Paleoenvironmental evolution of the late Pliocene ...

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 437 (2015) 98–116

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Paleoenvironmental evolution of the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene fluvio-deltaic sequence of the Denizli Basin (SW Turkey) Hülya Alçiçek a,⁎, Frank P. Wesselingh b, Mehmet Cihat Alçiçek a a b

Pamukkale University, Department of Geology 20070 Denizli, Turkey Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 6 February 2015 Received in revised form 13 June 2015 Accepted 15 June 2015 Available online 11 July 2015 Keywords: SW Anatolia Plio-Pleistocene Shallow-water delta Stable isotopes Paleoclimatology Paleoecology

a b s t r a c t The late Pliocene–early Pleistocene Tosunlar succession (Denizli Basin, southwestern Turkey) represents fluvialdominated delta environments at the margins of a brackish long-lived lake. Two main facies associations are documented: (i) a delta front facies association, with a distal (DF1) and proximal (DF2) deposits; and (ii) a delta plain facies association that contains distributary channel (DP1) and interdistributary swamp (DP2) deposits. The stable isotopic analysis of the mollusc faunas exhibit a narrow range of values (–4.68 b δ18O b +0.21‰ and +0.43 b δ13C b +3.27‰, respectively) and the very poor δ18O–δ13C correlation (r = −0.16) may indicate hydrologically open lake and significant diagenetic alteration. The mollusc faunas and their stable isotope ratios show a biogeographically isolated brackish lake system under semiarid climatic conditions. Under special environmental conditions the endemic faunal composition remained constant which is very unusual for a (semi-) isolated longlived lake setting. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Long-lived lakes (or ancient lakes) are well known as laboratories of evolution (Martens, 1997; Wesselingh, 2007; Wilke et al., 2008). With initial colonization from nearby freshwater (riverine) or marginal marine sources, faunal components rapidly diverge and in many occasions diversify (e.g., Magyar et al., 1999; Rossiter and Kawanabe, 2000; Odada and Oago, 2002; Salzburger et al., 2014). Already early in their history, the faunas of long-lived lakes tend to become dominated by endemic, morphological diverse species (Rossiter and Kawanabe, 2000; Cohen, 2003). Within the Denizli Basin (SW Turkey) (Fig. 1) a record of brackish lacustrine setting is contained that probably spans the latest Miocene to early Pleistocene (Alçiçek et al., 2007). Within the vicinity of the village of Tosunlar (Fig. 2), a late Pliocene to early Pleistocene portion of this succession is exposed that represents fluvio-deltaic settings that are rich in limnic shells (Alçiçek et al., 2007; Alçiçek, 2010). The fauna is dominated by few endemic mollusc species (Wesselingh et al., 2008 and references therein). Several of the mollusc taxa in the Denizli successions are the oldest records of modern “Pontocaspian” taxa that form nowadays an isolated brackish fauna (anomalohaline) living in the Caspian Sea, Lake Aral and the estuarine regions of the Black Sea.

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 258 2963396; fax: +90 258 2963382. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Alçiçek).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.06.019 0031-0182/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The aim of the present paper is to combine sedimentological, stable isotope geochemistry, and autoecological faunal data from the Tosunlar succession to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental evolution and to identify drivers of lake development and faunal evolution during the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene.

2. Geological setting and stratigraphy Western Turkey is among one of the most active extensional regions in the world, where pervasive crustal extension in the Neogene and Quaternary led to the development of extensional grabens trending NW-SE, NE-SW, and E-W (e.g., Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981; Bozkurt, 2003). The Denizli Basin is such a graben, trending WNW-ESE, approximately 70 km long and 50 km wide (Figs. 1 and 2). The pre-Neogene bedrock of the Denizli Basin, exposed at its northwestern and southwestern margin, consists of Palaeozoic-Mesozoic metamorphic rocks of the autochthonous Menderes Massif and allochthonous Lycian Nappes (e.g., Pamir and Erentöz, 1974; Okay, 1989; Sun, 1990; Bozkurt, 2001; van Hinsbergen, 2010; van Hinsbergen and Schmid, 2012) constituting westernmost part of the Tauride orogen. The Menderes Massif, an Africa-derived microcontinent accreted to the Cimmerian margin of Eurasia in the early phase of Alpine orogeny, consists of a crystalline core and metamorphic cover rocks (Şengör and Yılmaz, 1981). The massif's core of augen gneisses is approximately 1000 m thick and surrounded by schists, quartzite, marbles, and carbonates forming a dome-like structure.

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Fig. 1. Overview of the prominent extensional basins of western Anatolia surrounding the Denizli Basin (based on Konak, 2002; Konak and Şenel, 2002; Şenel, 2002; Turan, 2002).

