Page 1 The European Union - Japan Trade Cooperation: Towards a ...

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TheEur opeanUni onJ apanTr adeCooper at i on: ・ Towar dsaFr eeTr adeAgr eement

Gr z egor zMaz urandMas aakiTakemur a

I nt r oduct i on Thepur pos eoft hepaperi st odevel opananal yt i calf r amewor kofEUJ apanFr ee Tr adeAgr eement （FTA）.I ngener al ,cons ume r sgai ns ur pl usf r om i nt er nat i onalt r ade （Car baugh,2013,pp. 123124）.I mpr ovi ngt her el at i vepr i ce （r at i oofi mpor t /expor t ）,r eal sget t i ngi ncr eas ed.Fori ns t ance, whenj eanscanbepr oducedatJ PY700i nChi na, i ncomei oducer s i ti seconomi cal l yi r r at i onalt opr oducet hem atJ PY7000i nJ apan.Revenueofpr ,cons umers ur pl uswi l l maydecr eas ebyf r eeeconomi ct r adei nt er nat i onal l y.However exceedovert hei rl os s es .Soci al l y,t hi ss ur pl usi mpr ovess oci alwel f ar e.I ns hor t ,i nt er nat i onalt r adegener al l yi mpr ovess oci alwel f ar e. onandJ apanl aunchednegot i aAst hepr act i calbackgr ound, i n2013, t heEur opeanUni t i onsonanew t r adeande conomi cagr eement , ofwhi cht hes t r at egi cai mi st oc r eat eaf r ee snew agr eement ,whi ch t r adear eabet we ent hepar t i es .I twasc al l ed,EUJ apanFTA.Thi s houl di ncl udeabr oads pect r um ofeconomi ci s s uesnotonl yt r adi t i oni sbei ngnegot i at ed1, al l yr el at i ngt ot ar i f f s ,t r adei ngoodsands er vi ces ,butal s omor ebr oadl yt onont ar i f f bar r i er sandt r adepr ocedur es ,f or ei gndi r ecti nves t ment s ,l egalpr ot ect i onofi nt el l ect ual pr oper t y,compet i t i onpol i cy,andpubl i cpr ocur ementands oon.I nt hi ss ens e,t heEUhoul dbeacompr ehens i veagr eemente nhanci ngEUJ apan t r adeande coJ apan FTA s swhyi ti sc al l ed,es peci al l ybyt heJ apanes es i de,as・ economi c nomi cc ooper at i on.Thati par t ner s hi pagr eement ・（EPA）. onandJ apani snotr ef l ect edi ncur r ent Theeconomi cpot ent i aloft heEur opeanUni bi l at er alt r adeandi nves t ment sl i nksbet weent hepar t ner s .Tr adeandi nves t mentvol ume ompr ehens i ve i sbel ow t hepot ent i alandt her ef or et heagr eements houl dc r eat eanew c f r ame wor kf ore conomi cbi l at er alc ooper at i onandbecameal ongawai t e di ncent i vef or ・Thi spaperi smai nl y bas edon t hepaperpr es ent edatt heSI BRRDI NRRU 2016Conf er enceon I nt er di s ci pl i nar yBus i nes sandEconomi csRe s ear ch,7t h8t hJ ul y2016,Os aka,J apan.A par toft hi s paperwass uppor t e dbyJ SPSKAKENHIGr ant i nAi df orSci ent i f i cRe s ear ch, Gr antNumber sJ P 26380585. 1 Ther ehavebeens event eennegot i at i ngr oundsasof1s tOct ober2016.

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『明大商学論叢』第 99巻第 2号

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r evi t al i z i ngt heEUJ apanr el at i ons hi p.Fr om t heEU・ sper s pect i ve,J apanr emai nsar el al lbeanoppor t uni t yt o t i vel ycl os edmar keti neconomi ct er ms ,t hust heagr eeme ntwi i mpr oveopennes soft heJ apanes emar ketf orEur opeane xpor t er sandi nves t or s ,andt o f ect sont r adeandi nves t ment s . abandonmanynont ar i f fbar r i er st hathavebur dens omeef Thenegot i at i onsf i tal s oi nt hegener algl obalpr oces sofi ncr eas i ngi mpor t anc eof t hi nt hef r ame wor koft hei nt er nat i onal pr ef er ent i albi l at er alandr egi onalagr ee me nt swi t hought heagr eement t r ades ys t em,whi chhasbeenobs er vedgl obal l yf r om t he1990 s .Al 2 ,t heEUJ apanFTA i sbei ngnegot i at edi nt hes hadow oft woot heri mpor t antagr ee ment s

maybec l as s i f i edasame gar egi onalt r adeagr eementduet ot hee conomi c, t r adeandi nves t t i onal l y, t he mentpot ent i alofbot hpar t ner sandt hei rpos i t i oni ngl obalval uec hai ns .Addi accept edagendaf ornegot i at i onsf or es hadowsadeepe conomi ci nt egr at i ononc et heagr eeme nti sachi eved,i ncl udi ngr egul at or ycompat i bi l i t yandr ul esai me datl i mi t at i onofdi f egi onal f er encesi ni nves t mentandbus i nes sc l i mat es ,whi ch i sc har act er i s t i cf ormegar agr ee ment s （WEF,2014）.Thepot ent i alagr ee mentwi l lencompas sc ount r i e sr es pons i bl e eal s ogl obals cal et r ader s－t oget hert heyar e f orabout1 /3oft hegl obalGDP.Theyar r es pons i bl ef orabout20％ oft hegl obalt r ade （excl udi ngEUi nt r at r ade）andar et hes our ce 2015; WTO, 2015a）.Thi smakest hat of1/3ofgl obalf or ei gndi r ecti nves t me nt s （UNCTAD, EUJ apanFTA wi l lnotonl yaf f ectt hepar t i esi nvol vedi nt henegot i at i onspr oces s ,but l li nf l uenc et hegl obalt r adeandi nves t mentar chi t ect ur e. al s owi nEUJ apanFTA negot i at i onsone achs i de .Thi s However ,t her ear es ever alcl ai msi paperi dent i f i esmai nbar r i er sandchal l engesf orEur opeane nt er pr i s esi nacces st ot he ketf orEur opeangoods ,s er vi ce sandi nves t ment s .Met hodol ogi calappr oach J apanes emar hee vi denceoff i ndi ngsf r om t hi spaper , wi l le mpl oyt hehi s t or i calar chi ver evi ews .Ast s omer ecor dsofagr eement sandnegot i at i onswi l lbedi s cus s ed.Theme t hodol ogyus e df or i one dbar r i er s /chal l enge si ncl udes:s t at i s t i calanal ys i sofhi s t or i cal i dent i f yi ngt hement MF,OECD,WTO and t r ade and i nves t ment c ooper at i on（f r om Eur os t at ,J ETRO,J UNCTAD） ,t heanal ys i sofl egalact sr egul at i ngt r adecooper at i onbet weent heEU and J apan,i ncl udi ngof f i ci aldocument sc or r es pondi ngt ot heongoi ngnegot i at i onpr oces s ,t he anal ys i sofof f i ci alr epor t spr es ent i ngs ur veysonEur opeanc ompani esoper at i ngi nJ apan nbar r i er sf acedi nexpor tandi nves t ment saswe l lass ect orr epor t spr epar edby onmai EUJ apanbus i nes sandt r adeor gani z at i ons .Thei de nt i f i cat i onofmai nbar r i er sf ort he ketaswel lascl as s i f i cat i onofpot ent i al Eur opeane nt er pr i s esi nacces st ot heJ apanes emar nchal l engesf or t r adeandi nves t mentexpans i ons ect or shaveenabl edt of or mul at emai Eur opeane nt er pr i s est hats houl dbeaddr es s e dbyEur opeannegot i at or sdur i ngt heEUi at i ons . J apanFTA negot Toachi evet hepr i mar ypur pos e,t hear t i cl ehasbeenor gani s edasf ol l ows .Thef i r s t

2 Thi sagr ee menti ncl udes , s oc al l ed, Tr ans Paci f i cPar t ner s hi p （TTP）andTr ans at l ant i cTr adeand I nves t mentPar t ner s hi p （TTI P）.

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TheEur opeanUni on－J apanTr adeCooper at i on

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s ect i onpr es ent sabr i efs ummar yoft heEUJ apanr el at i onsf r om ahi s t or i calper s pect i ve. Then,i nt hes econds ect i on,s omegener alpi ct ur eoft heEUJ apaneconomi cr el at i onsi s t haf ocusont r adeandi nves t mentl i nks ,i ncl udi ngt hemos tr ecents t at i s t i cs pr es ent edwi i one dai m andi dent i f i esmai n wi t hi nt hi sar ea.Thet hi r ds ect i onr ef er sdi r ect l yt ot hement keti nchos en bar r i er s /chal l enge sf orEur opeanent er pr i s esi nacces st ot heJ apanes emar 3 .Thec hos e ns ect or sar eofagr eati mpor t anc ef orEU e xpor t st o s ect or soft r adei ngoods

J apanandr epr es entawi des pect r um ofr el evantbar r i er sexi s t i ngf orf or ei gns uppl i er s . albar r i er shavebeenal s oi dent i f i e df orEU compani esi nal l ocat i ngf or ei gn Somegener di r ecti nves t ment sandut i l i z i ngt hepot ent i aloft hepubl i cpr ocur ementmar keti nJ apan. l lbedi s cus s ed.Thr ough Then, i nt hef our t hs ect i on, apr el i mi nar yanal yt i calf r amewor kwi i at i onwi l lbeanal ys ednotonl yi ne conomi ct er ms ,butal s o t hi sdi s cus s i on,FTA negot f r om t hepol i t i calands oci ol ogi calper s pect i ve.And,i nt hel as ts ec t i on,s hor ts ummar y s hal lbec oncl uded.

1.A Hi s t or i calPer s pect i veonECC/EU andJapanRel at i ons Hi s t or i cal l y,EUJ apan economi cr el at i on c an t r aceback t oes t abl i s ht heEur opean Economi cCommuni t y（ECC）i n1957.EEC wast heeconomi ccommuni t yi nwhi chBel her l andsand Wes tGer many we r eor i gi nal l y gi um,Fr ance,I t al y,Luxembour g,t heNet bel onged.I tbecamet heEur opeanCommuni t y （EC）i n1993, t hen, i twasabs or be di nt ot he on （EU）i n2009. Eur opeanUni Of f i ci al l y,EEC/EUJ apanr el at i onsbegani n1959wi t ht heaccr edi t at i onofJ apanes e las －asaf i r s tr epr es ent at i vei nhi s t or y－t ot hr eeEur opean ambas s adort oBel gi um aswel ni s t erofJ apani nEur oCommuni t i es , whi chwast heaf t er mat hoft hevi s i toft hePr i meMi peanc api t al s ,i ncl udi ngBr us s el s （Fr at t ol i l l o,2013）.However ,i tt ook15year st oe s t abl i s h n 1974,whi ch pr ovest hatt he t hedel egat i on oft heEur opean Communi t i esi n Tokyoi hat r el at i onsbet we ent hepar t i esi nt hef i r s tyear swe r egener al l yr el at i vel yweak.Att t i me ,bi l at er alr el at i onswe r ei nf l uence ds t r ongl ybyt r adeande conomi ci s s ues . echar act er i z edaseconomi c I nt he1960sand 1970s ,Eur oJ apanes ei nt er act i onswer f r i ct i ons .Gr owi ngJ apanes ee xpor texpans i oni ns ect or sandi ndus t r i eswascons i der edby Eur opeansasi mpor t anti nt er msofe mpl oymentandi ncome/gr owt hpot ent i alandc hr oni c t r ade def i ci tf or t he EEC i nf l uenced s t r ongl yt he agenda of bi l at er alc ooper at i on （Wal denber g, 2013）.St ar t i ngf r om t hee ar l y1970s , EECc ount r i esexper i ence dal s ot hef i r s t eaccompani edby boom i nf or ei gndi r ecti nves t me nt sbyJ apanes ecompani eswhi chwer ven hos t i l i t yt owar dsJ apanes et r adepr act i ces （Yos hi dae tal . ,2008）.Mor eover ,i twase mor edi f f i cul tt odevel opbi l at er alr el at i onsbeyondt heeconomi cnexus ,asbot hpar t ner s

3 Foodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,phar maceut i cal sandc os met i cs ,aut omobi l e sandaut omot i ve component s .

