tend to support the monopoly of the large processors. Large refineries may, for example, insist that farmers sell all their seed under a contract. In other cases seed has to be sold to a central Government marketing board, the board also supplies seed for planting.

b) Raw material supply: Clearly there must be sufficient raw material available locally. One factor that will influence the viability of the enterprise will be the amount of credit needed to purchase a stock of seed. The enterprise should aim to keep the minimum stock of

ϲϬ

Technology selection for BD Chapter 10 seed but always have enough to continue operating throughout the year. This requires considerable working capital.

c) Health and safety: As oil processing is classified as a food processing enterprise it will be subject to local legislation. Care should be taken that standards are understood and met.

10.3

Best technology for Bangladesh:

Due to the geographical condition about 30% of our land is suitable for neem plantation. So there is a lack of raw material availability required for large scale production. For large scale production we have to import raw material from foreign countries like India, Thailand, and Kenya.

But if we produce neem oil in small or medium scale industry we will able meet our national demand and the raw material which are also available in our country. On the other hand, small scale production can also meet our national demand if we able to extract neem oil properly.

So with respect to our country small and medium scale production is mostly feasible. But I think the best technology for developing countries like Bangladesh is implementation of large scale industry in medium investment. If the government of Bangladesh takes initiative steps then we can also implement neem oil production in large scale.

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Major equuipment Chapter 11

Major equipment: a capable of performing a com mplete job Such as Equipment is one or more assemble pump, size reducer, mixer ettc. In another way equipment is a deviice that can be used to produce an item or achievve a task, but that is not consumed in thhe process. The choice of equipments inn a process depends on design, size, deggree of complexity, and cost of individual equipm ment. The major equipments useed in production of neem oil are: 11.1 For large scale production: 11.1.1 Decorticator A decorticator (from Latin:: cortex, bark) is a machine for strippinng the skin, bark, or rind off nuts, wood, plant staalks, grain, etc., in preparation for furthher processing. Seed Decorticator is develooped for handling the various process needs in neem oil mill processing plant. Thesee decorticators efficiently perform the task t of cracking the shell of seeds/nuts as well ass separate the nut which is the part of seed, from the shell. The decorticator features hardened h knives as well as synchronizzed feeding option with vibratory separator fitted fi underneath for efficient perforrmance. These are available in capacity rangingg from 10 - 50 ton per day (in 24 Hrs).

Figure11.1: Decorticator ϲϮ


Also available in roller bearring option, the use of steel fabricated base & body make these more durable and woork for longer time periods in handling the processing demands of oil seeds. The process equipment is well recognizeed for needing low maintenance.[34] 11.1.2 Grinding Mill: A grinding mill is a unit ooperation designed to break a solid maaterial into smaller pieces. There are many diffeerent types of grinding mills and manyy types of materials processed in them. Historiccally mills were powered by hand (m mortar and pestle), working animal (horse mill), wind (windmill) or water (watermilll). Today they are also powered by electricity. The grinding of solid matterrs occurs under exposure of mechanicaal forces that trench the structure by overcomingg of the interior bonding forces. Afteer the grinding the state of the solid is changedd: the grain size, the grain size dispossition and the grain shape. Grinding may serve the folloowing purposes in engineering: •

increase of the surfacee area of a solid

•

manufacturing of a soolid with a desired grain size

•

pulping of resources

Figure11.2: Grinding Mill ϲϯ


11.1.3 Pulverizer: Pulverizer is machine used to t reduce a substance to fine particles, as a by crushing or grinding the substance to be reduced. Mode of working The material to be pulverizzed is centrically fed into the grinder via a dosing unit. Feeding is overload controolled. If toothed discs are used, the in i feed material is pulverized between the rotaating and the fixed toothed discs and then evacuated by suction from the grinding chhamber.[35]

Figure11.3: Pulverizzer/Functional diagram of pulverizer with tootthed discs

ϲϰ

Major equipment Chapter 11

ͳͳǤͳǤͶǣIndustrial Mixers and Blenders are used to mix or blend a wide range of materials used in different industries including the food, chemical, pharmaceutical, plastic and mineral industries.[19] Types of Mixers •

Ribbon Blender

•

V Blender

•

Continuous Processor

•

Cone Screw Blender

•

Screw Blender

•

Double Cone Blender

ͳͳǤͳǤͷǣ

a) Bottom Discharge Vertical Basket Centrifuge Cycle: The working is given bellows: 1) Feeding: The slurry is introduced to the rotating basket having a filter cloth. The filter cloth captures the solids. Centrifugal force drives the liquid through the caked solids and the mother liquor is discharged through perforations in the basket circumference. 2) Washing: A wash liquid is introduced and is driven through the caked solids. The plug flow action of the wash liquid purifies the solids and removes residual mother liquor. 3) Spinning: Residual liquors are driven from the caked solids and are discharged through the basket perforations to achieve maximum cake dryness. 4) Scraping: A scraper knife advances into the rotating basket to discharge the solids to downstream equipment. The solids are discharged through openings in the basket bottom. 5)

Residual heel removal: After scraping, a 6-10 mm layer remains inside the rotating basket. With the scraper in an advanced position, high pressure ϲϱ


nitrogen or air is used u to dislodge this residual heel. This step can be performed after severaal centrifuge cycles, or after each cyclee.[36]

Figure 11.5: Vertical V basket bottom discharge centrifuge cyycle

1 Scraper 2 Cover 3 Feed pipee 4 Basket 5 Casing 6 Drive motor 7 Integral innertia plate 8 Solids outtlet 9 Liquid ouutlet 10 Vibratioon isolators Figure11.6: Cutaaway of vertical basket bottom discharge centrrifuge

b) Horizontal Basket Filtration Centrifuge: i introduced to the rotating basket haaving a filter cloth. 1) Feeding: The slurry is The filter cloth capturres the solids. Centrifugal force drives the liquid through the caked solids and thhe mother liquor is discharged throughh perforations in the basket circumference. ϲϲ


2) Washing: A wash liqquid is introduced and is driven througgh the caked solids. The plug flow actionn of the wash liquid purifies the soolids and removes residual mother liquorr.

Figure: 11.7 1 Horizontal Basket Filtration centrifuge

3) Spinning: Residual liquors are driven from the cakeed solids and are mum cake dryness. discharged through thhe basket perforations to achieve maxim 4) Scraping: A scraper knife advances into the rotating baskket to discharge the solids to downstream equipment. 5) Residual heel removval: After scraping, a 6-10 mm layer remains inside the rotating basket. Withh the scraper in an advanced positiion, high pressure nitrogen or air is used u to dislodge this residual heel. This step can be performed after severaal centrifuge cycles, or after each cyclee.[36]

11.1.6 Distillation equipmeent: Industrial distillation is typiccally performed in large, vertical cylinddrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameterss ranging from m and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 about 65 centimeters to 16 meters meters or more. ϲϳ


When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distillinng crude oil, liquid outlets at intervalls up the column allow for the withdrrawal of different

fractions

or

pproducts

having different boiling pooints or boiling

ranges.

The

"llightest"

products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from thee top of the columns and the "hheaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from thee bottom of the column and are oftenn called the bottoms. Figure: 11.8 Diagram of a typical Industrial distillatioon tower

Industrial towers use refluxx to achieve a more complete separration of products. Reflux refers to the portioon of the condensed overhead liquiid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper paart of the tower as shown in the schematic diaggram of a typical, large-scale industriaal distillation tower. Inside the tower, the down flowing reflux liquid provides coolingg and condensation of the up flowing vapors thhereby increasing the efficiency of thee distillation tower. [19]

ͳͳǤͳǤ͹

ǣ

The tube condenser is comm monly used machine that operates usinng heat exchange in the solvent extraction plant. Its advantages include carbon steel annd aluminum alloy steel composition, a low priice and a compact structure. It is wideely used in various fields.[37] ϲϴ


Figure: 11.9 Tube Condensers

Features of the Tube Cond denser •

High heat transferringg efficiency.

•

Low heat recovery; tw wo kinds of heat transfer media can com mplete countercurrent exchanges.

•

Consistent productionn.

•

Easy to clean.

•

Saves on cooling wateer.

•

Vacuum condensationn process.

