pale0parasit0l0gy in the middle-east: state of the ...

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PALE0PARASIT0L0GY IN THE MIDDLE-EAST: STATE OF THE RESEARCH AND POTENTIAL ORTADOĞU'DA PALEOPARAZİTOLOJİ: ARAŞTIRMALARIN GELDİĞİ DÜZEY VE ÖNGÖRÜLER

Masoud NEZAMABADI - Stephanie HARTER-LAILHEUGUE - Matthieu LE BAILLY

Keywords: Paleoparasitology, Host-parasite relationship, evolution, Middle East, Near East. Anahtar Sözcükler: Paleoparazitoloji, Host-parazit ilişkileri, evrim, Ortadoğu, Yakındoğu

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0 ABSTRACT The study of ancientparasites, known aspaleoparasitology, has considerably developed since it was initiated almost a cen tury ago. The aim of this specific field of research is to contribute to our knowledge on die way of life of ancient popula tions by documenting the history and the evolution of host-parasite relationship, paleopathology, diet, funerary practices, and cultures are some topics that can be enquired by working on preservedparasite markers. Due to their location at the crossroad different geographic and cultural zones, the Middle- and Near-East are among the regjons that has a highpotential toprovide data on paleoparasitobgical studies. It is thus surmised that the study ofancient parasites in this regbn, besides contributing data on life's of past populations in this region, would help detecting migra tions and interaction among different communities. The paper is a general overview on the study of ancientparasites and the possible applications of this field; prospects for future paleoparasitobgical studies in the Middle-East will also be considered As there is a generalpaucity ofpaleoparasitalogbal studies in this regbn, the necessity to make further analyses is self-evident.

ÖZET Yüzyıldır gelişerek varlığmı devam ettiren paleoparazitoloji, eski dönemlere aitparazitlerin inceleyen bir alan dır. Bu araştırma alanı host-parazit ilişkilerinin tarihini ve evrimini anlamayı amaçlamakta ve geçmiş top lumların yaşam biçimlerine dair ek bilgiler sunmaktadır. Korunmuş parazitler üzerinde çalışılarak paleopatoloji, beslenme, ölü gömme gelenekleri ve kültürler hakkında bilgilere ulaşılabilir. Orta ve Yakındoğu, diğer bölgelerle kıyaslandığında, paleoparzitolojik bilgi sağlayabilecek coğrafi alanlar arasında öne çıkmaktadır; kavşak niteliğindeki coğrafi ve kültürel konumu düşünüldüğünde, bu bölgedeki eski parazitlerin incelenmesi hem geçmiş yerleşik hayat üzerine, hem de göçler ve toplumlar arasındaki her

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türlü mal aktaran yollarıyla ilgili yeni veriler sağlayacaktır. Esfdparazüler ve olası uygulamaları hakkındaki tartışmaya ek olarak Ortadoğu bölgesipaleoparazitobjik çahşmalan için genel bir gözden geçirme önerilmektedir. Araştırmalar, bu alanda az sayıda çalışmanın yapıldığım ve burada bu tip ana lizlerin yapılmasının gerekliliğini ortaya koymaktadır.

INTRODUCTION Parasites have accompanied animals and humans for several thousand years. They have lived around us and evolved in relation to the changes in our way of life over time and space. Moreover, some species of human parasites are significant causes of endemic or epidemic diseases in the world such as malaria, leishmaniasis, ascariasis, bilharziosis, hydatidosis, lymphatic filariosis, sleeping sickness, amoebic dysentery, hookworm infection, etc., and have some important effects on cultural development (Nozais 2003; Reinhard and Araujo 2008). Therefore, par asites are good markers and can be used to impro ve our knowledge of ancient populations. This research field, known as paleopathology or archaeoparasitology, is defined as the study of ancient rem nants that indicate the presence of parasites in the past By using archaeological data and materials, and combi ning those with parasitological evidence found in the related samples, this interdisciplinary science focuses on the history of relationships between parasite infection, environment and the behavior of hosts (Araujo and Fer¬ reira 2000; Araujo et al. 2003; Reinhard and Araujo 2008). It aims to provide complementary information about health, diet, culture and other aspects of archaeo logical interest, and to furnish data on parasite evolution. Since its beginnings and the works of Ruffer (Ruffer 1910), paleoparasitology has obtained a large amo unt of data on ancient parasites and it is now possible to start compiling them to retrace parasite history (Araujo et al. 1988; Araujo and Ferreira 1995; Fer¬ reira and Araujo 1996; Guhl et al. 2000; Monteneg ro et al. 2006; L e Bailly and Bouchet 2010). Howe ver, and despite the growing interest in bioarchaeologjcal analyses, ancient parasites have been little stu died in many regions (Bouchet et al. 2003; Gonqalves et al. 2003; Sianto et al. 2009). The Middle and Near East is one of these regions where paleoparasitological analyses needs to be undertaken.