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wer eaf f ect edbyt henegat i vei mpactoft heoi ls hoc kar ound1978. r e I nt he1970sand1980s ,al t hought hemai naxi sofbi l at er alEECJ apanr el at i onswe ni t i at i ve si ncooper at i ons t ar t e dt ogr ow.I n ef f or t st oc or r ectt het r adei mbal ance4,new i 1979,t heEur opeanCommi s s i onl aunchedt heExecut i veTr ai ni ngPr ogr amme （ETP）t o i ncr eas eknowl edgeaboutJ apan,i t sl anguage,cul t ur eandbus i nes se nvi r onmentamong Eur opeanbus i nes s men.Thr oughETP, t hei ncr eas eofef f ect i venes sofEur opeani ndus t r i es ketwasexpect ed.Addi t i onal l y,i n i nt hei rpr act i calef f or t st openet r at et heJ apanes emar nTokyot os t i mul at e 1987,t heECJ apanCent r ef orI ndus t r i alCooper at i onwasopenedi br oadeni ndus t r i alcooper at i onands uppor tdi f f us i onoft r adet ens i ons （Schwei s gut , 2014）. 5 , Al t hought he1980sbr oughts omei ncr eas i ngpol i t i calact i vi t yi nbi l at er alr el at i ons

mor enot i ceabl et ur ncamewi t ht hebegi nni ngoft he1990s .Thebegi nni ngoft henew decadebr oughtanew geopol i t i cals i t uat i onatt heEur opeanc ont i nent ,namel y,t hef al lof eocommuni s ts ys t e mi nCent r alandEas t er nEur opeandt heuni f i cat i onofGer many.Mor ver , t heEur opeanCommuni t ywasheadi ngt owar dsdeepereconomi candpol i t i cali nt egr ampor t antpr oj ect sai med atdeeper t i on. TheCommuni t ys t ar t ed t oi mpl ementt wo i t at es , namel yacommonmar ketande conomi candmonei nt egr at i onbet weenECmembers t ar yuni on. Thebegi nni ngoft he1990swi t nes s edal s onew i ni t i at i ve si nbui l di ngcl os erEC/EU t hJ apan,i ncl udi ngmor epol i t i calas pect s .I n1991,dur i ngt hef i r s tECJ apan r el at i onswi l at i onsbe t we e n s ummi thel di nTheHague,t hepar t i esadopt e d・ TheJ oi ntDe c l ar at i ononRe t heEur ope anCommuni t yandi t sMe mbe rSt at e sandJ apan・whi chwasc r eat i ngani ns t i t ut i onalf r ame wor kf ormor ei nt ens i f i e ddi al ogueands t r ongerpar t ner s hi p.Thi sne wi ns t i t ut i onalf r amewor ki ncl udedannualcons ul t at i onsi nEur opeori nJ apanbet ween, ont heone hand,t hePr es i dentoft heEur opeanCounci landt hePr es i dentoft heCommi s s i onand,on ni s t er （EUJ apans ummi t s ）, anannualmeet i ngatmi ni s t et heot her , t heJ apanes ePr i meMi r i all evelaswe l last hec ont i nuat i onofs i xmont hl yc ons ul t at i onsbet weent heFor ei gn heCommi s s i onr es pons i bl ef orext er nal Mi ni s t er soft heCommuni t yandt heMemberoft r el at i ons （Tr oi ka）andt heJ apanes eFor ei gnMi ni s t er （J oi ntDecl ar at i on,1991）. oi ntDe cl ar at i on becamet hei ns t i t ut i onall andmar kf ormor ecompl ex TheHagueJ EUJ apanc ooper at i oni nnew ar eas .Ass t at edi nt hedecl ar at i on,・ TheEur ope anCommumbe rSt at e sandJ apanwi l lf i r ml ye nde avourt oi nf or m andc ons ul te ac hot he r ni t yandi t sme onmaj o ri nt e r nat i o nali s s ue s ,whi c har eofc ommoni nt e r e s tt obot hPar t i e s ,bet he ypol i t i c al , ywi l ls t r i ve ,whe ne ve rappr opr i at e ,t oc oor di nat e e c ono mi c ,s c i e nt i f i c ,c ul t ur alo rot he r .The ywi l ls t r e ngt he nt he i rc oope r at i onande xc hangeo fi nf or mat i o nbot hbe t he i rpos i t i ons .The t hi ni nt e r nat i onalor gani z at i ons ・ .Fol l owi ngt hedecl ar at i on, t he t we e nt het woPar t i e sandwi EUJ apanc ooper at i onhase xpande dbeyondor i gi nalf ocusone conomi ci s s ue sandt r i g-

4 J apanagr eedt ovar i ousvol unt ar ye xpor tr es t r i ct i ons . 5 I n1984,t heEECandJ apanhel dt hef i r s tmi ni s t er i almeet i ng.

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ger edanumberofs ect or aldi al oguesi nawi devar i et yofpol i c yar eas , i ncl udi ngpeaceand s ecur i t y,gl obalands oci et alchal l enges （Fr ont i ni ,2016）. Tr adeandi nves t me ntcooper at i oni n1990swer echar act er i z ednotonl ybyt henor mal i z at i onofeconomi cdi al ogues ,butal s obyl os i ngi nt er es ti nbi l at er alt r adeandi nves t ado, t l y duet oeconomi cpr oces s e si nt hepar t i es ・nei ghbor hood6（dePr mentl i nksmos 2014）.Al s o, t heannounce ddecl ar at i on・ sobj ect i vesofcl os erpol i t i calcooper at i onwe r ef ar f r om ambi t i ousi mpl e ment at i onandanat t emptt os ubs t ant i at evi s i onar ypol i t i call i nks l ar gel yf ai l ed Dur i ngt he10t hEUJ apans ummi ti nBr us s el si n2001, t hepar t i esdeci de dt ogi veanew i ncent i vef orbi l at er alact i vi t y.Ther epr es ent at i ve soft heEU andJ apanadopt ed・ The Act i onPl anf ort heEUJ apanc ooper at i on.Shapi ngourc ommonf ut ur e・ ,i ncl udi ngf our maj orobj ect i ves:pr omot i ngpeac eands ecur i t y;s t r engt heni ngt hee conomi candt r ade t h par t ner s hi put i l i z i ngt hedynami s m ofgl obal i z at i on f ort hebenef i tofal l ;copi ngwi gl obalands oci et alchal l enges;andbr i ngi ngt oget herpeopl eandc ul t ur es .Thedocument emphas i z edt heambi t i ousout l i nef orcl os e rcooper at i onbet weent hepar t ner s ,butmany anal ys t spoi nt e dr at hermodes tr eal i z at i onoft hepl an・ sgoal si nf ol l owi ngyear s .Al t hough i t i cal , economi c, s oci alorenvi r onment al t heEUandJ apandevel opeddi al oguesi nmanypol er vat or ymai nt ai ne dbyt he i s s ues （accor di ngt ot heEur opeanSt r at egi cPar t ner s hi pObs al oguesi n2013 （dePr ado,2014））,manyof t hi nkt ankFRI DE,t her ewer e34EUJ apanDi t hem wer enotver yact i veands ubs t ant i al .However ,t hedi agnos i sdoesnotr ef l ectt he 7 andhi ghl evelf or um ons ci ence de vel opmentofEUJ apandi al ogue sone conomi ci s s ues

andt echnol ogy （dePr ado,2014）. Agai n, ne wi deasf orenhanci ngbi l at er alEUJ apanc ooper at i onappear e datt hee ndof t hedecade.Pol i cymaker sonbot hs i desagr eedt hatt heagendaandl i s t edi s s uest obe ef art oo addr es s e di nbi l at er alcooper at i oni nc l udedi nt he2001EUJ apanAc t i onPl anwer ambi t i ousandc ont r i but edt opoori mpl ement at i onoft heact i onpl ani nt oe f f ect .Ast he af t er mat hi n2010,r epr es ent at i ve sofbot hs i desagr eedt os etupt heEUJ apanJ oi ntHi ghodi s cus sanddef i nenew f or matofbi l at er al LevelGr oup （HLG）,t het as kofwhi c hwast EUJ apanf r amewor kagr eeme nt （Ber kof s ky,2012）. ch2011,t heEur opeanCommi s s i on,f ol l owi ngt hemeet i ngofHLG,publ i s heda I nMar l at i ons ・ ,i nwhi chi tpr es ent ed docume nt・ Opt i onsf ort heFut ur eFr ame wor ko fEUJ apanRe t heCommi s s i on・ si deasont hes hapeofi ns t i t ut i onal i z e dEUJ apanr el at i onsandcooper at i oni nf ut ur e.Fol l owi ngt heCommi s s i on・ spr opos al ,dur i ngt he20t hEUJ apans ummi t hel di nBr us s el s ,t hepar t i e sagr eedt os t ar tt hepr oces sofpar al l elnegot i at i onson・（1）a adeAgr e e me nt （FTA）/Ec ono mi cPar t ne r s hi p Agr e e me nt de e p and c ompr e he ns i v eFr e eTr （EPA）,addr e s s i ngal li s s ue so fs har e di nt e r e s tt obot hs i de si nc l udi ngt ar i f f s ,nont ar i f fme as 6 Thi scanbes eeni ngr owi nge conomi cc ooper at i oni nAs i aPaci f i cr egi on, pol i t i calande conomi c t r ans f or mat i oni nCent r alandEas t erEur ope. 7 Thes ewer et r ade,der egul at i on,andi ndus t r i alpol i cy.

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ur e s ,s e r vi c e s ,i nve s t me nt ,I nt e l l e c t ualPr ope r t yRi ght s ,c o mpe t i t i o nandpubl i cpr oc ur e me nt ; （2） ompr e andabi ndi ngagr e e me nt ,c ove r i ngpol i t i c al ,gl obalando t he rs e c t or alc oope r at i oni nac he ns i v emanne r ,andunde r pi nne dbyt he i rs har e dc ommi t me ntt of undame nt alval ue sand on,2011）.Tot hi se nd,bot hpar t i esagr eedt o pr i nc i pl e s ・ . （Counci loft heEur opeanUni conductaj oi ntdef i ni t i onoft hes copeandl evelofambi t i onandt heEur opeanCommi s s i on decl ar edt os eekt heneces s ar yaut hor i z at i onf r om t heCounci lt os t ar tt henegot i at i ons on,2011）.For mal l yt hebi l at er alnegot i at i onsf or wi t hJ apan （Counci loft heEur opeanUni aSt r at egi cPar t ner s hi pAgr eementandaFr eeTr adeAgr eementwer el aunchedt woyear s l at er ,dur i ngt he21s tEUJ apans ummi ti nMar ch2013.

2.TheEur opeanUni onandJapanasTr adeandEconomi cPar t ner s Sof ar ,abr i efr evi ew onhi s t or i calevent sbet weenEUJ apanr el at i onhasbeendone. Fort her evi ew,her e,mai nl yt wof i ndi ngsc anbef or mul at ed.Thef i r s tonei sEUJ apan economi cr el at i onhasbee ni ns t i t ut i onal i z e df oral ongt i me , mor et han60year ss i nc et hei r f i r s tnegot i at i on.Second,t hei rr el at i onsar es t i l li mpr ovi ng. I nt hi ss ect i on,t heanal ys i sc oncent r at esont r adeper f or mancebet weent hepar t ner s . Act ual l y,i nf or mat i onhasbeenal r eadypubl i s hed,butt ot heanal ys i shel pst oknow how mucht heyc ont r i but eordependone achandt hr ought hi si tcont r i but e st ot her eal i z at i on oft hi spaper ・ spur pos e.Fi r s t ,t her es ul tofJ apanwi l lbet abul at ed,andt hen,addeds ome eval uat i ons . nJapan 21.St at usQuoi J apanhasbee nknownasane xpor tor i ent e dnat i on.Ther ear es omewhos uppor tt he vi ew t hatJ apanes egr owt hwase xpor t l ed （Bl ument hal ,1972）.Byc ont r as t ,Por t er （1990） s ugges t e dt hatJ apanes eexpor ts ucces smer el yr ef l ect edf avor abl edomes t i ccondi t i ons . Accor di ngt ohi sopi ni ons , hi ghl yc ompet i t i vedomes t i cc ondi t i onshasbeenl edbyi nnovamentt echni ques .Hes t at ed, ・ I nnear l ye ver yi ndus t r ywe t i oni nbot hpr oduct sandmanage ketbecamemat ur e・ s t udi ed,expor t si ncr eas e ds ubs t ant i al l yonl ywhent hedomes t i cmar （Por t er ,1990,p. 402）.Headdst hatdemandi ngc ons umer sandunus ualde mandc ondi t i ons ol e, asdi dt heavai l abi l i t yoff act or sofpr oduct i on, par t i cul ar l yphys i cal al s opl ayedakeyr andhumanc api t al .I nt hi svi ew,J apanes ee xpor tpr owes swast her es ul tofs t r ongdome s ei fvi br antpr oduct i vi t y uded,・ J apanmus ti mpor tmor t i cpr oduct i vi t ygr owt h.Heconcl gr owt hi st oc ont i nue.I mpor t ss t i mul at edomes t i cpr oduct i vi t ygr owt h・（Por t er ,1990,p. 708）. ns t ei n,1999）. Gr owt hme chani s m canbei dent i f i eds ever always （Lawr enceandWei Fr om macr oi nf or mat i onoft r ades t at i s t i csofJ apan, i mpor tande xpor tper f or manceshave .Fi gur e1s howst het r ades t at i s t i c sofi mpor tand gener al l yc ont r i but edf ors omedecades expor ti nJ apan.Thes ear enomi nalr es ul t s , andr es ul t ss howedasi mpor tJ PY78, 405, 555, 793