ͳͳǤͳǤͺ

ǣ

f in the solvent extraction plant. Generally there are The oil tank is the storage facility two basic types of oil storaage tanks: the crude oil storage tank and a the product oil storage tank. The crude oil storage tank moves large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to the reefineries. In contrast, the oil storage taank for the finished product is generally much smaller s and is usually designed to moove edible oil from refineries to points near conssumer markets. Typically, the type of storaage tank is selected based upon the capacity c and vapor pressure of the product beinng stored. The working pressure requuired depends upon the vapor pressure and the teemperature variations of the liquid surfface.[38]

ϲϵ


Figure 11.10: Oil storage tank

11.1.9 Centrifugal pump: Pump is a device, used to transfer liquid from one place to anoother with required flow rate & Pressure. Pumpp transfers rotational energy i;e mechaanical energy of the machine to the fluid as pottential & kinetic energy. A fluid only flows if there is a pressure difference. The funnction of the pump is to create this presssure difference for transporting of fluid.[19]

Figure 11.11: Centrifugal pump

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Material balance Chapter 12

Material Balance: Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products produced. Balances over individual process units set the process stream flows and compositions. Here the material balance shows that amount of additional water for digestion can be supplied entirely by recycled process water, saving money and resources for the plant. The general conservation equation for any process system can be written as: Material out = Material in + Generation – Consumption- Accumulation

12.1 Material Balance of neem oil plant: Assumption: Seed collected on the harvesting period. Basis: 1000kg/hr of fresh fruit

Total Material Balance: Material out = Material in + Generation – Consumption- Accumulation Since there is no reaction, the generation and consumption terms are zero, no accumulation Input = Output

The process can be divided into 7 units, as follows: 1) Pulping section 2) Evaporation(sun light) section 3) Decorticator section 4) Pulverizer section 5) Agitated Mixing machine section 6) Centrifuge section 7) Distillation section ϳϭ


12.1.1 Balance on pulping machine: ¾ Weight of the flesh from the fresh fruit=5% of fresh fruit ¾ Amount of water for pulping=50% of Kg of fresh fruit

Water (M2) =500kg

Fresh fruit (M1) 1000kg

Pulping machine M4 = seed (95% of M1) +Water (5% of M2) M3 =water (95% of M2) + flesh (5% of M1)

¾ But the amount of water flow rate required for pulping 1000kg/hr fresh fruit will be ; M2=500kg/hr ¾ Water in stream three ; =95% of M2= 475kg/hr of water ¾ Amount of water leaving with seed (stream 4)=5% ofM2 = 25kg/hr of water, Assume that all water contents are removed from the seed by drying using sun light for 24hours. ¾ Weight of the flesh= 5% of wt. fresh fruit=50kg/hr of flesh. ¾ Neem seed with the shell=95% of M1=950kg/hr of Neem seed. 12.1.2 Balance on Evaporation (sun light) section: ¾ Amount of dry seed; M6= 97.5% * 975=950 kg/hr ¾ Amount of water; M5 = 2.5% * 975= 50kg/hr ϳϮ


M4 (seed + water) 975 kg

Evaporator

M6 = Dried seed (97.5% of M4)

M5 =Water (2.5% of M4)

12.1.3 Balance on Decorticator section:

M6 (Neem seed)

Decorticator M8= Neem kernel

950kg

(57.5% of M6) M7=Shell (42.5% of M6) ¾ From laboratory work, wt. Neem kernel= 60-55% of Neem seed, let’s take the average value 57.5% ¾ Wt. of shell; M7=42.5% of Neem seed=403.75 kg/hr of shell have been removed, and can be used as an adsorbent. ¾ Wt. of Neem kernel; M8=57.5% of Neem seed= 546.25kg/hr Neem kernel send to the storage tank.

ϳϯ


12.1.4 Balance on Pulverizer section: ¾ Here by assuming that, there is 1% of Neem kernel loss, Then = 5.4625kg/hr of kernel lost ¾ Then, the amount of raw material left to the extraction vessel with particle size ranges from 0.425-0.75mm will be;M9= 540.79kg/hr

M8 (Neem kernel) 546.25kg

Pulverizer

M9= Crushed kernel (99% of M8)

Loss (1% of M8) 12.1.5 Balance on Agitated Vessel Extraction:

Solvent type (M10) 500kg Crushed kernel (M9) Agitated Vessel

540.79kg

¾ In the laboratory, forM30-40 g of Neem kernel, the amount of solvent required = Kernel + Solvent + oil 11

In the laboratory, for 30-40 g of Neem kernel, the amount of solvent required should be five times.

ϳϰ


¾ Thus, 250ml of solvent was used, therefore, for 540.79kg/hr of Neem kernel 3379.87lt of solvent will be required which is 2213.8kg solvent required. ¾ Therefore M11= wt. of solvent, oil and cake= 2754.6kg/hr 12.1.6 Balance on Centrifuge:

M11 (output from agt. vessel) 2754.6kg Centrifuge

M13= Miscella (88.26% of M11)

M12 =Cake +Solvent (11.14% of M11) ¾ From the experimental work, cake from the centrifuge contains 6.1% solvent. For processing 40gm Neem kernel, there is 2.44gm of the solvent loss. Thus, to process540.78kg Neem kernel there is a loss of 32.447kg of solvent. ¾ Amount of M12 = 11.14% * 2754.6=323.39 ¾ Amount of M13 = 88.26% * 2754.6 = 2431.209 12.1.7 Balance on Distillation Unit: ¾ Oil balance around the column: 0.114*2431.209 = 0.98*B + 0.002* D ¾ Solvent balance: 0.884*2431.209 = 0.01*B + 0.99* D From these two equations the bottom product and the distillate flow rate contains 278.389 Kg/hr and 2168.084Kg/hr, respectively.

ϳϱ

Material balance b Chapter 12

Figgure 12.1: Balance on distillation unit ϳϲ


Table: 12.1 The Summary of Material balance is given below: Equipment

Input type

Flow rate Output ( kg/hr) type

Pulping machine

i) Fresh 1000 seed 500 ii) water Total 1500

Evaporation (sun light)

Seed water

and 975

i)water ii) seed

25 950

975

Decorticator

Seed

950

i)kernel ii)shell

546.25 403.75

950

Pulverizer

Kernel

546.25

i) loss ii) crushed kernel

5.4625 540.79

546.25

Agitated Mixing machine

i) kernel ii)solvent

540.78 2213.8

Oil + cake+ 2754.59 solvent

2754.59

Centrifuge

Oil+cake+ solvent

2754.59

i) miscella ii)cake

2754.59

Distillation

miscella

2431.209

i)oil 263.125 2431.209 ii)solvent 2168.084 Total Output= 11911.629

i) water 525 +flesh 975 = ii) water+ seed

Total Input = 11911.629

ϳϳ

Flow rate Capacity ( kg/hr) ( kg/hr)

323.39

1500

Process economics Chapter 13 Process economics: It is difficult to discuss in detail the economics of implementing a Neem Oil Plant, because of the many factors that affect the costs and the variation in circumstances and costs between different countries. For example the following factors will have an influence on the overall treatment costs:o Energy Prices o Energy Taxes & Renewable Energy Policy o Land Prices o Labour Costs o Construction and material costs Cost evaluation: 13.1 Equipment cost: Using rapid capital cost estimation method.[38], [2] 13.1.1 Cost of pulping machine Machine having capacity 95kg/hr costs =1528dollars Cost relative to capacity is given by using six-tenth rule Cost of equipment A= cost of equipment B (Capacity A/Capacity B)

0.6

, where

Equipments A and B are of the same type. Therefore Cost of pulping machine= 1528(1500/95)0.6 =8000.99dollar. 13.1.2

Cost of Decorticator

Machine with capacity 500kg/hr costs 1667dollar, then using six tenth rule, cost of the same machine with capacity 950kg/hr will be=2450.12dollar 13.1.3

Cost of pulverizing machine

Machine with capacity of 300kg/hr costs 236dollars, using six-tenth rule, the cost of the same type of machine with capacity 546.25kg/hr will be=338.12dollar. ϳϴ

Process economics Chapter 13 Using equation with machine size, from Max S. Peters, Klaus D. Timmerhaus. Ce = C*Sn Where: Ce = purchased equipment cost, S= characteristics size, C= cost constant, n= index for that type of equipment. 13.1.4

Cost of Agitated vessel

Mass flow rate=2754.59kg/hr, density= 1.2gm/ml=1200kg/m3, then volumetric flow rate=2.3m3/hr, the extraction takes place for three hours, then volume of the vessel will be 6.9m3.From Max S. Peters, Klaus D. Timmerhaus, C=31000dollars, n=0.45 Using the above equation, the purchased cost of agitated vessel will be 73938.92857dollar. 13.1.5

Cost of centrifuge

Volume= 6.9m3, let’s take the diameter =1.1m, using the above equation, cost of centrifuge be 23100 dollar. 13.1.6

Cost of distillation unit

Cost of recovery unit at the height of the column 10 m from is 16796.87 dollar. 13.1.7

Costs of storage tanks for the Neem oil

For the oil 250kg/hr, assume the plant operate 8hrs per day, thus,

volume of the

tank required will be 2.207m3,from Max S. Peters, Klaus D. Timmerhaus, C=2400, n=0.6. Using the above equation, cost of the oil storage tank is 3863.71 dollar. 13.1.8

Costs of storage tanks for the seed

For the seed: 950kg/hr*300day*8hrs= 2280000kg/hr, assume the density of the seed be 1200kg/m3, thus the volume of the storage tank 1900m3,from Max S. Peters, Klaus D. Timmerhaus, C=2400, n=0.6, using equation above, the cost of the storage tank for the seed is 222831.145 dollar. ϳϵ

Process economics Chapter 13 13.1.9

Costs of three pumps

Three pumps with flow rate, 2.179ft3/min, 2.182ft3/min, and 0.162ft3/min will be calculated using above equation, results 18532.11, 18552.51 and 3396.54 dollar, respectively. And total Cost =40981.13 dollar.