This paper presents some generalities about research on ancient parasites, the main objectives and pers pectives, and the state-of-the-art of paleoparasitological analyses in the Middle-East, with a particu lar focus on human and animal intestinal parasites.

WHAT AND WHERE? PARASITE MARKERS AND SAMPLING STRATEGY Ancient human and animal parasite evidence is based on the recovery of preserved markers of dif ferent natures. These remnants can be divided into four groups as follows: ARTHROPOD MACRO-REMAINS The remains of arthropods such as ectoparasites (Samuels 1965; Dittmar et al. 2003; Guerra et al. 2003) or vectors (Azar and Nel 2003; Hume et al. 2003; Martins-Neto 2003) maybe preserved in dif ferent archaeological contexts; however, in very few cases, some body parts of parasites such as hel minths have been found (Reinhard 1985; Reinhard et al. 1988; Bouchet and Paicheler 1995). Remains of lice, ticks and fleas can be found on the skin, hair or clothes and grooming accessories of ancient peop le (Reinhard and Buikstra 2003). The remnants of insects and animals (vectors and reservoirs) and other hosts of parasites are also studied in the fields of zooarchaeology and paleoentomology (Azar and Nel 2003; Martins-Neto 2003; Insoll and Hutchins 2005; Tougard and Renvoise 2008). ANCIENT ANTIGENS Malaria, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease and amoe bic dysentery are some prominent diseases caused by single-celled organisms known as protozoa. Tra ces of parasitic protozoan antigens can be identified

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as having been the cause of some diseases and even death. Furthermore, some helminthic diseases such as hydatidosis, taeniasis or fluke diseases can be retraced via their parasitic antigens ( L e Bailly et al. 2005). Recovering parasite paleo-antigens requires the use of different immunological techniques such as E L I S A or immune-fluorescence. Advances in immunology over the last ten years improved knowledge about some ancient human protozoa of medical importance such as the pathogenic amoeba, Entamoeba histolytica, (Gonqalves et al. 2004; L e Bailly and Bouchet 2006b) or giardiasis (Gonqalves et al. 2002; L e Bailly et al. 2008). ANCIENT DNA Ancient D N A from parasite remains is a valuable marker that could be preserved in each ancient parasitic sample. The determination of ancient D N A can prove the family, genus and species of the parasitic elements and be used in the comparative study of parasites. The use of molecular biology in the study of ancient parasite D N A is currently a challenge for paleoparasitologists. It should lead to a real comprehension of parasite genome evolution, but moreover, could allow anticipating possible parasite biological adaptation (Ferreira et al. 2000; Loreille et al. 2001; Martinez et al. 2003; Iniguez et al. 2006, Leles et al. 2008). EGGS The eggs are produced by worms or helminths parasitizing human or animal gastrointestinal tracts. Their size varies from 30 to 150 fim and they can be recovered from archaeological samples or museum specimens related to human or animal activities (Pike 1968; Reinhard et al. 1988; Bouchet 2003; L e Bailly et al. 2006a). The different form and characterization of each parasite egg can be distinguished by using a microscope to identify parasite genera, or even species. Helminth eggs are historically the first markers that were used to study ancient parasites (Ruffer 1910). They are still the major residues that can be extracted from archaeological samples.

In practice, parasites can be found in all contexts impacted by human activities. Since paleoparasitology essentially focuses on intestinal parasites, all elements or structures containing or polluted by human or animal fecal matter which may accumulate parasites (coprolites, sediment samples from skeletons, occupation layers, core samples, etc.) are relevant. The major contexts or structures on which paleoparasitological analyses may be conducted and some general indications for sampling strategy are given in Table 1.

APPLICATIONS FOR PALE0PARASIT0L0GICAL STUDIES Paleopathology, as well as the study of the health status and sanitary conditions of ancient people, is the first aim of paleoparasitology. Therefore, paleoparasitology needs to review archaeological, zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical and paleoenviromental data, historical documents or manuscripts, and other related studies in order to interpret and analyze ancient parasites. The presence of parasite species in ancient samples shows various characteristics of the social (Bouchet et al. 2003), cultural (Reinhard 1988; Matsui et al. 2003; L e Bailly et al. 2005; Reinhard and Araújo 2008), ethnological (Home 1985; Harter et al. 2004) and even ideological (Starna 1992) status of ancient human life. I n addition, ancient life style, food preparation, agriculture, diet (Callen and Cameron 1960; Fry 1980; Reinhard 1992), refuse management and medicinal development (Reinhard et al. 1985; Chaves and Reinhard 2006) could be recognized by paleoparasitological studies. Such analyses can also provide additional data concerning the function of uncharacterized dug structures. Parasites have also been used as evidence of prehistoric human migrations and populations (Andrews 1976; Araujo et al. 1988,2008; Araujo and Ferreira 1995; Hume et al. 2003), geographical distribution and paleoepidemiology of disease (Hermann 1988; Miller et al. 1992; Nozáis 2003; Dittmar 2009; Leles et al. 2010; L e Bailly et al. 2010). Because of the relationship between certain parasites and their specific ecological conditions (Reinhard