Lycian allocthon units are comprised from Mesozoic recrystallized dolomitic limestones, marbles, and turbiditic sandstones which are tectonically overlain by ophiolitic mélange (Okay, 1989; Sun, 1990). A recrystallized dolomitic limestone succession in the Lycian nappes is intercalated with Triassic evaporitic units in the easternmost part of Denizli Basin (Alçiçek et al., 2007; Gündoğan et al., 2008). These bedrock units were attributed to represent the closure of the Neotethyan oceanic basin during the Mesozoic-early Cenozoic that involved the genesis and emplacement of large-scale carbonate platforms and ophiolitic units (Collins and Robertson, 1997, 1998). The nappes correspond to a segment of the orogenic-belt extending between Menderes Massif to the north and Beydağları autochthonous to the south, and were originated in a northerly Neotethys ocean and comprise composite series of allochthonous sheets that were transported from NW to SE in distinct stages during the Late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic periods (Collins and Robertson, 2003; Robertson et al., 2003). The regional extension affecting the Denizli Basin has been ongoing since the late early Miocene (Alçiçek et al., 2007). The Neogene and Quaternary basin-fill succession of the Denizli Basin, up to 1300 m thick, consists of alluvialfan, fluvial, and lacustrine deposits (Alçiçek et al., 2007). The basin-fill succession unconformably overlies the bedrock units and was first described by Şimşek (1984), referred to as the Denizli Group and subdivided into four lithostratigraphic units: the Kızılburun (early-early Middle Miocene), Sazak (middle middle-early Late Miocene), Kolankaya (middle late Miocene-early Pleistocene), and Tosunlar (late Pleistocene) formations (Fig. 3; Alçiçek et al., 2007). The Kızılburun Formation is up to 450 m thick, overlies the bedrock unconformably and passes upwards into the Sazak Formation. The formation represents the underfilled lake basin type and consists of two units: (i) a lower proximal to medial alluvialfan: conglomerate,

sandstone, siltstone, and mudstones alternations, and (ii) an upper distal alluvialfan unit: sandstone, siltstone, mudstones, coal, and clayey limestone alternations (Fig. 3). The overlying Sazak Formation is up to 300 m thick and corresponds to the balanced-fill lake to underfilled lake basin type. This formation is subdivided into three units: (i) a lower lake-margin unit: bioclastic limestone, marl, laminated mudstone, and clayey limestone alternations; (ii) a middle shallow lake unit: cherty limestones and dolostones; and (iii) an upper playa/saline lake unit: gypsarenite, selenite, shale, gypsiferous mudstone alternations (Fig. 3). The Kolankaya Formation, up to 500 m thick, rests conformably on the Sazak Formation and overlies unconformably the metamorphic bedrock in the northern part of the basin. This formation reflect the balanced-filled lake basin type and consists of four units: (i) a lower shallow lake unit: laminated mudstone-siltstone and marl alternations, (ii) a middle sublittoral to profundal lake unit: marlclaystone, sandstone, and clayey limestone alternations, (iii) an upper littoral unit: conglomerate, sandstone, and siltstone alternations, and (iv) an uppermost alluvial fan unit: conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone alternations (Fig. 3). The Tosunlar Formation, up to 150 m thick, is unconformably overlain by previous formations. The formation represent the overfilled lake basin type and includes two units: (i) a lower proximal to medial alluvialfan unit: conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and mudstones alternations, and (ii) an upper fluvial unit: sandstone, siltstone, mudstones, and marl alternations (Fig. 3). The geological mapping of the basin was done by Şimşek (1984) and Sun (1990), with a more recent refinement by Konak and Şenel (2002). Alçiçek et al. (2007) conducted detailed sedimentological study and facies analysis of the basin-fill succession. The tectonic development and paleogeographic evolution of the basin were discussed by Koçyiğit (2005), Westaway et al. (2005), Kaymakçı (2006), and Alçiçek et al.

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Fig. 2. Geological map of the Denizli Basin (modified from Sun (1990) and adapted from Konak and Şenel (2002). the location of logged measured section is indicated).