Table: 13.1 The Summary of costs of the equipments is given below: No

Type of equipment

Required capacity or size

Cost ( Dollar)

1

Pulping machine

1500kg/hr

-

8000.99

2

Decorticator

950kg/hr

-

2450.12

3

Pulverizer

546.25kg/hr

-

338.12

4

Agitated vessel

-

6.9m3

73938.92

5

Centrifuge

-

1.1m (dia.) 2

23100

6

Distillation

-

3.8841m

16796.87

7

Storage tank-1

-

1900m3

222831.145

3

8

Storage tank-2

-

2.207m

3863.71

9

Pumps(3)

Flow rates

-

40981.13

2.179ft3/min, 2.182ft3/min, and 0.162ft3/min

392301.005

Total purchased equipments cost

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Process economics Chapter 13 13.2 Estimation of capital investment cost:[2] 13.2.1 Fixed capital investment (FCI) estimation: 13.2.1.1 Direct Cost: A) Costs of equip. + installation + instrumentation +piping+ electricity+ painting(5060%of FCI) I. Purchased equipment cost (PEC) =392301.005 dollar. II. Installation including painting (30% of PEC) =117690.3015dollar. III. Instrumentation and control (6% of PEC) =235238.0603 dollar IV. Piping (5% of PEC) =19615.05dollar. V. Electricity (40% of PEC) =156920.402 dollar. B. Building, process and auxiliary (10% of PEC) = 39230.1dollar. C. Service facilities (40% of PEC) =156920.402 dollar. D. Land (4% of PEC) = 15692.04 dollar. Total Direct Cost (DC) =A+B+C+D=976686.9583 dollar 13.2.1.2 Indirect cost: A. Eng’g and supervision (20% of DC) = 195337.3917dollar. B. Construction expense and contractor fee (18% of DC) = 175803.6525 dollar. Indirect Cost (IC) = A + B = 371141.0435. Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = DC + IC = 1347828.002dollar. Working Capital investment (WCI) = 15% of TCI…………. (i) And TCI = FCI + WCI ……………………………………….. (ii) From the above two equations and the value of FCI, The TCI= 1585680.002 dollar WCI = 237852.0004 dollar

13.3 Total production cost (TPC) estimation: o Total fresh fruit required: 1000kg/hr = 2,400,000 kg/yr o Price of fruit = .0682 dollar/kg ϴϭ

Process economics Chapter 13 o The total costs of fresh fruit = 163778.0401 dollar/yr Total crushed kernel = 540.78kg/hr * 8 * 300 = 1,297,672 kg/yr From the experimental work, for 0.045kg of crushed kernel, used 0.25lt solvent. Then, for 1,297,672 kg of kernel we will use 7,210,400lt solvent. Assuming that the recovered solvent can be used again at least one more times. Thus, 3,605,200lt solvent will require with make-up of 356,544lt. Therefore, total solvent required 3,961,744lt/yr. and this costs 10757982.53dollar. 13.3.1 Fixed Charges (FC): 1. Depreciation = 10% of equipment cost + 2.5% of building = 40211.643dollar. 2. Local taxes = 2.5% of FCI = 33695.70005 dollar. 3. Insurance = 0.7% of FCI = 9434.796014 dollar. Total Fixed Charge = 83342.13916 dollar. 13.3.2 Production cost (PC) FC = 15% of TPC, so; TPC = 555614.261 dollar. 1. Raw material and inputs = 10921760.57 dollar. 2. Operating labor (15% of TPC) = 83342.13915 dollar. 3. Direct supervisor and clerical labor (20% of operating labor) = 16668.42783 dollar 4. Utilities (15% of TPC) = 83342.13916 dollar 5. Maintenance and repair (6% of FCI) = 80869.68012 dollar 6. Laboratory Charge (15% of operating labor) = 12501.32087 dollar. Total product cost = 11198484.28 dollar. C. Plant overhead cost (POC) (10% of TPC) = 55561.4261 dollar Manufacturing cost = FC + PC + POC = 11337387.84 dollar. General expenses A. Administration cost (4% of TPC) = 22224.57044 dollar B. Distribution and selling cost (11% of TPC) = 61117.56871 dollar. C. Research and development cost (5% of TPC) = 27780.71305 dollar.

ϴϮ

Process economics Chapter 13 Total general expense = 111122.8522 dollar. Total production cost = Manufacturing cost + General expense = 11448510.69 dollar. ¾ Total product cost /kg of Neem oil =11448510.69 dollar/600,000kg = 19.08085 dollar/kg of Neem oil. ¾ Whole selling price of 1lt (0.906kg) Neem oil = 20dollar/L ¾ Total income = 12000000dollar/yr Gross annual earning

= Total income – total production Cost

= (12000000 - 11448510.69) dollar = 551489.31 dollar Income Tax: 20% on gross annual earning = 551489.31ൈ0.2 = 110297.862 dollar Net profit:

Gross income – tax

= (551489.31- 110297.862) dollar = 441191.448 dollar Rate of return on investment =

=

૝૝૚૚ૢ૚Ǥ૝૝ૡ

૚૞ૡ૞૟ૡ૙Ǥ૙૙૛

‫ܜܑ܎ܗܚ۾‬ ‫ܔ܉ܜܗ܂‬۱‫ܔ܉ܜܑܘ܉‬۷‫ܜܖ܍ܕܜܠ܍ܞܖ‬

x 100

= 27% ϴϯ

x 100

Process economics Chapter 13

Payback period=

=

۴۱۷ ‫ܜܑ܎ܗܚܘܜ܍ۼ‬ା۲‫ܖܗܑܜ܉ܑ܋܍ܚܘ܍‬

૚૜૝ૠૡ૛ૡǤ૙૙૛ ૝૝૚૚ૢ૚Ǥ૝૝ૡା૝૙૛૚૚Ǥ૟૝૜

= 2.8 year = around 3 year

Neem oil extraction using n-hexane is profitable as it is clearly observed from the above cost estimation. The rate of return on investment 27% implies the plant returns 27% of its total capital investment in one year. The payback period tells us the plant return its total investment cost in around 3 year and then it will become profitable. The income statement and the other indicators of profitability show that the project is viable. The project can be implemented after detailed feasibility study has been done.

ϴϰ

Quality control and assurance Chapter 14 Quality control and assurance: Quality control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product or service. Essentially, quality control involves the examination of a product, service, or process for certain minimum levels of quality. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the products, services, or processes provided meet specific requirements and are dependable, satisfactory, and fiscally sound. 14.1 Quality control Neem Oil: Once the oil has been extracted, it is usually put into metal drums for storage and shipment. Since small manufacturers use neem oil primarily for soap manufacture, there has been no demand for pure or clean neem oil. Therefore, inexpensive second hand drums are used to store the oil. With used drums, there is the possibility of contaminating the neem oil with dangerous chemicals that could have been previously stored in the drums. Quality control takes place with regard to the following components: aflatoxin (not desired) and azadirachtin content (desired, should be as high as possible). The seeds are checked for contamination with the storage fungus Aspergillus. The absence of aflatoxin in the seeds and in the finished products (neem oil, neem cake and neem powder) is regularly monitored (twice a month). The shelf-life of the products was determined by monthly HPLC azadirachtin A analysis of stored products and seeds. The changes in content of azadirachtin A in neem cake powder, stored at room temperature, during a tenmonth period ranged from 0 to 30% reduction. The analyses showed that azadirachtin A was better conserved when the seeds were stored and then processed as needed.