（ 61）


7

（uni t ,t hous and;78t r i l l i on405bi l l i on555mi l l i on793t hous and;USD653, 379, 632t hous and） ande xpor tJ PY 75, 613, 928, 862 （USD630, 116, 074t hous and）i n2015. Thes egr owt hscanbedi vi de di nt os ever alper i ods .Ar ound1980t o1985,af t ert he t i ngi ncr eas ed.Speci f i cal l y,aut omobi l eand s econdoi ls hock,J apanes ee conomywasget hi ght echappl i ancel edt hi sgr owt h.Si nce1985,domes t i ceconomyhasbeene xper i enced ,dur i ng1986t o1987, unpr ecedent edpr os per i t y,cal l e dbubbl ee conomyby1991.However s i ncet heyenhadr api dl ys t r engt hene dagai ns tt hedol l ar , expor tdecr eas edandl eddomes i ned.Si nce1988t i l l1990,asr eales t at eands t ockpr i ceshadbeenget t i ng t i ce conomydecl kkeis t ock t ot hes ummi t ,bot hi mpor tande xpor tr api dl yr ecover ed.December29,1989,Ni pr i c eaver agei ndi cat e dt hepeakever ,atJ PY 38, 915.Compar edt oaver ages t oc kpr i ce ar oundJ PY13, 000i n1986,i twast oal mos tt r i pl e,buti tpr eci pi t at el ydecl i nedbyl es st han t hAs i ancount r i es J PY20, 000t i l lOct ober1990,bubbl ecol l aps ed.I n1994,bot hgr owt hwi anddecl i neJ PY val ue,J apanes ee conomys omehow r e cover edt hr oughexpor ti ncr eas i ng eci at i ngandt hedomes t i ce conomydr as t i cal l yr evi ved. by1997.I n20022007J PYwasdepr t r okeal s ot heJ apanes ee conomyandputi ti nt or eces I n2008,f i nanci alcr i s i sf r om USA s s i on.I n2011 , t hebi gges tear t hquakei nwor l dhi s t or ydes t r oyedgeogr aphi cal l ynor t hpar t act or i e saswel l .Expor tqui t t e dt ogr ow agai n. ofJ apanandphys i cal l ydamagedmanyf Si nce2011,bas edonhugegr owt hofAs i anemer gi ngeconomi es ,i mpor texceededexpor t . thasbeenget t i ngdecl i ned. I n2014,i mpor tachi eve dt hes ummi tever ,buts i ncet hatt i mei 90, 000, 000, 000

80, 000, 000, 000

70, 000, 000, 000

60, 000, 000, 000

50, 000, 000, 000

40, 000, 000, 000

20, 000, 000, 000

1 9 8 0 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 3 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 5 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 8 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5

30, 000, 000, 000

I mpor t

Expor t

（Sour ce:Tr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,J apanmi ni s t r yoff i nance ）

Fi gur e1 Japani mpor t expor tr ecor ds （19802015,Uni t:t hous andJPY）

8


（ 62）

Thoughi nt er nat i onalt r adedoesnotneces s ar i l yr el at et odomes t i ceconomi cpr os per i t i es , owt h i ts t r ongl yi nf l uence st heoccupanc yr at eofpr oduct i on（i . e. ,pr oduct i vi t y）.GDPgr r at eofJ apani n2015was0. 54％（160t houtof189count r i es ）.Compoundannualgr owt h r at eofexpor ts i nce1980t o2015i s2. 74％ andi mpor ti s2. 59％. Wi t hr egar dt oEUr el at i on, t her ear er ecor dsongeogr aphi cals egmentr epor t s .Fi gur e 2andFi gur e3s how i mpor tandexpor tr es ul t sf orl as tt hr eedecades ,r es pect i vel y.The cl as s i f i cat i onofs egment si sdi vi de di ne i ghtasf ol l ows: 1）As i a, 2）Mi ddl eEas t , 3）Wes t er n i ca,6）Cent r alandSout h Eur ope,4）Cent r alandEas t er nEur ope,andCI S,5）Nor t hAmer Amer i ca,7）Af r i ca,and8）Oceani a8. Asdi s cus s e dabove,i n1992,t heTr eat yonEur opeanUni on （knownal s oast heMaas mber soft he t r i chtTr eat y）under t akent oi nt egr at eEur opeanc ount i e swass i gnedbyme Eur opeanCommuni t y.Att hatt i me ,t hemember soft heEC wer e:Bel gi um,Ger many, Fr ance,I t al y,Luxembur g,TheNe t her l ands ,Denmar k,I r el and,UK,Gr eece,Por t ugaland n1995,Aus t r i a,Fi nl and,andSwedenj oi nedt heEC.I n2004t heECe nl ar ged Spai n.Then,i i c,Es t oni a,Hunand10new count r i e sj oi ne dt heCommuni t y:Cypr us ,t heCz echRepubl gar y,Lat vi a,Li t huani a,Mal t a,Pol and,Sl ovaki a,andSl oveni a.I n2007,Romani aandBul （％） 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

0

1988

10

■As i a■Mi ddl eEas t■Wes t er nEur ope■Eas t er nEur ope ■Nor t hAme r i ca■Sout hAme r i ca■Af r i ca■Oceani a （Sour ce:Tr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,J apanmi ni s t r yoff i nance ）

Fi gur e2 I mpor tr ecor dsi nJapan （19882015） 8 I ndeed,t heot hers egme nti si dent i f i ed,buti tt akesonl y0. 0003％ s har ei ni mpor ti n2015andno expor t .Her e,i ti sr egar dedasnegl i gi bl e.

（ 63）


9

gar i abecameEU member s .Sodi dCr oat i ai n2013,andnow EU cons i s t sof28count i es . ni s t r yoff i nance Thi st r ans i t i oni nf l uencedt hes har eofi mpor tande xpor ti nJ apan.Themi cat egor i z edEUs egment , butasi ndi cat edabove, t hes i z eoft heEUwaschangi ngovert i me ansbot hi mpor tande xpor taut oandt heor gani z at i onhasbeenget t i ngbi gger .Thatme mat i cal l yi ncr eas e.Thes har eofEU s egme ntwi l lbedi s cus s e dl at er . ni s t r yoff i nancewi l lbec ons i der ed. Her e,f i r s t ,s t andar dr egi onals egmentbyt heMi Fi gur e2s howsi mpor tr es ul tofJ apan, namel y, how muchdi dJ apanbuyt hepr oduct sf r om l d.Ass omedat aavai l abi l i t ywasr es t r i ct ed, her ei mpor tand abover egi onsal lovert hewor ndi s cus s i onoft hi spaperwi l lnotbe expor tr ecor dsar ef i gur e ds i nce1988,butt hemai i nf l uenced. Fr om Fi gur e2,t hr eei s s ue scanbei ndi cat ed.Fi r s t ,J apani mpor t smos t l yf r om ot her （6. 45％ ofannualgr owt hr at ei n19882015）.Second, As i anc ount r i esf r om l as tt wodecades i mpor ts har ef r om Nor t hAme r i cahasbeendecr eas i ng.Thi si mpl i est hatt hepr oduct i ons t hAmer i cahavebeendecl i ned.Andt hi r d,i mpor t sf r om Eur ope,Wes t er nEur ope i nNor andCent r alandEas t er nEur opeandCI S,havebeenoccupi ed,notmagni t udebut ,s i gni f i . cants har ef orl as tt wodecades Fi gur e3s howsexpor tr es ul t ss i nce1988i nJ apan.Fr om t hef i gur e, t hr e ei s s uescanbe l .Fi r s t ,expor tt oNor t hAmer i cat ookt hebi gges ts har ebef or e1990s . addr es s edaswel （％） 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

■As i a■Mi ddl eEas t■Wes t er nEur ope■Eas t er nEur ope ■Nor t hAme r i ca■Sout hAme r i ca■Af r i ca■Oceani a （Sour ce:Tr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,J apanmi ni s t r yoff i nance ）

Fi gur e3 Expor tr ecor dsi nJapan （19882015）

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

0

1988

10

10


（ 64）

Aut omobi l ee xpor tcont r i but e dt ot hi sr es ul t ,andi ts t i l loccupi eshugeamountofs har ei n expor tf r om J apan,butt hedes t i nat i onsmi ghtbes hi f t ed.Second,i ti ss omehow r el at e dt o et hanhal fofexpor ts har es i nce2008.Chi nahadbeen t hef i r s ti s s ue－Chi naoccupi esmor l d, butnow i tmus tbeal s or egar dedast hemar ketoft he r egar dedast hef act or yoft hewor wor l d.Andt hi r d, t hes har eofexpor tt oEur opehasbee ndecl i ned.Bef or e1990s , t hee xpor t et han20％ ;now,i ti sonl yabout15％. s har est oEur opeamount edt omor gur e4hast hr e ei ndi cat or s . Fi gur e4s howsi mpor tande xpor tvol umeswi t ht heEU.Fi Fi r s t , t her ear et wol i nes .Thes ol i dl i ner ef er st oe xpor tf r om J apant ot heEU.Thedotl i ne ur edbyt hel ef tver t i calaxi sf oruni t pr es ent si mpor tf r om t heEUt oJ apan.Thes ear emeas asbi l l i on.Sec ond,t her i ghtver t i calaxi sr ef er st os har eofi mpor tandexpor toft heEUi n umns , adar kgr ayandal i ghtgr ay, r es pect i vel y.And J apan.Theyar edes cr i bedbyt wocol t hi r d,ast henumberofEU c ount r i esvar i ed,t hes enumber sar el i s t ed. Then, f r om t hes er es ul t s , t hr e ei s s uescanbei dent i f i ed.Thef i r s tonei st hatexpor thas ongt i meunt i l2012.Thatmeanst hatEU boughtJ apanes e beene xceede di mpor tf oral pr oduct smor et han s ol dt oJ apan. However ,dur i ng t hes eper i od,compound annual e1.I ndeed,by2007,exgr owt hr at esofexpor twer enotenoughl ar ge,ass howe di nTabl por tt oEU hasgr owne vens omef l uct uat i one xi s t ed,butaf t ert hef i nanci alcr i s i si n2008, t hel evel sofe xpor tbar el ykeptcl os et ot hos eofear l y1990s .Second,compar edt oe xpor t , NumberofCount r i e si nEU

12

15

25

27

28

12398

（Bi l l i on） 12000

（％） 20. 0

18.8 1000017.7

18. 0 8625

8000

16. 0 15.0

6000

4000

6002

14. 0

12.8

12. 0

3082

■

I mpor t

■

Expor t

（Sour ce:Tr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,Themi ni s t r yoff i nance ）

Fi gur e4 I mpor tandexpor tr es ul twi t hEU（JPY）

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0. 0

1989

0

1988

2000

I mpor t:10. 7 Expor t:10. 6 10. 0

（ 65）


11

i mpor tc an bedes cr i be dasr el at i vel ys t abl egr owt h,butnothuge,onl y 3. 88％ gr owt h s dur i ngt hel as t27year s .Fur t her mor e,s i nce2012,i mpor t shaveexceededexpor t .Thi means ,t hatnow J apanr ecor dss omet r adedef i ci twi t ht heUE.Andt hi r d,27year sbel ow canbedi vi dedi nt hr eeper i ods:bef or e1996,s i nce1997t o2007,andaf t er2008.Becaus e, nTabl e2 . dur i ngt hes et hr eeper i ods ,s al esaver agesar es i gni f i cant l ydi f f er ent ,s howni Theymi ghtal mos tcor r es pondt ot hei ncr eas i ngt henumberofEU me mber s . Tabl e1 Compoundannualgr owt hr at es 19881995