(2007). The basin's fossil faunal assemblages were first described by Oppenheim (1918) and subsequently studied by Nebert (1958), Taner (1974a, b, 1975), Wesselingh et al. (2008), and Neubauer et al. (2015). The present study focuses on a late Pliocene–early Pleistocene fossiliferous succession in the Kolankaya Formation (Fig. 3). At the present, the basin floor is at about 150 m a.s.l. Neogene and Quaternary strata crop out in most of the basin's margins. A narrow central zone is occupied by an alluvial plain. The Buldan horst is an intrabasinal high separating two subbasins (Fig. 2). Here we report a single sedimentary succession of 140 m thickness cropping out along road-cuts near the town of Tosunlar, located in the northern subbasin (Fig. 2). Within the road-cuts (approximately at 37°58′45″N; 28°56′52″E) various stratigraphic sections are exposed with WNW-ESE trending normal faults. 3. Material and methods Our study covers a series of connected outcrops to the north of the town of Tosunlar (see location in Figs. 1 and 2). This succession has been studied by detailed sedimentologic logging. The studied deposits were divided into twelve sedimentary facies, which have been further grouped into two facies associations (Table 1). Twenty-nine levels were sampled for mollusc fossils. Shells were picked from residues over 0.5 mm sieve mesh. Identification and processing follows Wesselingh et al. (2008) where also an extensive synonymy can be

found. The mineralogy of 78 mollusc samples was determined in Vrije University (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) prior to stable isotope analysis by using a Bruker D8 Discover X-ray diffractometer operating at 40 kV and 30 mA with monochromated CuKα radiation (λ = 1.54 Å). Mineralogy of an additional 13 samples was determined in Izmir Institute of Technology Centre for Materials Research (IYTE-MAM) by using a Rigaku D/Max 2200 diffractometer operating at 40 kV and 30 mA with monochromated CuKα radiation. The δ18O and δ13C ratios of 78 shells were analyzed at Vrije Universiteit (The Netherlands), following procedures outlined in Vonhof et al. (1998) and additional 13 shells were analyzed at SIRFER Laboratory, USA), according to the method of Kim et al. (2007). For δ18O and δ13C analyses of the carbonate, about 0.5 mg of the powdered shell was dissolved in orthophosphoric acid at 50 °C. The evolved CO2 was purified and run off-line on a Finnigan Mat 251 mass spectrometer. The δ18O and δ13C compositions are reported in ‰ notation with respect to the V-PDB standard, using NBS 19 as a primary reference. Analytical precision of an internal standard was ± 0.10 and ± 0.06‰ (1σ) for δ18O and δ13C, respectively, for the measuring period. 4. Facies associations and depositional environments Twelve facies and two facies associations have been identified in the studied section and are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. They are

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Fig. 3. Stratigraphic comparison of the previous studies (Sun, 1990; Alçiçek et al., 2007) complied in the Denizli Basin. For the chronostratigraphic units Cohen et al. (2014) were followed.

commonly arranged in coarsening- and fining-upward successions that gradationally overlie marginal lake deposits and exhibit a consistent trend from distal deltafront deposits (DF1) grading upwards into proximal deltafront deposits (DF2) to delta plain deposits (DP) (Fig. 4). No prodelta facies associations have been found.

4.1. Delta front facies association (DF) Delta front (DF) deposits occur in the lower and middle parts of the Tosunlar section (Fig. 4). This association is represented by coarseningupward successions and is 95 m in thickness. The DF association grades

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Table 1 Facies classifications and descriptions (modified from Miall, 2000, and Taylor and Ritts, 2004). (DF1: Distal delta front; DF2: Proximal delta front; DP1: Distributary channel; DP2: Interdistributary swamp facies subassociations). Facies code (Fac. subassoc.)

Description

Interpretation

Fl1 (DF1)