ϴϱ

Quality control and assurance Chapter 14 14.2 Quality Assurance: It is done to ensure the product quality before supply it to the market. [2] 14.2.1 Determination of viscosity of the oil 45m1 of oil was poured into a test tube and a viscometer was used to measure the viscosity at a temperature of 35oC. 14.2.2 Determination of boiling temperature of the oil 25ml of Neem oil poured in to beaker and a thermometer was inserted and placed on a heating\ mantle, it was observed that the oil in the beaker started circulating leading to boiling of oil and read temperature on thermometer. 14.2.3 Determination of Refractive Index Refractive Index was measured using refractometer]. Few drops of the sample were transferred into the glass slide of the refractometer. Water at 30°C was circulated round the glass slide to keep its temperature uniform. Through the eyepiece of the refractometer, the dark portion viewed was adjusted to be in line with the intersection of the cross. At no parallax error, the pointer on the scale pointed to the refractive index. This was repeated and the mean value noted and recorded as the refractive index. 14.2.4 Determination of pH Value 2g of the sample was poured into a clean dry 25ml beaker and 13ml of hot distilled water was added to the sample in the beaker and stirred slowly. It was then cooled in a cold-water bath to 25°C. The pH electrode was standardized with buffer solution and the electrode immersed into the sample and the pH value was read and recorded. 14.2.5 Sensory quality evaluation of the product: The quality of neem oil can be expresses based on the average molecular weight of triglycerol present in the oil and the amount of free fatty acid present in the oil which is determined through determination of Saponification value, acid value, Iodine value and pH-value. ϴϲ

Quality control and assurance Chapter 14 14.2.5.1 Determination of Saponification Value

Saponification value = 56.1*N*(Vo-V1) / M Where V0 = the volume of the solution used for blank test; V1 = the volume of the solution used for determination S.V; N = Actual normality of the HCl used; M = Mass of the sample. 14.2.5.2 Determination of Acid Value Acid Value= V * C* 56.11 / M

Where V =Volume of potassium hydroxide (ml), C=Concentration of potassium hydroxide, 56.11 =Molecular weight of potassium hydroxide, M= sample weight

14.2.5.3 Determination of Iodine value Iodine Value=12.69 * C * (V1-V2) / M Where: C = Concentration of sodium thiosulphate used; V1 = Volume of sodium thiosulphate used for blank; V2 = Volume of sodium thiosulphate used for determination, M = Mass of the sample.

ϴϳ

Process control system Chapter 15 Process Control System Process control is a statistics and engineering discipline that deals with architectures, mechanisms and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within a desired range. It is the active changing of the process based on the results of process monitoring. Once the process monitoring tools have detected an out-of-control situation, a change in the process parameter is done to bring the process back into control. Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past humans was the main method for controlling system. More recently electricity has been used for control and early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and off without a mechanical switch. It is common to use relays to make simple logical control decisions. The development of low cost computer has brought the most recent revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common choice for manufacturing controls.[19]

15.1 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) A PLC, or Programmable Logic Controller, is a specialized computer intended to control machinery or electro-mechanical equipment. As such, they are built to operate in real-time and survive conditions that would damage a normal computer such as high/low temperatures, dust, impacts, etc. They also tend to have a large number of ports for interacting with analog systems, sensors, switches, motors, and various other systems needed to operate, monitor, and maintain a control system used in industrial automation applications. 15.1.1 Key features of PLC: The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold) and have the facility for extensive ϴϴ

Process control system Chapter 15 input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC. 15.1.2 PLC Advantages and Disadvantages: •

Flexibility: One single Programmable Logic Controller can easily run many machines.

•

Correcting Errors: In old days, with wired relay-type panels, any program alterations required time for rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is extremely short and cost effective. .

•

Low Cost: Prices of Programmable Logic Controllers vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is nothing compared to the prices of the contact and coils and timers that you would pay to match the same things. Add to that the installation cost, the shipping cost and so on.

•

Testing: A Programmable Logic Control program can be tested and evaluated in a lab. The program can be tested, validated and corrected saving very valuable time.

•

Visual observation: When running a PLC program a visual operation can be seen on the screen. Hence troubleshooting a circuit is really quick, easy and simple.

15.1.3 Communication with a PLC: For this particular remote monitoring project, there were only a few commands that were commonly used. The most critical of these commands allows for the ϴϵ

Process control system Chapter 15 remote monitoring sooftware to retrieve the values for a range of memory addresses. The values returned by the PLC can be parsed andd reveal the current s at the customer’s facility. To get g the information status of the control system from this memory range, r the remote monitoring softwaare would send a command packet to reequest this memory range from the PLC C, listen for a valid response, and interpreet/store the returned information as necessary.

Figure: 15.1 Communications with a PLC

ϵϬ

Pollution Chapter 16

Pollution: 16.1 The major sources of pollution are: [40] 16.1.1 Preparation by raw material husking and cleaning, crushing and conditioning: Conditioning means treating the raw material so that it has certain chemical or physical and chemical conditions in order to obtain the highest possible oil yield from the subsequent pressing operation. 16.1.2 Processing of oil-seeds a) Boiling of the fruit or b) Pressing or pressing and/or c) Solvent extraction of oil-seeds. 16.1.3 Post treatment: a) Skimming of the liquid oil phase if boiling is carried out b) Filtration of the pressed fat if pressing is applied c) Separation of the crude oil while at the same time evaporating and recovering the solvent where solvent extraction is carried out. 16.1.4 Conditioning (drying) and reprocessing of residues. 16.1.5 Crude oil improvement by refining a)Degumming b)Neutralisation c)Bleaching d) Deodorisation. 16.1.6 Further processing of the refined crude oil. 16.2 The various sources are described bellows: 16.2.1 Storage There are three methods of storage: ϵϭ


- Bagged under cover - loose in a warehouse - loose in a silo. Dust is produced during the filling operation in the latter two cases, in variable quantities depending on the equipment used. The dust is of organic origin and relatively harmless (direct contact is unpleasant and can cause skin irritation, visual and respiratory difficulties. Thus instead of quantities of dust being released during the cleaning, screening or crushing operations, the dust-laden air is extracted, collected and cleared of solids via a central dust-removal installation, normally cyclones (maximum separation efficiency of 95%) or, better still, via filters (separation efficiency of up to 99%). If mould should be found and if the presence of aflatoxin is suspected, there is no risk of contamination of the soil or groundwater under the stores, as the metabolism of the particular mould fungi limits the presence of aflatoxin to the food product only. Preventive measures (air humidity control and monitoring) and the regular checking and sorting of stocks are essential here. 16.2.2 Solvent extraction: In the fluid extraction process, the oil in the impressed or prepressed products is chemically dissolved with solvents and discharged in the form of Miscella (oilsolvent mixture) the solvent most commonly used is hexane (C6H14) which is to be regarded as both a nerve and an environmental poison. Hexane-contaminated production residues must therefore be treated or disposed of. The following can be contaminated with hexane: the air, extracted product, Miscella (residual oil-solvent mixture) and water. Hexane is a hydrocarbon of the paraffin group. It constitutes a fire hazard and must be regarded as a nerve poison. At high concentrations, hexane is narcotic and states of intoxication may be observed, although these are overcome quickly and without ϵϮ


any consequences for health where oxygen or fresh air is provided. In the case of prolonged exposure, paralysis together with cardiac and respiratory problems arises. Severe poisoning can result in death, in some cases weeks later. Constant exposure causes death by suffocation. Some cases of skin irritations through to necroses (tissue destruction) have been observed as a result of hexane and employees must therefore be given training in the handling of hexane. Surplus quantities, which cannot be released into the environment under the terms of discharge regulations, must be disposed of as special waste. In storage, the general regulations applicable to the handling of chemical products should be observed. Hexane can be stored in drums under stands fitted with extractor systems and collector sumps. Another solvent which is sometimes used is benzol, but it is not recommended in view of its high level of toxicity and other problems. 16.3 Major Pollution: 16.3.1 Air pollution by hexane: i)

It is formed due to leaks in the plant and the conveying pipes.

Hazards: Air-hexane mixture is explosive once the explosion threshold of 1 to 7% is reached. Remedy: The concentration is measured with probes at suitable points (conductivity meters) and an alarm triggered if the threshold is exceeded. Particular care must be exercised when entering tanks and in all cases fumes must first be removed. ii)

Also formed during the extraction process in the extractor and during the subsequent steam treatment of the extracted product in the toaster.