19882004

19882007

19882015

I mpor t

5. 82

4. 47

4. 91

3. 88

Expor t

1. 36

2. 88

3. 89

1. 06

（Sour ce:owncal cul at i onsonTr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,J apanmi ni s t r yoff i nance）

Tabl e2 Aver agesamongt hr eeper i ods （Uni t:t hous andJPY） 1s t .bef or e1996

2nd.1997t o2007

3r d.af t er2007

I mpor t

4, 133, 115, 483

5, 845, 394, 133

7, 015, 730, 310

Expor t

6, 873, 677, 905

9, 126, 794, 118

8, 320, 353, 629

（Sour ce:owncal cul at i onsonTr ades t at i s t i csofJ apan,J apanmi ni s t r yoff i nance）

Wi t hr egar dt os har e, her e, t hr e ei s s ueswi l lbedi s cus s e daswel l .Fi r s t , expor thasbeen bi ggerbeyondi mpor tunt i l2012.I thasbeenr eal i z edase xpor tr ol ef orJ apan.Second, ghtbedi vi dedi n i mpor ti sget t i ngbi gge rt hane xpor ts i nce2012Andt hi r d,al lper i odsmi t wo: bef or e2001andaf t er2002.I nt hef or merper i od, aver ageofi mpor twas13. 4％ andt he 6％.Aboute xpor t ,t hef or merper i odi ndi cat ed16. 9％ andt hel at t er l at t erper i odwas10. was12. 9％. 22.Japanasat r adeande c onomi cpar t ne roft heEur ope anUni on Sof ar , i nt er nat i onalt r ade, bot hi mpor tande xpor tofJ apanhavebeenr evi ewed.Her e, asabr i efs ummar y,f ol l owi ngt wof i ndi ngsc anbes ugges t ed.Fi r s t ,i mpor tande xpor tar e r ecover i ngs i nce2009.Second,i nt er nat i onals har esofEU f orJ apans eem r ecover i ngas we l l .Atl eas t ,bot hs har eshavebeenr eachedbot t om ar ound2013. Compar e dt oaboves ect i on, EUper s pect i vewi l lbedi s cus s e di nt hi ss ect i on.Asoneof i mpor t antt r adepar t ner sf ort heEur opeanUni on,J apan・ spos i t i oni sl i nkedt ot r adeand ankedast he7t hbi gges tt r ade i nves t me ntpot ent i alofi t seconomy.I n2015,J apanwasr par t neroft heEur opeanUni onwi t has har ei nEUt ot alt r adevol umeof3. 3％（r es pect i vel y opeanUni oncor r es pondst ot he2nd 3. 5％ and3. 2％ oft ot ali mpor tande xpor t ）.TheEur n i mpor tpar t nerofJ apanandt he3r dbi gges te xpor tmar ketf orJ apanes egoods ,s howni Tabl e3. Howe ver ,ass howedi nFi gur e4,t hedecl i nei nbi l at er alt r adei se venmor enot i ceabl e i nr el at i vet er ms .St ar t i ngf r om t he1960s /70st hes har eandt her ef or ei mpor t anceofJ apan

12


（ 66）

Tabl e3 Mai nt r adepar t ner soft heEU andJapan Eur opeanUni on （2015） I mpor t

％

Chi na

20. 3

USA

Expor t

J apan （2015）％

I mpor t

％

USA

20. 7

Chi na

24. 8

14. 3

Chi na

9. 5

EU28

Rus s i a

7. 9

Swi t z er l and

8. 4

Swi t z er l and

5. 9

Tur key

Nor way

4. 3

Tur key

Expor t

％

USA

20. 1

11

Chi na

17. 5

USA

10. 3

EU28

10. 6

4. 4

Aus t r al i a

5. 4

Sout hKor ea

7. 0

Rus s i a

4. 1

Sout hKor ea

4. 1

Tai wan

5. 9

3. 6

J apan

3. 2

SaudiAr abi a

3. 9

HongKong

5. 6

J apan

3. 5

Nor way

2. 7

Tai wan

3. 6

Thai l and

4. 5

Sout hKor ea

2. 5

UAE

2. 7

UAE

3. 6

Si ngapor e

3. 2

I ndi a

2. 3

Sout hKor ea

2. 7

Mal ays i a

3. 3

Aus t r al i a

2. 1

Br az i l

1. 8

SaudiAr abi a

2. 2

Thai l and

3. 2

Vi et nam

2. 0

（Sour ce:ownc al cul at i onsonEC,2016andJ MF,2016）

asat r adepar t neroft heEur opeanEconomi cCommuni t ywasi ncr eas i ng,whi chwast he embodi mentofgr owi ng gl obalor i ent at i on ofbot hJ apanes eand Eur opean economi es . pect acul argr owt hofbi l at er alt r adeJ apanbecamei nt hel at e1980s Af t ert wodecadesofs i a9,andt hes econd and1990st hemos ti mpor t antt r adepar t neroft heEECc ount r i esi nAs mos ti mpor t antonegl obal l yaf t ert heUni t edSt at es .I n1988,J apanwast heCommuni t y・ s s econdbi gges ts uppl i er ,account i ngf or11％ ofi t si mpor t s ,andi t sf i f t hl ar ges tcus t omer , i est oJ apanf orwhi cht he t aki ng5％ ofi t st ot alexpor t （MEMO20/90, 1990）.Thes ameappl EECcount r i eswer eamongl eadi ngt r adepar t ner s .Ref er r i ngt ot hes ameyear1988,t he EECs har ei nt ot alJ apanes ee xpor tandi mpor tamount edt o17. 7％ and12. 8％ r es pect i vel y, i one dEur opeancount r i est hes econdpos i t i on,af t e rt heUS,among whi c hgavet hement mos ti mpor t antt r adepar t ner s （J MF,2016）. St ar t i ngf r om t hef i r s thal foft he1990s ,whenJ apanwast hemos ti mpor t antAs i an t r adepar t nerf orECc ount r i es , t hes har eoft hec ount r yi nbot ht ot alECi mpor tande xpor t l t r uct ur alchangesi ngl obalt r adeandeconomy10 aswel hasdecl i neds ubs t ant i al l y.Thes nbot hpar t ner shavedet er mi nedt hatt oday・ sEUJ apanes emer aseconomi cs i t uat i on11 i chandi s edt r adel os ti t shi s t or i caldynami cands i gni f i cance.J apanes es har ei nt ot alEU fr es pect i vel yoft heval ues ext er nali mpor tande xpor ti scur r ent l yonl yonet hi r dandahal r ecor de dt wodecadesago （Fi gur e5）. r adepar t nerf ort heEur opean Thepr oces sofdecl i ni ngi mpor t anc eofJ apanasat i ngt he Uni oni sal s oper cei vabl ef r om t het r adei nt ens i t yi ndex, pr es ent edatFi gur e6.Dur 9 Lar gel yi nJ apan・ sf avorduet ot hee xpor t or i ent ed pol i c y oft hec ount r y whi ch r es ul t ed i n chr oni cdef i ci tf ort heEEC. 10 Thi ss hi f ti nECAs i ani mpor tmovesf r om J apant oChi naandSout hEas tAs i anc ount r i es . 11 Subs t ant i al l y,t he yi mpl yt hemodes teconomi cgr owt handc ons umerdemand.

（ 67）


13

（％） 12. 0 10. 0

10. 0 8. 0

5. 7

6. 0

I mpor t:3. 5

4. 0 2. 0 0. 0

Expor t:3. 2 1. 1 0. 8 1960

1970

1980

1985

1990 I mpor t

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Expor t

（Sour ce:ownc al cul at i onsonEC,2015;Eur os t at ,2011;Eur os t at /Comext ,2016）

Fi gur e5 Thes har eofJapani nt ot alext r aEEC/EU t r adei n19602015 （％） 1. 0

0. 91

0. 9 0. 8

Ave. ＝0. 78

0. 7

0 . 67

0. 6 0. 5 0. 4 0. 3 0. 2 0. 1 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

0. 0

（Sour ce:ownc al cul at i onsonEur os t at /Comext ,2016;OECDTr adeDat abas e,2016;WTO,2016）

Fi gur e6 EEC/EU t r adei nt ens i t yi ndexwi t hJapani n19882014

whol eper i od19882014, t hei nde xval uewasbel ow 1, whi c hme anst hatt heECC/EUe xpor t t oJ apanwass mal l e rt hanwoul dbee xpect edont hebas i soft hei mpor t anceofbot hpar t l dt r ade.Las tyear s , t het r endwass l i ght l ydownwar dandatpr es entt hei ndex ner si nwor val ueamount st oonl yar ound0. 8.

3.Tr adeandI nves t mentBar r i er st ot heJapanes eMar ket TheEur opean Uni on hasa l otofar gume nt sf orconcl udi ng t henew f r e et r ade

14


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agr eement .TheEur opeane xpor tent er st heJ apanes emar ketunderr el at i vel yl ow t ar i f f s － 68. 7％ ofEur opean pr oduct se xpor t edt oJ apan ar edut yf r eeandt heaver agec us t oms t ar i f f samount st oonl y1. 7％.However , Eur opeane xpor t er ss t i l lencount ermanynont ar i f f tofs t udi esandpubl i cc ons ul t at i onsasamaj orbar bar r i er swhi char er ecogni z e dbymos r i ert oEU expor t st oJ apan.Cont e mpor ar yagendabet weenEU andJ apanar el i s t e di n ss ect i onwi l ldi s cus smai nl yEU agenda,andJ apanagendawi l lbeaddedi f Tabl e4.Thi neces s ar i l y. Tabl e4 Agendaf r om EU andJapan Agenda

EU

J apan

NonTar i f fBar r i er s

Aut omobi l e,phar maceut i cal ,medi calequi pme nt ,condi ment s

Tar i f fAbol i t i on

Pr oces s edf oods ,wi ne

Acces s i bi l i t y

Gover nment pr ocur eme nt ,i nves t I nves t ment ,s er vi ce,cont ent s ment ,s er vi ces

Regul at i on

Geogr aphi cali ndi cat i on （GI ）

As s embl ed pr oduct s（aut omobi l e, el ect r i cappl i ances ）

Tr ans par ency,s i mpl i f i cat i on

Ast heEU s i dear gument ,J apani sr egar dedass t i l lcl os ed,es peci al l yf oragr i cul t ur al r ans por tequi pmentandaer onaut i calpr oduct s .Theme nt i onednont ar i f f pr oduct s ,s omet c hc overt hel i on・ ss har eofEU e xpor t ,i . e. bar r i er saf f ectmos t l yt hos ebus i nes ss ect or swhi pr oces s edf oods ,che mi cal s （i ncl udi ngphar maceut i cal s ）,medi caldevi ces ,aut omot i veand t r ans por tequi pment ,t el ecommuni cat i onandf i nanci als er vi ces （EC,2012）.Eur opeanexketduet ot r ade por t er sandi nves t or scannotf ul l yut i l i z et hepot ent i alofJ apanes emar di ngt oas ur vey i mpedi me nt spr event i ngahi ghe rdegr eeofeconomi cc ooper at i on.Accor conduct e di n2009among120Eur opeanf i r msexpor t i ngt oandoper at i ngi nJ apanwi t hi n ketasmor e t heabovement i one ds ect or s ,3/4oft hecompani esper cei vet heJ apanes emar di f f i cul tt hant heot herones .Languagebar r i er ,di f f er ence si nc ons umerpr ef er ence sas ei dent i f i e damongmai ndi f f i cul t i es . we l last echni cals t andar dsandr egul at or yi s s ueswer Addi t i onalc os t sr es ul t i ngf r om t hei ndi cat e dbar r i er si ncr eas et hec os tofe xpor t i ngt o J apan by 1030％,dependi ngon t hes ect or ,and2/3ofs ur veyedcompani esr educet he 12 ket .Among var i et yofexpor t e dgoodsduet oe xi s t i ngbar r i er si nacces st oJ apanes emar

t hemai nobs t acl esf orEur opeanbus i nes swhene nt er i ngandoper at i ngt heJ apanes emar ketar easi nTabl e5.He r e,s peci f i cal l yf oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,phar maceut i cal s l lbemai nl ydi s cus s ed. andc os met i cs ,andaut omobi l e sandaut omot i vec omponent swi

12 60％ ofEUe xpor t er ss t at e dt hatt he yhaveas mal l erormuchs mal l erpr oductr angei nJ apant han ot he rmar ket si nAs i a;39％ decl ar edt hatt hei rf i r m of f er ss ubs t ant i al l yf ewerpr oduct sont he J apanes emar kett hanot herAs i anmar ket s （Sunes ene tal . ,2009）.