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1992), parasite remains can be a valuable source for the paleoenviromental reconstruction of climate change and ecological characteristics of an ancient site (Martinson et al. 2003; Montenegro et al. 2006; Arriaza et al. 2010). Moreover, parasitologists, like zooarchaeologists, deal with domestication and cross-infection between humans and animals (Kliks 1983; Martinson et al. 2003; Dittmar 2009; Sianto et al. 2009).

STATE-OF-THE-ART OF PALE0PARASIT0L0GICAL STUDIES IN THE MIDDLE-EAST Few paleoparasitological studies have been done at present in this region, and the distribution and history of ancient parasites and their relationship to populations in the entire region is not clear. The majority of the research in paleoparasitology with significant results was done in the western part of this region, in Egypt, Sudan, Cyprus and Israel. A review of the paleoparasitological findings in these countries is given in Tables 2a, 2b and 2c. Among these different discoveries figures the work of Ruffer, which is historically the most ancient reference to an archaeological parasite (Ruffer 1910). A t the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, some important studies were carried out on mummified material with the help of several medical analyses, including parasitology (Cockburn 1981). Finally, the most important work during the last ten years concerning the Middle and Near East region was proposed by Harter during her thesis work between 2000 and 2003. Many major results were obtained from samples from Sudan, Egypt and Israel (Harter 2003), and completed more recently by new analyses done by Mitchell and collaborators in Israel (Mitchel and Stern 2000; Mitchell and Tepper 2007; Mitchell et al. 2008).

These results could lead to important research tracks, for example on parasite origins (roundworm or pinworm), on some comparison between Nil Valley and oasis parasites, and on many other problematic linked to the multiple archaeological contexts present in this region.

CONCLUSION Knowledge of parasites and parasitic infections in the ancient Middle-East has a long history which is found in some archaeological and historical evidence from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Palestine, Iran, etc. The Middle East is one of the main human and animal migration routes over time. The region was influenced by three zoogeographical zones, Palearctic, Afrotropical (Ethiopica) and Oriental, and these varied geographical influences led to a wide range of environments and cultures, as well as an important biodiversity which appear through archaeological excavations. Comparing parasite findings between the Middle East and adjacent areas (for example data already available for Europe) and establishing the state of disease distribution in ancient times in this region could help to better understand the role of population dynamics, such as ancient trade, contacts and communications, between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. Some hypotheses have already proposed migration routes for each parasite. Consequently, data regarding variations in parasite life cycles and ways of transmission could help to prove or refute human migration models (Reinhard and Araujo 2008). Numerous settlements are regularly excavated in this region, and paleoparasitology has the potential to provide additional data and information which aim further knowledge of the ancient populations of these areas.

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Anripnt ^amnlp r^l İ V İ C İ I L

OCII

Qarrml i n n

Cnntpvt

wCll

I I U I C

l l k / l l l l ^

In places on the corpses of mumıııi(30\iıuıııcıııwı

Coprolites

a i 1111 t a i / .

In nlarfiç n n thp ç k p l p t o n ç (hi iman

or animal).

Taking whole of the coprolite sample.

InHiviHiial fînHinrK İn a r r h a p n l n n i ii l u ı v ı u u a ı

I I I I U I I I U Q

H I U I L I

I U C U I U U I

cal layers. Fvrpnt r o n t P Y t ç 1—

4>

Sediments

V . V I

I I C A I J .

Subjacent with the coprolites on depth.

Taking sediments around 5 cm under coprolites. The vertical migration of eggs by scrubbing and leaching was highlighted.

Related to the skeletons (human or animal).

The pelvic and abdominal cavities, between the hipbones and the last coasts, and around the scalp. Also just near the top and below the bones.

Sediment enriched out of organic matter, grounds of habitats (hu man and animal circulations).

Taking samples regularly in the layer to improve the rep resentativeness of the sampling.

Latrines. Cesspits.

Taking away in several stratigraphie units, or in several points (at least top, middle and bottom of each layer).

Pits and wells.

Organic remains

Other samples

Tissues or organs such as liver, intestines, lungs, skin, muscles,...

When not well preserved, the theoretical location can be considered.

Hairs of head, body and pelvis.

Taking 1 cm sediment under hairs. Do not wash.

Fabrics, linens associated with the mummies and the skeletons.

Especially textiles in contact with natural cavities or putre faction juices.

Contents of mud, earthenware jars, pots and etc...

Depending of the artifact, a strategy may be discussed with the parasitologists.

Table 1 - Paleoparasitology sampling strategy.

4>