The waste air can be treated by absorption plants, in which the air is fed through a mineral oil bath and the hexane transfers from the air into the mineral oil. The hexane pollution in the waste air released into the atmosphere should not exceed 150 mg hexane per m3 air at a mass flow of 3 kg/h. The explosion safety threshold is 42 g/m3 air.[40] ϵϯ


16.3.2 Water pollution: If hexane-contaminated wastewater is to be disposed of, 50 parts per million (ppm) hexane, for a total wastewater quantity of 3 - 5 m3/t feedstock’s, should not be exceeded. Hexane-water mixtures are separated by the density difference and the (theoretical) insolubility of the two media in each other, in order to condition (produce) disposable wastewater. They are separated by the drawing off of the two fractions in a settling tank at 400C. Water, as the heavier fraction, is drawn off at the bottom, while the lighter hexane, which floats, is pumped off from the top. Cooling to 400C is essential so that the separation operation is carried out well below the boiling point of hexane (680C). The residual hexane content in the water is reduced by evaporation in a boiler (900C, to stay below the boiling point of water).[40] 16.4 Remedy of pollution: ¾ In principle water should not be discharged; if it cannot be recycled in the circuit, it should only be discharged if the temperature of the water into which it is released does not rise by more than 300C. ¾ The pH of the wastewater and liquid waste should be kept constant between 6.0 and 9.0 ¾ The BOD value of the wastewater should be less than 100 mg/l, ¾ The COD value of the wastewater should be less than 1000 mg/l, ¾ The dissolved solid content of the water should be less than 500 mg/l, ¾ Additional preservation and storage facilities and areas should be kept available in case of accidents resulting in leaks of solvents and acids. ¾ Equipment should also be kept to hand to deal with any such accident situations.

ϵϰ

Safety aspects Chapter 17 Safety aspects Proper safety and health maintenance in material recovery facilities can save money, time and lives. The significance of Safety & Health in chemical industries has been a vital issue in achieving productivity and an edge in the competitive world. 17.1. Facts of safety and health in this Industry: i)

Waste Materials

ii)

Hazards of Pressure Vessels

iii)

Chemical Reactions

iv)

Hazardous of Unit Operations

v)

Flammable Gases, Vapors And Dust Hazards

vi)

Health Hazards

vii)

Hazards due to corrosion

viii) Entry in To Confined Spaces ix)

Working with Pipelines

x)

Plant Alteration and modification

xi)

Sampling and Gauging

xii)

Hazards due to Instrument Failures

xiii) Explosion xiv) Disease 17.2 Total Safety and health management at this biogas industry: The following are the parameters which were decided after a meticulous study in view of Safety and Health. 1. Site 2. Construction Design 3. Protection Zones 4. Process &Safety 5. Set up of fire & safety section ϵϱ

Safety aspects Chapter 17 6. Information on preliminary hazard analysis 7. Safety relevant components 8. Special Design criteria 9. Instrument controls and alarms 10.Major Hazardous installations 11. Information on the Hazardous assessment 12.Safety systems 13.Maintenance & Inspection Schedules 14.Implementation safety procedures. Employees training: 1. About home safety 2. About road safety 3. About working on machines and guarding 4. About working with dangerous chemicals 5. About working on heights 6. About electrical safety 7. About use of LPG 8. About static electricity 9. About Fire 10.About Noise pollution 11.About Air / Dust pollution 12.About eye and head safety 13.About toxic substances

ϵϲ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Neem oil as a pesticide for Bangladesh Bangladesh is agricultural based country. The total demand food in Bangladesh is increasing day by day. To meet this demand we have to large amount food in this small area of land. For this reason he farmers of Bangladesh tend to use large amount pesticide. This cause a negative effect on our environment. So it is now intense needed that, we have to implement a new type pesticide for our agriculture to save our environment from pollution. Bangladesh is a country with a population of about 150 million; population density being the highest in the world. Agriculture still remains the mainstay in national economy despite rapid industrialization. It plays a significant role in the overall economic development of Bangladesh in terms of contribution to GDP (22%), employment (63%), export (15%), food security and poverty reduction. Over the past 50 years, per capita arable land dropped from 0.14 ha to 0.06 ha. Growing enough food for such a large and growing population with shrinking land is a daunting task. The country has only 8.20 million hectares of agricultural land.[23] 18.1 Some basic information of Bangladesh relating agriculture: • Land Area:

147,570 sq km

• Forest area:

19,710 sq km (8%)

• River area:

8,236 sq km

• Population:

145.9 millions

• Total cultivable land:

8.29 m ha

• Cropping intensity:

179 %

• Single cropped area:

2.87 m ha (35.8%)

• Double cropped area:

4.13 m ha (51.45%)

• Triple cropped area:

1.02 m ha (12.75%) ϵϳ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Rice is the main crop that covers nearly 75% of cropped area contributing over 95% of total food grain production. It provides about 65 percent of direct human calorie intake. It is considered as the center of food security and socio-political stability

18.2 Opportunities of enhancing agricultural Production: 9 Yield gap reduction 9 Productivity by using modern varieties (HYV & hybrid) 9 Efficient use of fertilizer and water 9 Crop diversification/improved cropping pattern 9 Adoption of Integrated Crop and Resources Management (ICRM) 9 Quality seed production 9 Insect pest management 9 Farm mechanization 9 Supply chain development of high value crops 9 Conservation and culture of local improved fish and livestock species Major challenges in agriculture are to overcome the stress like pest and diseases or climatic hazards like submergence, salinity, drought, heat, cold, soil toxicity etc. and produce more rice with less land, less water, fewer chemicals and less labor in the context of global climate change.

18.3 Amount of pesticide consumption in Bangladesh: The agricultural sector in Bangladesh faces many challenges in the coming years. Owing to its rapid population growth and food security needs, land scarcity and agricultural intensification are quickly becoming issues of pressing importance.

ϵϴ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Combined with the severe agro-climatic conditions (for example, annual flooding), agricultural production will have further difficulty in meeting future demands.[43] As a direct consequence of these difficult conditions, agriculture has been highly

Pesticide consumption (MT)

susceptible to crop pest attacks and diseases.

ϭϴϬϬϬ ϭϲϬϬϬ ϭϰϬϬϬ ϭϮϬϬϬ ϭϬϬϬϬ ϴϬϬϬ ϲϬϬϬ ϰϬϬϬ ϮϬϬϬ Ϭ ϭϵϵϮ

ϭϵϵϯ

ϭϵϵϰ

ϭϵϵϱ

ϭϵϵϲ

ϭϵϵϳ

ϭϵϵϴ

ϭϵϵϵ

ϮϬϬϬ

ϮϬϬϭ

zĞĂƌ Conservative estimates of annual crop losses are in the range of 10-15%without any direct intervention. In their defense, farmers have begun to use more toxic chemicals for pest control that have reputations of speed and effectiveness. The Government of Bangladesh also promotes the use of pesticides to expand its agricultural frontiers and increase output per acre of land. As a result, pesticide use in general is increasing. According to statistics from the Government of Bangladesh, consumption of pesticides increased from 7,350 metric tons in 1992 to 16,200 metric tons in 2001, more than doubling in the past decade.

ϵϵ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 In 2000; in 2005-06, it increased to nearly 20,000 tons and in 2008 it rose up to 48,690 tons. The insecticides, being the dominant item, account for 76 percent of the pesticides, and per hectare use of pesticides increase around 98.8 percent and its annual import cost stands nearly at 171.43 million U.S. dollar. [41] 18.4 Major pesticides used in Bangladesh: In particular, carbamates, organophosphates and organochlorines have been widely used in Bangladesh. We see a noticeable pattern for Rajshahi and Rangpurasc consistent top priority districts with respect to all three chemical classes, Dhaka and Comilla for organochlorines, Kustia and Jessore for carbamates and Kishoreganj for organophosphates.[42] Table 18.1: The various types of pesticides and their amount (MT) used are given below:[42] Insecticides

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Carbamates Insecticides

210

250

270

290

300

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 28

35

15

1

-

Organophosphates

855

810

950

980

1020

Pyrethroids

13

14

15

5

15

Other Insecticides

18

45

50

50

30

Total Insecticides

1124

1154

1300

1326

1365

Herbicides

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Bipiridils

-

12

20

20

19

Phenoxy Hormone

6

32

30

30

28

Other Herbicides

27

22

13

13

15

Total Herbicides

33

66

63

63

62

Products

ϭϬϬ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Fungicides

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Benzimidazoles

1

7

5

5

7

Diazines, Morpholines

1

5

4

4

2

Dithiocarbamates

120

132

155

170

320

Other Fungicides

6

6

5

5

23

Inorganic

200

320

375

410

350

Triazoles, Diazoles

1

5

6

4

6

475

550

598

708

Fungicide &Bacterial & 329 Seed Treatment

Rodenticides

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Anticoagulants

1

2

2

1

2

Other Rodenticides

-

5

4

5

4

Total Rodenticides

1

7

6

6

6

18.5 Negative effects: Perhaps of even greater concern than the absolute quantity of pesticides is the trend in the composition of pesticides currently in use in Bangladesh. Insecticides and fungicides account for 97% of pesticide use and have registered a steady increase over the years. An FAO analysis of active ingredients has revealed high shares of carbamates and organophosphates in insecticides and dithiocarbamates and inorganic in fungicides. Epidemiological studies have found carbamates and organophosphates to be carcinogenic (producing cancer), mutagenic (causing genetic damage), teratogenic (damaging to the fetus) or allergenic (Zahm, Ward and Blair, 1997).[43]

ϭϬϭ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Several studies of farmers have h shown that inadequate product labbeling and farmers’ lack of information have led to widespread overuse or missuse of dangerous pesticides. A substantial boody of anecdotal evidence also sugggests that pesticide poisonings and ecological daamage have become commonplace in Bangladesh. B .