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15

Tabl e5 I nt er nat i onalt r adebar r i er s Cat egor i es Tar i f fr el at ed

Res t r i ct i onr el at ed

Cus t om r el at ed

El ement s

Typi calExpor tCat egor i es

Puni t i vet ar i f f s

Aut omobi l e,f oods

Foods t andar d

Foods ,agr i cul t ur e,bever age

Res t r i ct i vei s s ui ngofper mi s s i on

Phar maceut i cal s ,cos met i cs

St r i ctl i cens i ngs ys t em

Al coholwhol es al e,phar maceut i cal s

Unf ai rc ompet i t i onr ul es

Whol es al es ,

Compl expr ocedur ef oropeni ngout l et s Leat herr et ai l

（Sour ce:FTA,2013）

31.Foodandagr i c ul t ur alpr oduc t s I nt hec ont extoft heaboveme nt i one dobs t acl esdi f f i cul tnegot i at i onsmaybee xpect ed i nl i ber al i z at i onoft r adei nagr i cul t ur alpr oduct swhi chi samongpr i or i t i e sofEU negot i at or s .J apanr emai nsoneoft hemos ti mpor t antexpor tmar ket sf ort heEUpr oducer s .The t has har ei nt ot alEU agr i cul t ur alandpr oces s e dagr i cul t ur alpr oduct se xpor t count r ywi at4. 1％,r anksast he5t he xpor tdes t i nat i onf ort heEU（EUR5, 354. 0mi l l i oni n2015）. kethasbeens t r ongl ypr oHowe ver ,t heJ apanes ef oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct smar t ect edbybot hhi ghl yt ar i f fandnont ar i f fbar r i er s .I nt er msofhi ghr at et ar i f f , i n2015, t he y1/3ofagr i cul t ur al hel evelof18. 2％13 andonl s i mpl eaver agef i nalboundt ar i f fwasatt pr oduct si mpor t （by％ oft ar i f fl i nes ）wasdut yf r ee .Tar i f fr at esf orf oodandagr i cul t ur al tpr ot ect e dpr oduct sgr oupi s pr oduct sr eachpeakl evel si nt hi sgr oupofgoods .Themos 14 . dai r ypr oduct swi t hanaver ageappl i e dt ar i f fat76. 3％ andonl y9. 1％ ofdut yf r e el i nes

TheJ apanes emar ketofi mpor t edf oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct sr emai nsi nacces s i bl e notonl yduet ohi ght ar i f f s ,butal s omanye xi s t i ngnont ar i f fbar r i er s ,whi char er ecal l ed he mai n by EU expor t er s as r el evant i mpedi ment f or t r ade expans i on. Among t t l y pr ot ect i oni s t sbar r i er st oi mpor tofagr i cul t ur epr oduct sandf oodar el i s t edf ormos l i cens er egi mesaswe l lasi mpor ts ur char gesandi mpor tper mi t s .Thos er es t r i ct i ons ,apmpor tver ydi f f i cul t .Asf or pl i edt ol i quor s ,dai r yf r oz enpr oduct s ,ands of tdr i nksmakei r i cei mpor t sar el i mi t edbyquot as （FTA,2013）. Regar di ngt hei mpor tofal cohol i cbever agess peci alr es t r i ct i onsr ef ert obot hi mpor t ket .Fore xampl e,mal tandquot amanageands al eoft hos epr oduct satt heJ apanes emar me nts ys t e m,bas e dont ar i f fquot as ys t em f orbr ewi ngmal t ,al l owst hatac ompanymus t manuf act ur ebeerori mpor tmal texcl us i vel yf ort heus eofapar t i cul arbr e wer y.Addi t i on,whi chme anst hatanyi mpor t sus i ng al l y,appl i cat i onf ort hequot aar eonl yt wi ceayear t hequot amus tbebas edonf or ecas t sandnotonact uals hor t t er m demand.Thes ys t e m,

13 Si mpl eaver ageoft hemos tf avor e dnat i ont r eat ment （MFN）appl i edat14. 3％. 14 Tar i f fpeakr at ei nt hi sgr oupr eaches586. 0％.

16


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ai me datpr ot ect i ngJ apanes ebar l eyf ar mer sandmal tmanuf act ur es ,br i ngsi mpedi ment s f ori mpor t edpr oduct soft hi sc at egor y （EBC,2015）. t r i ctl i quorwhol es al el i cens i ngs ys t e m,i nwhi chquot asar er eal J apanappl i e sal s oas l ocat edonl yonceperyear （FTA,2013）.Thel i cens i ngs ys t em i sc ompl exandappl i cat i ons ear , t r ans par entandc ons i s t entmanner .Mor eover , pr i cesofl i quor ar enotpr oces s e di nacl i onalTaxAgencyandt hecat egor i z at i onofal cohol i cbever ages ar econt r ol l e dbyt heNat f ort axpur pos e si sdi f f er entf r om t hatoneus e di nt heEU c ount r i e sort heUni t e dSt at es . I ti sof t endecl ar edbyEur opeane xpor t er st hatpr oductdef i ni t i onsf oral cohol i cbever ages t hi nt er nat i onal l yaccept edpr oducts peci f i cat i ons i nJ apanar ebr oadanddonotcompl ywi t hatar ebas edonpr oduct i onme t hodsandgeogr aphi cali ndi cat i ons .Mor eover ,t hegeot ht heEUor i gi nconcept gr aphi cali ndi cat i ont er mi nol ogyi nJ apani snotcompat i bl ewi ket （EBC, andr ul esandt hr eat enst ounder mi neEur opeanpr oduct si nt heJ apanes emar 2008; EBC, 2015）.Al t hought heJ apanes el i quormar ketbel ongst ooneoft hel ar ges ti nt he t l yc ont r ol l edbydomes t i cpr oducer swi t haver yl i mi t edacces s wor l d,i ts t i l lr e mai nsmos f ori mpor t edpr oduct s ,i ncl udi ngt hos ef r om t heEU.I n2014,i mpor t edpr oduct scons t i ket （EBC,2015）. t ut edonl y4％ oft het ot alJ apanes el i quormar Ot herr el evantobs t acl e si ndi cat e dbyEur opeanexpor t er sder i vef r om t hef actt hat pect sar enothar moni z edwi t hi nt er nat i onal l y J apanes edomes t i cr egul at i onsi nmanyas sal s oappl i est oani malandpl ant r ecogni z e ds t andar dsf orf oods af et yandqual i t y.Thi t r ade.Hi ghc os t sofaddi t i onalconf or mi t yt es t sbecaus eofdeni alofaccept anc ebyJ apaheEU/i nt er nat i onalbodi es ,cons t i t ut eanaddi nes eaut hor i t i esofeval uat i onsmadebyt t i onalbur dens omebar r i erf orexpor tt oJ apan.Manyf oodaddi t i vesofwor l dwi dec ommon us eandr ecogni z edasbei ngs af ebyi nt er nat i onalf oods af et ybodi ess uchast heJ oi nt tCommi t t eeonFoodAddi t i ves （J ECFA）r emai npr ohi bi t edbyJ apan FAO/WHO Exper （EC, 2008）.Thi sel i mi nat escompl et el yf r om t hes al eandi mpor tmanypr oduct scont ai ni ng t headdi t i vesandt her ef or ec r eat ess er i oust r adebar r i erf orEU e xpor toff oodpr oduct s . Subs t ant i ali ncr eas i ngoft hel i s tofr ecogni z edbyt heJ apanes eaut hor i t i e sf oodaddi t i ves laspr ogr es si nmut ualr ecogni t oget herwi t hs hor t enandr evi s edappr ovalpr oces saswel del i mi nat et hedupl i cat ecos t sofeval uat i onofc onf or mi t yas s es s mentpr ocedur eswoul ketoff ood t i onsand e nhancet heacces sf orEur opean expor t er st ot heJ apanes emar pr oduct s （EUJ apanBRT,2013）. Thepr obl em ofdeni alofi nt er nat i onals t andar dsr ef er sal s ot oot heras pect soft r ade 15 .Ther ei snor egul at or y i nf oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,i ncl udi ngani mal sandpl ant s

compl i anc ewi t hCODEX s t andar dsf ors af ef oodaddi t i vesandt es t i ngr egi mesf orpr e－ ketaccent uat e and pos t －har ves tpes t i ci des . Mor eover ,expor t er st ot heJ apanes emar 15 Di f f er entr egul at i onsonor gani cf ood,s t andar dsonnonquar ant i nepes t sar enoti nl i newi t h i nt er nat i onals t andar ds , l egi s l at i onont r adei nbeefandot herBSEpr oduct si snoti nl i newi t ht he Wor l dOr gani z at i onf orAni malHeal t h,pl antquar ant i ner egul at i onsar enoti nl i newi t hGATTs Sani t ar yandPhyt os ani t ar yc hapt er .

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17

manyot hert echni calandadmi ni s t r at i vebar r i er sf ort r adei nf oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,whi chnextt ohi ght ar i f f sandi ncompat i bi l i t yi mpedeef f ect i vel yi mpor tt oJ apan, s s uchass l ow pr oces sofexami nat i onoft hedat as ubmi t t e dandt heques t i onst owhati at /beefi mpor t ,di f f er ents t andar dsf orl abel l i ng,hi gh neces s ar yf orr i s kas s es s mentf orme f umi gat i onc os t s ,orl ow t ol er ancer egi mef ori ns ect sort her equi r ementf orani ndi vi dual or gani cc er t i f i cat et o accompany e ver ys hi pment（EBC,2008;EBC,2014;EBC,2015; Sunes ene tal . ,2009）. 32.Phar mac e ut i c al sandc os me t i c s TheJ apanes emar ket ,duet oi t ss i z e,agei ng popul at i on and l evelofs pendi ng on heal t hcar ei sper cei ve dal s oasanat t r act i vemar ketf orEur opeanpr oducer sofphar maceu16 .Al t houghdur i ngr ecentyear si nmanybar r i er ss uchasi ncompat i bl yofJ apanes e t i cal s

r egul at i onswi t hi nt er nat i onals t andar ds ,i ns uf f i ci entr ewar dofpr oduct s ・i nnovat i onor mpor tpr oces s es （Sunes en etal . ,2009）s omepr ogr es shasbeen achi eved, bur dens omei keti nJ apanmor et r ans par entandacces s i bl e, maki ngi mpor tandt hephar maceut i cal smar t her ear es t i l lnont ar i f fbar r i er swi t hades t r uct i vee f f ectf ori mpor t . 17 r i albas i s ani nnovat i onpr emi um I n2010t heJ apanes eaut hor i t i e si nt r oducedonat

knownast he・ pr emi um t opr omot et hedevel opmentofnew dr ugsande l i mi nat eof f l abel us e・ .Thei ni t i at i vehasr es ul t e di nas har pi ncr eas ei nt henumberofnew dr ugdevel ophemai nt ar getoft hei ni t i at i ve.However , t her ear es t i l l mentpr oj ect si nJ apan, whi c hwast ori nt r oduci ngi nnovat i vepr oduct si nt o r egul at i ons ,whi char eper cei vedasbur dens omef t hemar ket .Forexampl e,ar egul at i ononmax.14dayspr es cr i pt i onofadr ugdur i ngt he chnew dr ugsar enotcomf i r s t12mont hsaf t eri ti sl aunched,r es ul t si ns i t uat i oni nwhi monl ypr es cr i bed.I ti sdes cr i bedbymanypr oducer sasanunneces s ar yr ul eandass uch r i erf ori nnovat i venew pr oduct s （EBC,2014）. act sasabar Evenmor ecompl expr obl e mf orEur opeane xpor t e r sofphar maceut i cal sar el i mi t at hought heJ apanes eGoodCl i ni calPr act i ce （GCP）i nc l i ni cal t i onsi nc l i ni calt r i al s .Al t r i al shasbeenconf or me dt oi nt er nat i onals t andar dsi nr ecentyear s , t her ei ss t i l laneedt o cali ns t i t ut i onsi nt hee f f i ci encyoft hec l i ni cal r educedi f f er encesbet weenJ apanes emedi t r i al st heyconduct .Eur opeanpr oducer sandexpor t er sal s ocompl ai naboutt hei ns uf f i cogni t i on Agr eement （MRA）f orEU18 andJ apanes eGood ualRe ci ents copeoft heMut Manuf act ur i ngPr act i ce （GMP）,whi chr es ul t si ndupl i cat i onofi ns pect i onsandt es t sl eadi ngt oi ncr eas ei ndel aysandc os t s （EBC,2015）.Al s o,nat i onalt es t sf orvacci ne ss houl dbe ni mum（EUJ apanBRT,2015）. el i mi nat edorr educedt oanabs ol ut emi n Somecont r over s i ess t i l lal s oar i s ear oundt heI PR r el at e dt ophar maceut i cal s .Asi manyot herFTAsnegot i at edbyt heEU,Eur opeanpr oducer sandexpor t er sai m notonl y 16 I n2014/2015,10. 3％ ofGDPc ompar e dt ot heOECDaver ageof9. 3％ 17 Ext endedi n2012and2014. 18 MRA e nt er edf or cei n2002.