Figurre: 18.1 Regions attacked by POP`s in BD

ϭϬϮ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 POP (Persistent Organic Pollutants=Aldrin, DDT, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs) accumulations have become extremely hazardous in some species of mammals, birds and fish. Epidemiological studies have been conducted associating human exposure to specific POPs or classes of POPs with cancers and tumors at multiple sites; neurobehavioral impairment including learning disorders, reduced performance on standardized tests and changes in temperament; immune system changes; reproductive deficits and sex-linked disorders; a shortened period of lactation in nursing mothers; and diseases such as endometriosis, increased incidence of diabetes, and others. [42] 18.6 Neem oil as an alternative pesticide:

18.6.1 How to Use Nature Neem Oil as Bio Pesticide: Nature Neem oïl is used in the préparation of bio pesticides and insecticide and effective against a number of insecticide-resistant pest and doesn’t harm the beneficial insects. Being biodegradable, there is no residue on the final produce. Like most of the vegetable oils Nature Neem oil is also non—soluble in water and has to be made soluble in water with suitable emulsifiers before spraying. Some commonly available emulsifiers that can b eused are hand washing and dishwashing liquid soaps, soap oil, eco-friendly detergents, soap nut powder or any other organic emulsifier can be recommended. 18.6.2 How to prepare a bio pesticide or organic pesticide using Nature Neem oil : ¾ Take One Lt of Water in a container. ¾ Add 10-15 ml of liquid soap or suitable emulsifier to this one Lt of water and agitate well until the soap /emulsifier gets completely dissolved in water. ϭϬϯ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 ¾ To this solution add 50 ml of Nature Neem oil and agitate well until a pale yellowish white emulsion is formed. ¾ Add this prepared emulsion to 9 Lt of water in a bucket and stirthoroughly. ¾ Now Eco—friendly Powerful 10 Lt Nature Neem oil Bio Pesticide is ready for Spray.

18.7 Neem Oil Spray: It should be used immediately. Otherwise oil droplets start floating. A knapsack sprayer is better for neem oil spraying in preference to a hand sprayer. Spraying: ¾ Spraying should be undertaken in the morning or late in the evening. ¾ During hot conditions the frequency of spraying should be more. In winter spraying once in 10 days and in rainy season everyday spraying is recommended. ¾ Insects lay eggs on the underside of the leaves. Hence it is important to spray under the leaf also. ¾ While using a power sprayer reduce the quantity of water used to half. ¾ It is better to use low concentration of extracts frequently. ¾ As a general guideline it can be said that each acre of land to be protected can be sprayed with 60 liters of ready to use solution (not the concentrate). Of course the volume may have to be varied depending on the exact condition such as the intensity of the pest attack.

18.8 Action of Neem on insects/pest: Certain hormones are necessary for growth and development of insects. These hormones control the process of metamorphosis as the insects pass from larva to pupa to adult. Azadirachtin blocks those parts of the insect’s brain that produce these vital hormones. As a result, insects are unable to molt. It is through these subtle ϭϬϰ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 hormonal effects that this important compound of neem breaks the life cycle of insects. The insect populations decline drastically as they become unable to reproduce.

Meliantriol and salannin act as powerful antifeedants. Nimbin as well as nimbidin (another neem component) have antiviral property. The neem products especially azadirachtin enter into the body of larvae the activity of ecdysone enzyme is suppressed and the larva fails to molt, remains in larval stage and ultimately dies. If larva manages to enter the pupal stage due to low aza concentration it dies and still at low concentration of aza the adult emerging from the pupa is 100 % malformed, absolutely sterile without any capacity for reproduction.[45] [47]

But, for all the uncertainty over details, various neem extracts are known to act on various insects by: •

Disrupting or inhibiting the development of eggs, larvae or pupae.

•

Blocking the molting of larvae or nymphs

•

Disrupting mating and sexual communication

•

Repelling larvae and adults

•

Deterring females from laying eggs

•

Sterilizing adults

•

Poisoning larvae and adults

•

Deterring feeding

•

Blocking the ability to “swallow” (that is, reducing the motility of the gut)

•

Sending metamorphosis awry at various stages

•

Inhibiting the formation of chitin.

ϭϬϱ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 Table: 18.2 Action of Neem on the major pests:[45] Pest

Mode of Action Neem oil causes solitarization of gregarious nymphs at

Desert Locust

2.5 l/ha. They became solitary, lethargic, almost motionless and highly susceptible to predators like birds Green Leaf Hoppers

Inhibits feeding

Plant Reduction in survival, affect the development of nymphs

Brown

to adults stage, oviposition deterrent, sterility, repellent,

Hoppers

mating failure Mexican Bean Beetle Retard growth, inhibit feeding, disrupt molting Khapra Beetle

Inhibits feeding, disrupt molting, toxic to larvae

Bean Aphid

Reduces fecundity, disrupt molting

Pink Boll Worm

Retard growth, Inhibit feeding

Mealy Bugs

Repelles, Inhibit feeding

Rice, Cowpea and Inhibit feeding, Disrupt growth, toxic Boll Weevils Cabbage loopers

Inhibit feeding

Rice gall midge

Toxic

Leaf Minor

Larvae unable to molt, Retard Growth,Inhibit Feeding, Toxic

Fire ant

Inhibit feeding, Disrupt growth

Fruit flies

Repellent, (100 % control by neem spay under tree)

Nematode

Inhibit hatching, prevent second stage juvenile(neem cake)

Spotted

cucumber Growth retardent, feeding inhibitor

beetle

ϭϬϲ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 18.9 Neem for soil fertility fertilizer management: Neem leaves have also been used to enrich the soil. Together, they are widely used in India to fertilize cash crops. When Neem cake is ploughed into the soil it also protects plant roots from nematodes and white ants. Farmers in southern parts of India puddle neem leaves into flooded rice fields before the rice seedlings are transplanted. Table: 18.3 Nutrient contents of Neem Seed Cake:

CONTENTS

PER CENT

Nitrogen

3.56

Phosphorous

0.83

Potassium

1.67

Calcium

0.77

Magnesium

0.75

Application to the Neem seed cake to crops provides them with various nutrients. Besides the Neem seed cake also reduces the number of soil insect pests, fungi, bacteria and nematodes and protects the crop from damage caused by these organisms. Neem seed cake can also reduce alkalinity in the soil by producing organic acids when mixed with the soil. For cash crops such as turmeric, sugarcane, banana and cardamom, 200 kg per hectare of Neem cake is applied. For black pepper and betel vine 250 g per plant is applied. Neem cake is also extensively used for citrus trees, jasmine, roses and vegetable crops as organic manure. Nitrogen leaching not only depletes precious nitrate but also takes away clay, soil, and organic matter, leading to low chemical soil fertility and low plant-available ϭϬϳ

Neem oil as a pesticide for BD Chapter 18 water reserves. Ammonia volatilization also can contribute to a nearly 60% nitrate loss. Loss through volatilization occurs when the denitrifying bacteria reduce the nitrate to elemental nitrogen and nitrous oxide which escape to the stratosphere and cause ozone depletion and also contribute to greenhouse warming. On the other hand, nitrate build-up in drinking water can reduce the blood's ability to transport oxygen, especially if the nitrates are converted into nitrites (blue-baby syndrome). Even ruminants are vulnerable to nitrate or nitrite poisoning, leading to poor growth rates, reduced milk production, and increased susceptibility to infections, and even abortions. Ammonia volatilization, urea hydrolysis, and leaching, were all reduced when urea was blended or coated with neem cake.[45]

ϭϬϴ

Present condition of BD in neem development Chapter 19

Present condition of Bangladesh in neem development: Two institutes those are involved for the development of neem technology in our country are: 19.1 Bangladesh Neem Foundation” (BNF): In February 1998, a few eminent scientists, conservationists, environmentalists and philanthropists – all ardent believers in NEEM – got together to form “Bangladesh Neem Foundation” (BNF). Objective was to chalk out a master plan for better understanding and effective utilization of the Neem Tree for global good. As the apex body for all Neem movements nation-wide, it is the forefront of all Neemrelated activities nationally. The Foundation believes that the Neem tree provides an excellent example of traditional knowledge leading to scientific utilization for global good. By concurrently responding to the interest of farming, forestry and industry, the Neem tree offers a tremendous untapped business potential in times to come. Bangladesh Neem Foundation is primarily a forum for unifying national efforts to promote the Neem tree. [48] 19.1.1 Objectives: -To provide national as well as global awareness about Neem and other botanical alternatives. -To promote practices for total sustainable human development. -To bridge the gap between research and industry. -To establish a premier research Center for Neem. -To work jointly and collectively with likeminded organizations to facilitate linkage development. -Setting up of a National Advisory Board consisting of eminent experts and environmentalists, to provide a proper direction to the foundation’s objectives. [48]

ϭϬϵ


19.1.2 Partnership With: 1) Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), 2) Department of Forest, 3) Bangladesh Agricultural University 4) Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) 5) International Neem Network(INN)

19.2 International Neem Network (INN): The International Neem Network was established in 1994. National institutions of 23 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe have taken part in the Network's activities, under the overall coordination of FAO's Forestry Department, and with the technical support of the Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC), now part of Forest and Landscape Denmark.[49] 19.2.1Objectives and activities: The long term objectives of the Network are to: •

improve the genetic quality and adaptability of neem to prevailing conditions;

•

Improve its utilization, throughout the world, as a contribution to development in the countries concerned, in particular in meeting the needs of rural people.

In the initial stage, the main activities of the Network are focused on exploration, collection and exchange of neem germplasm for establishment of international provenance trials. In addition, the Network has set up research components dealing with seed physiology and technology, genetic diversity and reproductive biology, and genetic variation in chemical compounds. During 1993-94, seed sources were surveyed and documented throughout the natural range of the species and in areas of introduction. Pilot seed collection and exchange

ϭϭϬ


were undertaken to improve the procedures of handling and storage of neem seed which has recalcitrant or intermediate storage behavior. [50]

Table: 19.1 Seed sources exchanged in the framework of the International Neem Network from Bangladesh are:[51]

Provenance Name Alt. (m)

Annual

and Country

rainfall (mm)

Nazir

Hat, 15-25

Dry season

Collection period

2800

Sept-April

May - June

1540

Oct-March

Mid-June

Chittagong, Bangladesh ChapaiNawabganj 17 , Bangladesh

Mid-July

19.3 Research Work: Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) have recently completed a research on extraction of neem oil from its seed/leaf/barks. The aim of the research is: 1) Develop an efficient method for extracting fixed and essential oils from neem seed so that maximum amount of component fatty acids including essential fatty acid can be isolated. 2) To determines whether the fixed oil can be used as edible oil by eliminating bitter-tasting component and other active ingredients. 3) Develop medicines and hair or body oils by incorporating neem components into a benign base such as linseed oil or mustered oil. [52]

ϭϭϭ


19.4 Drawbacks in Bangladesh: The most important reasons for why the farmers of Bangladesh do not apply neem oil as a pesticide is: ¾ Applying neem products requires great quantities of raw material and more time. ¾ Extraction of neem is relatively complex. ¾ Lack of labor and frequent spraying of neem products. ¾ Lack of experience in the proper application of neem products. ¾ Low efficacy when using neem products if compared with synthetic pesticides.

19.5 Future prospects: It seems likely that the market for neem derived products is going to continue to expand both locally and globally. It also seems that there is great potential for increased sustainable use of home-made neem insecticides. (Hellpap and Leupolz (1999) ¾ Availability and cost of raw material. ¾ Quality and effectiveness of the preparation. ¾ Labor requirements. ¾ Access to and attitude towards synthetic pesticides. ¾ The ability and willingness of farmers to spend more energy on pest control. ¾ The image of neem in the community. ¾ The plant protection knowledge of the farmer. ¾ Awareness of the harmful effects of synthetic pesticides on health and the environment.[53]

ϭϭϮ

Conclusion Chapter 20

Conclusion Neem is a very versatile tree, which is said to possess magical healing, medicinal as well as pesticide properties. Neem has well emerged as a perfect solution to some of the major problems like locust attack, diabetes, population growth, etc. Today, we will find neem being used in almost every household, industry or institution in some form or another. The relationship with this useful tree is age old. The tree is known for its effective as well as versatile applications.

This project will contribute to a significant improvement from traditional methods to technological manufacturing of the oil for the use of Neem extracts. This project will also show the possibility of getting the oil and this can be used us an additive in soap and cosmetic industries to improve the performance quality of the product.

The outlines of the summary are given bellows:

1) Based on the rough economic analysis of solvent extraction method, the project is profitable since the rate of return on investment was 27%, this show us the project returns its 27% of the initial investment in one year and the payback period is around three year.

2) Bangladesh is an over populated agriculture based developing country, where shortage of fuel and organic fertilizer is a common problem. So, at this moment production of pesticide at a wide level is very essential as an alternative source of fertilizer for the improvement of agriculture as well as national wealth and economy.

ϭϭϯ

Reference

References: 1. file:///F:/PROJECT/neem/Azadirachta_indica.htm 2. Extraction and characterization of essential oil from neem seed; byWondesenWorkneh. 3. Neem: A Tree for Solving Global Problems. (1992), Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development National Research Council, Washington, D.C. 74 4. Peter Förster, Gerald Moser, (2000). Status report on global Neem usage. Germany. 5. file:///F:/PROJECT/neem/Neem_oil.htm 6. Jamai-Osmania (PO), Chemical and Nutritional Evaluation of Neem Oil, AP, India. 7. file:///F:/PROJECT/neem/Neem_history_Neem_and_India.htm 8. ZillurRahman and M. ShamimJairajpuri. Neem in Unani Medicine. 9. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:NnuQWgTuh40J:prr.hec.gov.p k/Chapters/135S2.pdf+literature+review+of+sweet+flag+oil&hl=en&gl=us&p id=bl&srcid=ADGEESgnxpzeg591oqnb1qpCiw0UfPzG5LShZMoEFnIw0lV1 vfrhyqDe1XVV6Yt3zlKdGBvSuxBIALMl6og7_idx4Br0EYEWl5dhS_sUglW dukB4d5AkxMuu_CauvKgpQ3GD_7aJU2n&sig=AHIEtbSXjtSJdncu4yWUw vwchOLVq2cQ 10.https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:OrrvmCdVQcYJ:prr.hec.gov.p k/Chapters/309S2.pdf+literature+review+of+neem&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&sr cid=ADGEEShOA9nNuPe8j7qcX5KloMhr32mzVEukeDoMtmKOOPBG8Th V1SxioLIpsxuttHBXKe2dsaGqw2ZcFSFfl_iiSHLZzwgPyqhHsdZvph0F0BsE py0hmFlJVEIrnYTA6c53TU8b&sig=AHIEtbTJ_uhduynzdfSyQP1Jd9lgKau7 pg. 11.Schmutterer, H. 1998. Origin, geographical distribution and use of neem tree Azadirachta indica – a worldwide overview. In: The Potentials of the Neem ϭϭϰ

Reference

Tree in Ghana. Proceedings of a seminar held in Dodowa, October 1998, GTZ, Eschborn, Germany. pp 27-33. 12.Matthias Ginger, (2001). The Neem Tree, The Neem Foundation: URL http://www.neemfoundation.org 13.Siddiqui, S., Waheed, T.N., Fuchs, S., Lucke and Voelter, (1975). The structure of anew compound isolated from the fruit pulp of Meliaazadiracchta Linn. Z. Naturforsch. 30.961-964. 14.http://www.rd.ap.gov.in/Marketing/MKT_Doc_Neem.pdf 15.Bahuguna., V.K. 1997. Silviculture and management practices for cultivation of Azadirachta indica(neem). Indian Forester 123: 379-386. 16.http://researchintouse.com/nrk/RIUinfo/outputs/R7348_report.pdf 17.Gupta, V.K., Solanki, K.R., Gupta, R., Kumar, R.V. and Datta, A. 1996. Reproductive

biology

of

neem

(AzadirachtaindicaA.

Juss).