18


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atbet t eracces st of or ei gndome s t i cmar ket s ,butal s ooni mpr ovi ngpat entpr ot ect i onof i t i ont hatt heJ apan t hei rpr oduct s .I nt hi sconnect i on,t heEur opeanbus i nes si si napos Pat entOf f i ce（J PO）s houl dc ons i ders uppl e ment ar ye xper i ment ale vi dencet os uppor t ype sofappl i cat i ons gener i cdr ugpat entcl ai ms ,ast hecur r entpr act i cei st hatf ormanyt t heJ POgr ant sonl ypr ot ect i onf ore mbodi ment sdi s cl os e di nt heappl i cat i onasf i l ed （EUJ apanBRT,2013）. c hi si mpor t antt oEur opeanexpor t er sandwhi chs t i l l Ot hergr oupofpr oduct swhi ketc ons t i t ut e scos met i csand f acesbur dens omebar r i er si ni mpor tt ot heJ apanes emar quas i dr ugpr oduct s .Al t hought heEU i sani mpor t ants uppl i e roft hos epr oduct s ,duet o t hei rval uer ecogni z edbyJ apanes ec ons umer s ,t her ear es t i l lnont ar i f fobs t acl est ot r ade. Si mi l art of oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,t r adei nc os met i csandquas i dr ugpr oduct s i snegat i vel y af f ect edby t hel ow har moni z at i on ofpr oduct ss t andar ds ,r egul at i onson lass t andar dsf oral t er nat i ve st oani malt es t i ngr edi ent s ,per mi t t ede f f i cacycl ai msaswel i ng （Sunes ene tal . ,2009）.Addi t i onal l y,as l ow val i dat i onpr oces soft es t i ngonc os met i cs makest hatt hel aunc h ofEur opean pr oduct si nJ apan i sof t en s ever el y del ayed,even oduct sar ei ngl obalus eandhavec l i ni cal l ypr ovene f f i cacy.Eur opean t hought hes amepr expor t er sal s oc l ai mt hatt her ei sal ackofs uf f i ci entacces st oi nf or mat i onont heappr oval oces si sevenmor ec ompl i cat e dast heappr ovalof ofdi f f er enti ngr edi ent si nJ apan.Thepr pr oduct smeet i ngexi s t i ngappr ovals t andar dsi sdel egat e dt ot hepr ef ect ur alaut hor i t i es , eadst odi f f er encesi ni nt er pr et at i onbydi f f er entpr ef ect ur alof f i ces （EBC, whi chs omet i mel 2015）. omobi l e sandaut omot i vec ompone nt s 33.Aut Oneoft hemos ti mpor t anti s s ue st obeaddr es s edi nt heagendaofongoi ngnegot i at i onsf ort heEUJ apanFTA i st r adei naut omobi l esandaut omot i vec omponent s .Bot h par t i esar ewor l ds cal ecarpr oducer swi t h wor l dl yr ecogni z ed br ands . TheEur opean l dandJ apanr anksatt he Uni oni st he2ndbi gges tpr oducerofmot orvehi cl e si nt hewor CA,2016）.Regar di ngt r adei naut omobi l e sbet weent heEU andJ apan, 4t hpos i t i on19（OI t her ei sanot i ceabl ei mbal ancei nt r ade.TheEUmar keti smor eat t r act i vef orJ apanes ec ar ound.Accor di ngt oananal ys i spr epar edbyDe l oi t t e manuf act ur er st hant heot herwayr Cons ul t i ngt heJ apanes emar keti snotas t r at egi cmar ketf orEU c arpr oducer sandi t s s hr i nki ng t endenc y and t r adi t i onal・ i nwar dl ooki ng・char act e rdonotbr i ng pr omi s i ng f ut ur epr os pect sf orEU e xpor t er s （Del oi t t e,2012）. act ur er sar es kept i calaboutt hebenef i t sofEUJ apan TheEur opeanaut omobi l emanuf kept i ci s m der i vesf r om f or ecas t ed f r eet r adeagr eementwhi chi sbei ngnegot i at ed.Thes ef f ect sofFTA ont r adei nc ar saswel lase xi s t i ngi mpor tbar r i er si nt heJ apanes emar ket di ngt ot heanal ys i si ti se s t i mat edt hatFTA woul dr es ul t （by andi t sor gani z at i on.Accor 19 Asanat i onaleconomy,J apanr anksatt he3 r daf t ert heUni t edSt at esandChi na.

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19

2020）i n443, 000addi t i onaluni t sexpor t edf r om J apant ot heEUandonl yi n7, 800addi t i onal ket ,whi chi spr edi ct edt o uni t se xpor t edf r om t heEU t oJ apan.I nc ont r as tt ot heEU mar gr ow i ns i z ei nf or t hcomi ngyear s ,t heJ apanes emar keti sf or ecas t edt os hr i nk duet o de mogr aphi ct r ends .Mor eover ,i ti ss t r ongl yi nacces s i bl eduet onont ar i f fbar r i er spos i ng eef f ect i vemar ketpenet r at i on.Addi t i onal l y,t heJ apanes e s i gni f i cantobs t acl e sf ormor 20 i sgi vent ot hemi nicars egment （Kei ）, mar keti squi t es peci f i c－pr ef er ent i alt r eat ment

whi chcur r ent l yc ons t i t ut emor et han40％ ofal ls ol dcar s （i n2014－2, 272, 789uni t sanda eover ,t hes egme nti spr edi ct edt ogr ow t o1/2oft he r ecor dmar kets har eof40. 9％）.Mor t ot almar ketby2020.Thepr oduct i onands al ei nt hi ss egmenti sdomi nat edbyt heJ apaact ur er sandexpor t er sf or m nes epr oducer s ,whi chnat ur al l yel i mi nat esEur opeanmanuf t hes i gni f i cants har eoft hemar ket （Del oi t t e,2012）. heFTA doe snotaddr es st hei s s ueoft r endsands t r uct ur eoft heJ apanes ec ar Ast mar ketandc ons umer s ・ behavi or , t heagr eementi sexpect edt oi mpr oveacces ses peci al l yi n ow l evelofhar moni z at i on of r ef er encet oc ur r entr egul at or y nont ar i f fbar r i er s . Thel J apanes es t andar dswi t hi nt er nat i onal l yr ecogni z edones ,whi chhasbeenal r eadyevoked s ever alt i mesi not herpr oductgr oups , appl i esal s ot ot r adei naut omobi l esandaut omot i ve component s .I nt hi sc ont ext ,Eur opeane xpor t er sper cei vet hehar moni z at i onoft echni cal ti mpor t ants t e pt oi mpr ovet hei rexpor t s t andar dsandc er t i f i cat i onpr ocedur esast hemos pos s i bi l i t i est hats houl dbeaddr es s edi nEUJ apannegot i at i onsagenda.TheEU r epr es eni gnat or yoft heUNECE（Uni t edNat i ons t at i vesaccent uat et hatJ apan,al t houghbei ngas Economi cCommi t t eef orEur ope ）1958Agr eementont hehar moni z at i onoft echni calr et andar dsc over edby qui r e ment sandc er t i f i cat i onpr ocedur es ,s t i l ldoesnotappr oves omes 21 anddoesnotacceptaUN cer t i f i cat easdemons t r at i ngcompl i ance t heUN r egul at i ons

wi t hJ apan・ snat i onalr equi r eme nt s （EBC,2015）.St epst owar dshar moni z at i onandf ul l t andar dswoul dal l ow t os el li nJ apan vehi cl escer t i f i cat e di nt heEU adopt i on ofUN s wi t houtmodi f i cat i onsorf ur t hert es t i ng. Si mi l aref f or t sofadopt i ngi nt er nat i onals t andar dss houl dbeal s ounder t akeni nr ef er e nat i onal ence t or equi r ement sf orcommer ci alvehi cl es（ECJ apan BRT,2015 ）,wher J apan・ sr egul at i onsont hemaxi mum wi dt h,l engt handaxl el oadf orbus es ,t heme t hodof cal cul at i ng gr os svehi cl ewe i ghtand t hee ndur ancet es t i ng r equi r ement sf ore mi s s i on cont r oldevi ce sf orheavydut yvehi cl e sc r eat eaddi t i onalr es t r i ct i onsf orEur opeane xpor t ver ,i ts houl dbeunder l i nedass omepr ogr es si nt hi si s s uehasbeenmadel as t er s .Howe t i meand 2016wi t nes s esf ur t herpr ogr es si n har moni z at i on（adopt i on ofI nt er nat i onal cl eTypeAppr oval （I WVTA）s ys t em）（EBC,2015）. Whol eVehi Low har moni z at i onwi t hUNECEs t andar dsaswel lasl ackofr ecogni t i onoff or ei gn ebar r i er st oget herwi t hs t i l l t es t shamper sal s ot r adei naut omot i vec omponent s .Thos

20 I nt er msoft ax,i ns ur ance,mot or wayt ol l sandpar ki ngr egi s t r at i on. 21 Forexampl e, e mi s s i onofpol l ut ant s , CO2emi s s i onsandf uelcons umpt i onandnoi s ear eadopt ed.

20


（ 74）

exi s t i ngr el i anceofJ apanes epr oducer st ocooper at ewi t haf f i l i at e dcompani e saswel las l egals ys t e m di s t or t i ngf r eeandopenc ompet i t i oni nt hepr ocur ementofcomponentmake ketdi f f i cul tpl acef ort r adei naut omot i vec omponent s .I nt hi sc ont ext t heJ apanes emar act ur er si nt hewor l d,pr es ent si t s el ff orEur opean J apan,asoneoft hegr eat es tcarmanuf expor t er sasaver yat t r act i vemar ketduet oi t ss i z eandpr oduct i ons t r uct ur e,howe ver t i l lexi s t i ngt echni calandadmi ni s t r at i vebar r i er s （EBC,2015）. wi t hmanys Eur opeanpr oducer sper cei veal s oasas i gni f i cantbar r i eri nacces st ot heJ apanes e ss egment （Sunes e ne tal . ,2009）. mar ketr egul at or yandf i s calpr i vi l ege sappl i edt oKeicar Thi ss ys t em ofcl as s i f i cat i onaswe l laspr i vi l egesgi vent ot hos es peci f i cvehi cl esmaket hat keti nJ apan22.I n Eur opeanpr oducer sar eoutoft hel i on・ ss har eoft hepas s e ngercarmar t hi scont ext ,Eur opeanexpor t er sdemandf r om J apanaut hor i t i e st oputKeicar st ot he s amer egul at or yandf i s calf oot i ngasf orot hermot orvehi c l es （EBC,2014）,whi chs houl d ee f f ect i vel yt hi ss egmentf orf or ei gne xpor t er sandal s os t i mul at e enabl et openet r at emor char ecur r ent l yunderdi s cr i mi nat or ypr ovi devel opme ntofot hermar ket ・ ss ect or swhi s i ons .Mor eover ,t heEur opeane xpor t er sal s or ecommendr ef or mi ngt heaut omobi l et ax 23 .Addi t i onal l y,t heEU al s oe ncour s ys t e mi nJ apanbas e doni nt er nat i onalbes tpr act i ces

agest oadoptt oget herbyt heEUandJ apani nt er nat i onal l yhar moni z eds t andar dst ome as dbeabas ef ort axs ys t em pr omot i ng ur ef uelef f i ci encyande xhaus te mi s s i ons , whi chwoul envi r onme nt al l yf r i endl yvehi cl es （EBC,2015）.