Range

Management and Agroforestry 17 (2): 187-192. 18.http://www.shakundistribution.com/product.php?id=30 19.www.wikipedia.com 20.Veitch GE, Beckmann E, Burke BJ, Boyer A, Maslen SL, Ley SV (2007). "Synthesis of azadirachtin: a long but successful journey". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl.46 (40): 7629–32 21.Adam, R. P. (2001). Identification of essential oils components by gas chromatography/ quadrupole mass spectroscopy. Allured Publishing Corp, Carol Stream, IL. 22.Ahmed, S. and Grainge, M. 1985. Use of indigenous plant resources in rural development: potential of the neem tree.International Journal of Development Technology 3: 123-130. 23.www.Banglapedia.com 24.BAIF (1999). Improvement of neem (Azadirachta indica) and its potential benefits to poor farmers in developing countries.Country Report for India. BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune, India. 25 pp. ϭϭϱ

Reference

25.Childs, F.J., Chamberlain, J.R., Daniel, J. 2000. Improvement of neem and its potential benefits to poor farmers in developing countries. Proceedings of Pune workshop 2 – 5 April, 2000. HDRA, Coventry, UK. 26.Gruber, L. and Karganila G.S. 1992. Neem production and use. Bureau of Plant Industry, Manila, Philippines. 27.Case Studies of Neem Processing Projects Assisted by GTZ in Kenya, Dominican Republic, Thailand and Nicaragua (GTZ, 2000, 152 p.) 28.Maria YulianaLiauw, F. A. Natan, P. Widiyanti, D. Ikasari, N. Indraswati and F. E. Soetaredjo,(2008). Extraction of neem oil (azadirachtaindica a. juss) using n-hexane and ethanol: ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Science. 3, 2-4. 29.Shaun Johnson and E. David Morganw,(1997). Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Oil and Triterpenoids from Neem Seeds, Phytochemical Analysis, vol. 8,228-232. 30.H.J.Lang, chemical engineering, 54(10);117 (1947) 31.file:///E:/neem/simple%20methad_extract-neem-oil.html 32.Case Studies of Neem Processing Projects Assisted by GTZ in Kenya, Dominican Republic, Thailand and Nicaragua (GTZ, 2000, 152 p.) 33.Practical Action, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire,CV23 9QZ, UK 34.file:///E:/decorticator.html 35.www.Herbold.com 36.file:///E:/vert-basket-auto-discharge-centrifuges.php.htm 37.file:///E:/neem/Tube-Condenser.html 38.Max S. Peters Klaus D. Timmerhaus, (1991), Plant design and economics for chemical engineers:p.250-300. 39.file:///E:/neem/quality%20control.htm 40.file:///E:/neem/poluusion.htm ϭϭϲ

Reference

41.NOVIB (1993) Pesticides Misuse in Bangladesh. The Pesticides News, No. 22, Dec.1993. The Pesticides Trust. London, U.K. 42.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAER/Resources/59916061251483570919/Report_of_Pesticide_Hotspots_in_Bangladesh.pdf 43.Zahm, S. H., M. H. Ward and A. Blair (1997) Pesticides and Cancer. In: Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews. Vol. 12: Pesticides (Keifer, M., ed). Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus, Inc., 269-289. 44.file:///E:/neem/Neem_oil_cold_pressed.htm 45.file:///E:/neem/agricultural-usepotential.htm 46.Sridharan, S., Venugopal, M.S., Dhaliwal, G.S., Arora, R., Randhawa, N.S. and Dhawan, A.K. 1998. Effect of environmental conditions on the yield of azadirachtin and oil in neem. In: Ecological agriculture and sustainable development: Volume 1.Indian Ecological Society and the Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial Development, Chandigarh, India. pp. 510-518. 47.Raguraman, S. and Jayaraj, S. 1994. Photostability of neem seed kernel water extract and its effect on mortality of rice brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) nymphs. Indian Journal of Entomology 56: 443-446. 48.file:///E:/neem/BANGLADESH%20NEEM%20FOUNDATION%20%28%20 BNF%20%29%20_%20Database%20of%20Environmental%20Education%20 Related%20Organizations%20Among%20Asian%20Countries.htm 49.file:///E:/neem/International%20Neem%20Network.htm 50.file:///E:/neem/International%20Neem%20Network%203.htm 51.file:///E:/neem/bang%202.htm 52.file:///E:/neem/bangladesh.htm 53.Improvement of neem (Azadirachta indica) and its potential benefits to poor farmers in developing countries. R7348.01.04.99 - 31.12.99.v

ϭϭϳ

Appendix

Appendix A: Chemical compounds found in neem oil.

Nimbin

Nimbolin A

Nimbolin B

when, R=H; nimbanidol

When, R=Ac; Gedunin

Nimoliconic acid

ϭϭϴ

Appendix

Azadirachtol

Nimolinone

Nimolicinol

Nimbolide

When, X= H, R=OAc; Azadirone

When, R=Ac; epoxyazadiradione

X=O, R= Ac; Azadiradione

ϭϭϵ

Appendix

Meldenin

Vepinin

When, R=R`=H; Vilasinin

ϭϮϬ

A Appendix

Appendix B: Some images of various insects killed by neem oil made pesticide.

m Triboilum castaneum

Cryptolestes ferruggineus

Sitophilus orizae

Sitotroga cereaalella

minica Rhyzoprtha dom

khapra beetle

Fire ant

Green leaf hop pper ϭϮϭ

A Appendix

Bean aphid

Cabbage loopeer

Desert locust

Meally bugs

Soya bean leaf miner

ϭϮϮ

Index

Index $ Acid value, 87

- Natural Habitat, 17

Air pollution, 93

- Neem Composition, 16

Azadirone, 30

- Reproductive Biology, 19

%

Distillation, 49 Diterpenoids, 28

Balance summary, 77

Drawbacks in Bangladesh, 112

Bangladesh neem foundation, 109 -objectives, 109

(

Bleaching, 54

Extraction, 45

&

- Extraction with alcohol, 45

Clarification, 52

-Azadirachtin-enriched, 47

Conclusion, 113

-Extraction using centrifuges, 48

Cost evaluation, 78

-Extraction with Supercritical CO2, 49

Country background, 36, 97

Extraction with alcohol, 56

'

-advantage, 56

Description of Neem Tree, 13

-disadvantage, 56

- Botanical Description, 14 Azadirachtin-enriched, 57 -advantage, 57 ϭϮϯ

Index

-disadvantage, 57

+

Extraction using centrifuges, 58

Heating, 51

-advantage, 58

Hill soils, 39

-disadvantage, 58

,

Extraction equipment, 65

Importance of Neem Tree, 20 Introduction, 1

- Bottom Discharge Vertical Basket Centrifuge, 65

International neem network, 110

- Horizontal Basket Filtration

-objectives and activities, 110

Centrifuge, 66

Iodine value, 87

-Distillator, 67

Isoprenoids, 28

-condenser, 68

/

)

Limonoids, 29

Fertilizer source and management, 107

Literature review, 8

Future prospects, 112

0

*

Major equipment, 62

Geographical distribution, 11

-decorticator, 62

- Overview of neem in the world, 11

-grinding mill, 63

- Overview of neem in Ethiopia, 11

-pulverizer, 64

- Neem in other countries

-mixer, 64 --centrifugal pump, 70 ϭϮϰ

Index

Major pesticides, 100

-pesticides, 103

-negative effects, 101

-spray, 104 -action on pest, 104

Material balance, 71

3

Method of extraction, 59.45

Payback period, 84

1

PLC, 88

Neem

-advantage/disadvantage, 89

-Common name, 3

Pollution, 91

-History of Neem, 4

-storage, 91

- Kernel, 20

-solvent extraction, 92

- Seed Cake, 20

Pesticide consumption in BD, 98

- Powder, 21

pH value, 86

- Flower, 22

Potential of neem plant, 37

- Leaf Extract, 22

- Temperature condition, 37

- Seed Extract, 23

ͲSoil Condition, 38

- Bark Extract, 24

-Rainfall condition, 41

Neem oil, 27

- Altitude condition, 41

-Properties, 28

Process economics, 78

-Chemical composition, 28

Production process, 42

-Importance, 34

-raw materials, 42

-Quality control, 85 ϭϮϱ

Index

-large scale production, 43

7

-medium scale production, 50

Technology selection, 56

-small scale production, 54

-large scale industry, 56

4

-medium scale industry,58

Quality assurance, 86

:

Quality control, 85

Water pollution, 94

5 Remedy of pollution, 94 Research in Bangladesh, 111 Risks, 60 6 Safety aspects, 95 Soil types, 38 Saponification value, 87 Species of Neem, 12 - Azadirachta Siamensis, 12 - Azadirachta excelsa, 12 Sulphurous Compounds, 33

ϭϮϲ

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