4.AnAnal yt i calFr amewor k Gener al l y, FTAi sexpect e dt os ol veabovel i s t e dpr obl ems , es peci al l yt ar i f fandr egul at i oni s s ues .Accor di ngt os t andar di nt er nat i onaleconomi ct heor y,f r eet r adecanbeexr y・ seconomy（Bhagwat ietal . ,1998）.Thi sbel i efi sbas edon pect edt oi mpr oveacount heor ys ugges t st hatanyc ount r yc ane xpor tas pecompar at i veadvant aget heor y.Thet ci f i cpr oduc ti ft het heor yc oul dwor k.Even l owerpr oduct i vi t yc ount r yc ompar edt o anot he rc ount r yc ane xpor twhenr el at i vepr oduct i vi t ydi f f er encebet weenpr oduct se xi s t r y.Gandol f o （1998）expl ai nst hatcompar at i veadvant agec anbedef i nedast he i nacount t i esi nt hes amec ount r y, orast he r at i obet weent heabs ol ut euni tcos t soft het wocommodi t yi nt het woc ount r i es . r at i obet weent heabs ol ut euni tcos t soft hes amecommodi Eveni npur eandr i gor oust heor et i cals et t i ng,compar at i veadvant agec anwor kunder r i esdi f f e rf r om eachot her .Onei mpor t ant ver ys t r i ctcondi t i ons .Fi r s t ,t hes et wocount cont r i but i onofcompar at i veadvant aget heor yi st hateve ns mal lcount r yc ane xpor ts ome e, s mal lcount r yme ansl es spr oduct i vi t y.Second, eac hc ounpr oductt ol ar gec ount r y.Her t houtanypol i t i cal t r ymus tt r ans f e ri t se conomi cor gani z at i onals t r uct ur equi ckl y,andwi

22 I tappl i e se vent oEur opeanc ompactcar s . 23 Taxs ys t em ont hepur chas eandowner s hi pofmot orvehi cl es .

（ 75）


21

i nt er r upt i on. Tabl e6s howsas i t uat i oni nwhi c hcompar at i veadvant agesar ewor ki ng.Her e,as oduct s （carandr i ce）.Now, s umet woc ount r i es ,Thai l andandJ apan,pr oduc et hes amepr Thai l andcanpr oduce900t onr i ceby100l aborand300car sby100l abor .I ncont r as tt o aborr es our ces .I nt hi scas e, Thai l and,J apancando1 000 t onr i ceand500car sbys amel J apanhasabs ol ut eadvant agef orpr oduci ngbot hpr oduct st hanThai l anddoes . Tabl e6 Exampl eofc ompar at i veadvant aget heor y Ri ce Pr oduct i on

Car Labor

Pr oduct i on

Labor

Thai l and

900

100

300

100

J apan

1000

100

500

100

1900

200

800

200

Tot al

However , Thai l andc ane xpor tr i c ebecaus ei thascompar at i veadvant ageofpr oduci ngr i ce i de ranoppor t uni t yc os t s . compar edt oJ apan.Now,cons Thai l and:1r i ce＝ 300/900 （1/3）car J apan:1r i ce＝ 500/1000 （1/2）car t hl ower Undert hi sc ondi t i on,Thai l andhasc ompar at i veadvant aget opr oduc er i cewi oppor t uni t yc os tt hanJ apan・ s .I ti sbet t erf orThai l andt oc oncent r at eonc ul t i vat i ngr i ce. e7.Fr om t hi snew Now, bot hc ount r i eshaves hi f t edt hei rpr oduct i onor gani z at i onsi nTabl economi cor gani z at i ons ,bot hc ount r i esgai naddi t i onalbenef i t sbel ow. Tabl e7 I mpr ovedpr oduct i onsbyc ompar at i veadvant age Ri ce Pr oduct i on

Car Labor

Pr oduct i on

Labor

Thai l and

1800

200

0

0

J apan

300

20

900

180

2100

220

900

180

Tot al

et i cal l y,compar aThi ss t andar dunder s t andi ngpr ai s esi nt er nat i onalf r e et r ade.Theor t i veadvant agei sr i gor ousandr obus tande conomi cal l yi sexpect edt oi mpr ovee conomi c ver ,FTA s omet i mesencount er eddi f f i cul t i e sand per f or manc easabovee xampl e .Howe e,t hes et hr eeagendas houl dbec ons i der ed. of t endel ayedt or eacht heagr ee ment s .Her Fi r s t ,compar at i veadvant ageas s umeds omes i gni f i cantdi f f er enc ebet weent woc ounf f er encei ss mal l er t r i es ,t houghbet weenEU andJ apan,t her ear ef ew di f f er ences .Thedi t hans i mi l ar i t yi s .TheEU s peci al i z e si npr oduci ngphar maceut i cal s ,aut omobi l e,or gani c

22


（ 76）

chemi cal s ,opt i caldevi ces ,andpr i memover （compactmot or ）,ands oon.SodoesJ apan. r i es .Onl yc os t Even t hi ss i t uat i on,i nt er nat i onalt r adec an e xecut ebet ween t wocount di f f er ence smat t er ,t heor et i cal l y.Thi smeans ,i fcos tdi f f er enc ewoul dnotexi s t ,t r adedi d notpr oceed.Bot hc ount r i eswi l lnotgai nanybenef i tf r om t het r ade.Second, t hi si sr el at ed epr act i cal .I ft her ei sbi gc ompar at i veadvant aget or i cei n t ot hef i r s tone,butaf ew mor chdoesnoteatr i cewi l lnoti mpor tr i ce.Theor et i cal l y, exchange Thai l and, t hec ount r ywhi xpor tpr oductwi l lencount e rt hes el l i ngpr obl em r at ewi l li ncr eas ee xt r emel yhi gh.Anye whi chi st hes amei ndomes t i cmar ket i ngpr obl em.Cus t ome r sdonotbuywhatt heydonot t hexchanger at ef i xed, want ,nei t he rneed.Pr act i cal l y,expor tpr oces sdoesnotbegi nwi butpos s i bi l i t yofexpor ti st hef i r s t .Andt hi r d,f r e et r adeagr eementi ss omet i mesi nt er r upt edpol i t i cal l y.Economi cmot i vat i onc angoovernat i onalboar de re as i l y,butpol i t i i on.Speci f i cal l y,agr i cul t ur ei nJ apanhasbeen ci anspr ot ectandkeept hepeaceofanat peci f i cpol i t i calpar t y. pr ot ect edbys ever alwaysbecaus ei tcanor gani z at i onal l yvot ei nas Tot hem,anye vi denceandanys ci ent i f i ce xpl anat i onwi l lnotwor k. Fori ns t ance,t ar i f f sofJ apanar egener al l yl ow amongG20count r i es .J apani sal r eady i gur e r el at i vel yopencount r y.Fi gur e7i ndi cat ess ampl esoft ar i f fi nG20count r i es .Thef egends: t heaver ageofal lpr oduct sbygr ayc ol umnandaver ageofagr i cul t ur al s howst wol pr oduct sbygr eenc ol umn.Thehi ghes tt ar i f fofal lpr oduct saver agei nG20count r i esi si n t r al i a （2. 7％）.Ther at ei nJ apani s4. 2％,l ower Ar gent i na （13. 6％）andt hel owes ti nAus t hant heaver agef ort heEU（5. 3％）. ea （52. 7％）andt hel owes t I nagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,t hehi ghes tt ar i f fi sappl i edi nKor （％） 60. 0 50. 0 40. 0 30. 0 20. 0

■ Al lPr oduct s

■ Agr i cul t ur al

（Sour ce:WTO,2015b）

Fi gur e7 Aver aget ar i f f sf oragr i cul t ur alpr oduct sMFN appl i ed2014i nG20count r i es

USA

UK

Tur key

Sout hAf ri ca

SaudiArabi a

Rus s i a

Mexi co

Kor ea

J apan

I t al y

I ndones i a

I ndi a

Ger many

Fr ance

EU

Chi na

Canada

Br az i l

Aus t r al i a

0. 0

Ar gent i na

10. 0

（ 77）


23

i nAus t r al i a （agai n,1. 2％）.Some t i mesJ apani sdes cr i bedasahi ght ar i f fcount r yf oragr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,butt hi sf i gur er eveal edt hef act .I ti s14. 3％ andnots ohi ghamongG20 i f ff orr i c ei nJ apanappl i e sJ PY 402 （EUR2. 8,2016）perkg.Thi ss omet i mes count r i es .Tar i sc al l e dover600％ or700％ t ar i f f . apani snotahi ght ar i f fcount r y,r at herl owert hant heaver age Thi se vi dences howsJ e,andcons equent l y anai ve count r y. Thes peci f i ci t em,r i ce,becomesoneext r e mecas i mpr es s i onofJ apanasahi ghl ypr ot ect edmar ket .Thi si st hedomes t i cpol i t i cali s s ue, not hi ngel s e.Someonecer t ai nl ygai nsbene f i tundert hi si mpr es s i on.I nJ apan,i ti spubhatt heas s oci at i oncommuni t yofagr i cul t ur ehasbeendomi nat e dJ apanes e l i cl yknownt l dWarI I . agr i cul t ur eaf t erWor Thes t andar di nt er nat i onaleconomi ct heor ye xpl ai nst hatt hei mpor tofcheapergoods i mpr ove sr eali ncomesi ni mpor t i ngc ount r y （Kr ugmane tal . ,2014）.Pol i t i cali s s ues omeew manuf act ur es .Manyc ons umer swi l lgai nbenef i t sf r om f r ee t i meswi l lbes kewe dbyaf ew manuf act ur es .Theys t r ongl yr ej ectFTA. i nt er nat i onalt r ade,l os sc oncent r at e sonaf Forexampl e,t heUni t edSt at esr es t r i ct ss ugari mpor t .I tcanbee val uat edt hatcons umer s t edSt at eswas t ef ors i xdol l ar si nayear （i nt ot alUSD150mi l l i on）.Though i nt heUni heywi l lhaves t r ongi ncencons umerwi l lnothavepos i t i vei ncent i vet oi nt r oduceFTA,t t i vest opr ot ectFTA becaus es ugarpr oducer sgai nsf r om t hi sr es t r i ct i on. Though i ti ss omet i mesr at i onal l yc r i t i ci z ed,pr ot ect i oni s m c an s ur vi vebecaus ei t i cehadi mpor t ed i onal i s m.J apanes ec as emus tmat cht ot hi sc as e.Thoughr pr ocl ai msnat

Expect ednumberofpar t i ci pant s

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415 16 1718 19 20212223242526272829 Numberofper s onswhoact ual l yc ompl ai n ■ Expect ednumberofpar t i ci pant s

Ac cumul at ednumberofpoepl e

（Sour ce:Yamagi s hi ,2002,p. 68）

Fi gur e8 Ananal yt i calf r amewor kofpol i t i calbehavi or s

24


（ 78）

f r om Chi na, i twasof t e nr egar dedasJ apanes eor i gi nandc oul dbee xpr es s edJ apanes es oul . s i ng, Pr act i cal l y,t her ei snor at i onals ol ut i onst ot hi spr ot ect i oni s m,butonl yt i mepas gener at i onc hange.Cons i de ranal yt i calf r amewor kbyus i ngFi gur e8. Thi sf i gur ehast wodi mens i ons .Thehor i z ont alaxi sr ef er st onumberofper s onswho compl ai nagai ns tpr ot ect i oni s m.Thi sdi mens i onbegi ns0t o29. 0meanst hatt her ei sno i z ont alaxi si ndi cat est henumber per s onwhoi scompl ai ni ngpr ot ect i oni s m now.Thehor ofper s onswhoar egoi ngt opar t i ci pat ei ft henumberofcol umnbardi s pl ays .Forexampl e, sgoi ngt opar t i ci pat et hec l ai m, i ft her ei snoact ual l yc ompl ai ni ng t her ei soneper s onwhoi hehor i z ont alnumber10, per s on,namel y,t hehor i z ont alnumber0andt hever t i cal1.Att t hi sme anst her ewi l lbee xpect ed6per s onswhoar egoi ngt opar t i ci pat et hecl ai mi ng,i f eact ual l yc l ai mi ngnow. Thi sf i gur edes cr i besdependent t her ear e10per s onswhoar behavi oramongJ apanes e .I ti ss ai dt hatJ apanes eof t e n ar ei nf l uencedby t heot her s ・ opi ni ons .Thi si saki ndofcol l ect i vi s m andact ual l yr egar dedast hef r equencydependence e,t hebet t er .I tcanbes ai dc ompl ementequi l i br i um. deci s i onmaki ng,i tmeanst hemor Now, as s umeavi l l agewi t h32r es i dent s .Thevi l l agehasonepol i t i ci anand31i ndus t r i f f er entbus i nes s .I nt er nat i onalt r adepol i c yoft hi s al i s t s .Eachofr es i dent shasowndi vi l l agei smoder at epr ot ect i oni s m.Mos tofi ndus t r i eshavebeenpr ot ect e dbyt ar i f f .Howndus t r i esar eget t i ngopenedi nt er nat i onal l y,butabacuspr oduceri s ever ,r ecent l ys omei t he xt r emel yhi ght ar i f f .Hence, t hi svi l l agel ayson600％ t ar i f fonan s t r ongl ypr ot ect edwi el ect r oni c sc al cul at or .30peopl ei nt hevi l l agef el tdi s cont entwi t ht hi spr ot ect i oni s m,but hevi l l aget r adi t i on,i tr epr es ent edvi l l age・ s t hepol i t i ci anagi t at e dt hatt heabacuswast dl i ket opr ot ectt hei rown s oul .30peopl ec oul dnotpr ot es ts ever el ybecaus et heyal s owoul i ndus t r i es . Fr om t hef i gur e,i ti sappar enti ft her ear e14per s ons ,t hi sc ompl ai ni ngact i vi t yc an ewai t i ngf orpar t i ci pat i on,i f achi evet hepur pos e.Becaus e,t her ear e17per s onswhoar ec ompl ai ni ng.I nc ont r as tt oaccumul at i on,i f13per s onsar e t her ear e15per s onswer compl ai ni ngagai ns tpr ot ect i oni s m,onl y12per s onswoul dl i ket oj oi n.I nt hi sc as e,t he numberi squi ckl ygoi ngt odecl i net o1. Fort heabovedi s cus s i on,onei mpl i cat i oncanbeder i vedt hatt hei ni t i alcondi t i oni s dagr eet oopent hemar ket , cr i t i cal .Fori ns t ance,ast hei ni t i alcondi t i on,13per s onswoul ew per s onswi l l butt hi scas eJ apan cannotachi evet hepol i t i calcons ens usbecaus eaf qui ckl ywi t hdr aw f r om par t i ci pat i on.Ther ef or e,t hepr agmat i ci s s uet oi nt r oducenew nf l uence st hei ni t i alcondi t i on.Ass ugges t edabove,i tmi ght pr act i ce swi l lf ocusonwhati begener at i ons .Fori ns t ance,i nabovecas e,acer t ai ngener at i onhasl ear nthow t ous e ear egoodatabacusc al cul at i on.Theyc annotabandonabacusf or abacusandmanypeopl l lbet endedt opr ot ectt heabacusi ndus t r y.However , cal cul at i on,t hen,t hei rpr ef er enc ewi nextgener at i oni snotgoodatc al cul at i ngwi t habacus ,r at he rt hee l ect r oni cc al cul at or . Thi sgener at i ondoesnothes i t at et oe l i mi nat et het ar i f f .

（ 79）


25

Concl us i ons Thepur pos eoft hi spaperi st odevel op t hepr el i mi nar y anal yt i calf r amewor kf or f os t er i ngFTA negot i at i onbet weenEU andJ apan.Thee xi s t i ngbar r i er sf orEur opean 24 .Thi scr eat ess i t uat i oni nwhi cht hei s s ueof t l yofnont ar i f fchar act er expor t er sar emos

nont ar i f fbar r i er ss houl dbeaddr es s e dast hebi gges tchal l engef orEur opeannegot i at or s ketf orEur opeane xpor t er s .Thenont ar i f fbar r i i ni mpr ovi ngacces st ot heJ apanes emar 25 andi n er sar ee s peci al l ybur dens omei ns ect or sofagr eati mpor t ancet ot heEU e xpor t s

s ect or s ,wher ec ur r ent l yappl i e dt ar i f f sr emai nr el at i vel yl ow. 26 ,t henont ar i f f Al t hought her ear es t i l ls omet ar i f fpeaksi ndi f f er entpr oductgr oups

bar r i er sr emai noneoft hemai ns t umbl i ngbl ockss l owi ngdownt hepr ogr es soft hewhol e t h EUJ apan FTA negot i at i ons （Nel s on,2012）. Thel ow har moni z at i on ofs t andar dswi t hos er ecogni z e d commonl yi nt hewor l d（al s oby i nt er nat i onalor gani z at i onss uch as UNECA）andt hel ackoft r ans par enc yofexi s t i ngnat i onalr egul at i onsandpr oces s es （e. g. , tbur dens omebar r i er st ot r adeandi nves t ment s . l i cens i ng）ar el i s t edamongt hemos 27 f acedi s cr i mi naact ur er s ,butal s omanyEur opeans er vi cec ompani es Notonl ymanuf

t or yt r eat mentatt heJ apanes emar kett hr oughdomes t i cnat i onalr egul at i onsf ors peci f i c lasnont r ans par ent （ands ome s ect or s ,r es t r i ct i onsi nt r oducedbyl ocalaut hor i t i esaswel t i mesuni quec ompar edt ogl obalenvi r onment ）r egul at i onsr el at i ngt of or ei gndi r ecti nr i er s ves t ment sandc ompet i t i onpol i cy.Eur opeane xpor t er s /i nves t or sf aceal s omanybar npr obl emat i ci s s uesi nt hi sar ea i nacces st oJ apanes epubl i cpr ocur e ments ect or .Mai i ncl udet hel ackofs i ngl epubl i cpr ocur ementof f er sdat abas e,uncl earqual i f i cat i onc ondi t i ons ,r es t r i ct e dt ender sl i s t ,hi ghval uet hr es hol dsf orc ont r act sopent of or ei gnpr ovi der s andr equi r ede xper i enc ei npr ovi di nggoodsands er vi cesi nJ apan. hef ut ur ef r eet r adeagr eeme ntone Thee conomi cpot ent i aloft heEUandJ apanmaket ucces s f ul oft hemos ti mpor t antt r adef r amewor ksbet weendevel opedc ount r i es .Thes concl us i onoft heambi t i ousandc ompr ehens i veEUJ apanFTA,andt hr ought hi st ackl i ng heEur opeanUni onandJ apan, t hedi f f er ence sbet weene conomi candbus i nes ss ys t e msoft i sofcr uci ali mpor t ancet obot hpar t ner snotonl yt os t i mul at ebi l at er aleconomi candt r ade mpet usf oreconomi cgr owt honbot hs i des .Ass t at e di nmany l i nks , butal s ot ogi veanew i t ht heEU, anal ys i sand c omment s ,J apanes eFTAs ,i ncl udi ng t hatbei ng negot i at ed wi mi ghtbeus e dbypol i t i ci ansasanar gumentf orr ef or msandr es t r uct ur i ngofs omeJ apach s houl d bei mpl ement ed nes eeconomy s ect or s（asa nexts t ep ofAbe no mi c s ）,whi whet hert hec ompr ehens i veagr ee mentwi l lbef i nal l yachi eve dornot . 24 25 26 27

Ther ei sr el at i vel yl ow t ar i f ff orgoodsi mpor t edt oJ apanf r om t heEU. Pr oces s e df oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,phar maceut i cal sandt r ans por tequi pment . Pr oces s e df oodandagr i cul t ur alpr oduct s ,l eat her ,f oot wear . Mos t l yi nf i nance,banki ng,t el ecommuni cat i on,pos t als er vi cesandt r ans por t .

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St r ongerpr es enceofEur opeanbus i nes si nJ apan,al s ot hr oughf or ei gndi r ecti nves t ketands t i mul at ei nment s ,s houl di ncr eas ecompet i t i onatt hi sr el at i vel yr es t r i ct e dmar cr eas ei ncompet i t i venes sofmanys ect or sofJ apan・ seconomy.Thef or ecas t edi mpactof t ner s －t he t hec ompr ehens i veEUJ apanf r eet r adeagr eementi ndi cat est hatt heGDPofpar EU andJ apan－woul di ncr eas eby0. 8％ and0. 7％ r es pect i vel y.Mor eover ,t heEU e xpor t de xpandby23. 5％（EC, 2012）. coul di ncr eas eby32. 7％, whi l eJ apan・ sexpor tt ot heEUwoul Ast heeconomi cr el at i onsdur i ngt hel as tdecadehavebeencons i der edt obebel ow e conomi cpot ent i alofbot hpar t ner s ,t henew agr eements houl ds uppor tr evi t al i z at i onand act uat i onofbi l at er alt r adeandi nves t mentl i nks . Ci t at i ons Ber kof s ky,Axel （2012）,・ EUJ apan Rel at i onsf r om 2001t oToday:Achi evement s ,Fai l ur e sand Pr os pect s , ・J apanFor um,Vol . 24,No. 3,pp.265288. Bhagwat i ,J agdi s h N. ,Ar vi nd Panagar i na,and T. N. Sr i ni vas an（1998）,Le c t ur e so nI nt e r nat i onal Tr ade ,SecondEdi t i on,Cambr i dge,MA:MI TPr es s . Bl ument hal ,Tuvi a （1972）,・ Expor t sandEconomi cGr owt h:TheCas eofPos t warJ apan, ・Quar t e r l y J our nalo fEc onomi c s ,Vol . 86,No. 4,pp.61731. Car baugh,Rober tJ . （2013）,I nt er nat i onalEconomi cs ,Fi f t eent h Edi t i on,Bos t on,MA:Cengage Lear ni ng. Counci loft heEur opeanUni on（2011）， 20t hEUJ apanSummi tBr us s e l s ,28May2011,J oi ntPr es s St at e ment ,Pr es s e16211015/11,Br us s el s . dePr adoYe pes ,Ces ar （2014）,Pr os pe c t sf ort heEUJ apanSt r at e gi cPar t ne r s hi p:A Gl obalMul t i Le ve l andSWOTAnal ys i s ,Br us s el s ,Bel gi um:EUJ apanCent r ef orI ndus t r i alCooper at i on. Eur opeanBus i nes sCounci li nJ apan （EBC）（2008 ）, Ec onomi cI nt e gr at i on:TheNe wRe f or m Par adi gm －TheEBC Re por tont heJ apane s eBus i ne s sEnvi r onme nt2008,Tokyo,J apan:TheEur opean Bus i nes sCounci l . Eur opeanBus i nes sCounci li nJ apan （EBC）（2014 ）,Taki ngAc t i on:TheEBCRe por to nt heJ apane s e Bus i ne s sEnvi r onme nt2014,Tokyo,J apan:TheEur opeanBus i nes sCounci l . Eur opeanBus i nes sCounci li nJ apan（EBC）（2015）,Gol de nOppor t uni t y. TheEBC Re por tont he J apane s eBus i ne s sEnvi r onme nt2015,Tokyo,J apan:TheEur opeanBus i nes sCounci l . Eur opeanCommi s s i on （EC）（2012 ）,Commi s s i onSt af fWor ki ngDo c ume nt .I mpac tAs s e s s me ntRe por t onEUJ apanTr adeRe l at i onsAc c ompanyi ngt hedoc ume nt :Re c omme ndat i onf oraCounc i lDe c i s i on aut hor i s i ngt heo pe ni ngo fne got i at i onso naFr e eTr adeAgr e e me ntbe t we e nt heEur ope anUni on andJ apan,COM（2012）390andSWD（2012）209,Br us s el s ,Bel gi um:Eur opeanCommi s s i on. EUJ apanBus i nes sRoundTabl e （EUJ apanBRT）（2013）,Re c omme ndat i onsoft heEUJ apanBus i ne s sRoundTabl et ot heLe ade r soft heEur ope anUni onandJ apan,Wor ki ngPar t yA:Tr ade Rel at i ons ,I nves t me ntandRegul at or yCooper at i on,Br us s el s ,Bel gi um:EUJ apanCent erf or I ndus t r i alCooper at i on. EUJ apanBus i nes sRoundTabl e （EUJ apanBRT）（2015）,Re c omme ndat i onsoft heEUJ apanBus i ne s sRoundTabl et ot heLe ade r soft heEur ope anUni onandJ apan,Wor ki ngPar t yA:Tr ade Rel at i ons ,I nves t mentandRegul at or yCooper at i on,Br us s el s ,Bel gi um:EUJ apanCent e rf or I ndus t r i alCooper at i on. Eur os t at , （2011）,Ext e r nalandi nt r aEU t r ade －as t at i s t i c alye ar book.Dat a19582010,Luxembour g,

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