Laminated mudstone: Dark gray, thinly wavy or parallel laminated mudstone, 10–50 cm thick beds, several tens of meters in lateral extent, containing abundant cyprinid fish teeth and bones, intercalated with thin siltstone layers (facies Fs) Laminated siltstone: Light gray to yellow, parallel laminated siltstone, 5–10 cm thick beds, several tens of meters in lateral extent, intercalated with mudstone layers (facies Fl1), overlie facies Sr Massive sandstone, structureless: Fine- to coarse-grained sandstone, yellowish gray, poorly to moderately sorted, unstratified, 20–50 cm thick beds, normal or rarely inverse grading, several tens of meters in lateral extent, sharp and slightly erosional boundaries, underlain by facies Sl Low angle cross-stratified sandstone (b10°): Fine- to medium-grained sandstone, yellowish gray, moderately to well-sorted, parallel to low-angle (b10°) laminated, 15–30 cm thick beds, up to 1.5 m thick bedsets, normally graded, slightly erosional base, a few tens of metres in lateral extent, underlain by facies Sp Ripple cross-laminated sandstones: Very fine- to fine-grained sandstones, yellowish gray, well-sorted, set thickness of a few cm, up to 10 cm thick coset, asymmetrical ripples on upper bedding surface, a few tens of metres in lateral extent, overlie facies Sl, Sp or Sh Crudely stratified conglomerate: Clast-supported, crudely stratified, subangular to subrounded, granule to pebble-grade clasts, moderately- to poorly-sorted, muddy sand matrix, subangular to subrounded, 0.5–1 m thick beds, erosional boundaries, laterally extensive to broadly lenticular bodies with up to 2 m thick, sharp and locally scoured bases, intercalated with facies Sl and Fl1 and overlain by facies St and Sh Planar cross-stratified sandstone: Medium- to coarse-grained sandstone, yellowish green, poorly- and moderately-sorted, a few decimetres to 20 cm thick sets, commonly occurring as solitary sets, low-angle strata (5–10°), 50–60 cm thick beds, normally graded, erosional base, a few tens of metres in lateral extent, underlain by facies Sr Trough cross-stratified sandstone: Medium- to coarse-grained, moderately- to poorly-sorted sandstone with trough cross-bedded sets and cosets (up to 20 cm thickness), yellowish-gray, 0.5 to 1 m thick and 0.6–1 m wide trough cross-bedded sets, lenticular or wedge-shaped bodies, overlain by facies Sp or Sh Horizontally-stratified sandstone: Fine- to coarse-grained sandstone, yellowish gray, poorly to well-sorted, parallel to low-angle stratified (b10°), 25–50 cm thick beds, ungraded, erosional bases, a few ten metres in lateral extent, overlie facies St Finely laminated, sandstone-siltstone: Dark yellow, finely laminated, very fine- to fine-grained sandstone interbedded with siltstone, forming tabular to lenticular beds 0.5–1 m thick beds, a few ten of meters in lateral extent, containing small current ripples, mudcracks, lenticular gypsum crystals, intercalated with facies Fm and Fsm Massive mudstone: Massive, silty, dark gray mudstone, forming beds up to 2 m thick, forming tabular to lenticular beds, bearing plant remains and mammal remains, a few ten of meters in lateral extent, intercalated with facies Fsm and Fl2 Massive siltstone: Massive, sandy or muddy, yellow mudstone, forming lenticular beds 10–20 cm thick beds, a few ten of meters in lateral extent, intercalated with facies Fm and Fl2

Suspension load fallout of mud

Fs (DF1, DF2, DP1) Sm (DF1)

Sl (DF1, DF2)

Sr (DF1, DF2, DP1)

Gc (DF1, DF2, DP1)

Sp (DF2, DP1)

St (DP1)

Sh (DP1)

Fl2 (DP2)

Fm (DP2)

Fsm (DP2)

upwards into delta plain facies association (DP). Two main facies subassociations (DF1 and DF2) are distinguished in this association: 4.1.1. Subassociation DF1: Distal delta front Description ‒ These deposits, up to 50 m thick, are typically coarsening-upward and characterized by thin-bedded mudstones and siltstones (facies Fl1 and Fs) interbedded with very fine- to finegrained sandstone beds (facies Sm, Sl, and Sr) (Fig. 4). The base of the facies association is dominated by gray heterolithic mudstonesiltstone, at the top very fine- to fine-grained sandstones dominate. Some crudely-stratified conglomerate beds (facies Gc) are observed at the lower and middle parts (Fig. 4). Mudstone beds of facies Fl1, (thickness 10–50 cm), are dark gray, thinly wavy or parallel laminated (facies Fl1) and intercalated with thin siltstone layers (facies Fs) (Fig. 5A). The beds of facies Fl1 contain abundant cyprinid fish teeth and bones (L. van Hoek-Ostende, pers.comm.). Sandstone beds, up to 2 m thick, consist of laterally discontinuous dark yellowish-gray, very fine- to coarse-grained sandstones with concave-up basal scour and near horizontal upper surfaces. The concave-up structures vary from a few meters in thickness and a few to tens of meters in width. The sandstone beds show grading from massive to planar-laminated to ripple cross-laminated (facies Sm, Sl, and Sr) (Fig. 5B). In places, the basal bounding surfaces contain mud chip lags

Suspension load fallout of silt

Deposition by rapid suspension fallout

Unidirectional migration of sand along subaqueous low-angle surface or slope

Unidirectional migration of subaqueous small scale bedforms

Subaqueous cohesionless debris flows

Unidirectional migration of subaqueous two-dimensional dunes

Unidirectional migration of subaqueous three-dimensional dunes

Subaqueous upper flow regime plane beds Overbank stream-flood deposits

Suspension load fallout of mud

Suspension load fallout of silt

and slump structures. The sandstones are interbedded with thin-bedded mudstone-siltstone, which display normal or rarely inverse grading. The sandstone beds contain brackish water mollusc species (Micromelania phygrica, Didacna bukowskii, Theodoxus bukowskii and some reworked Didacna species: D. phygrica, and D. cf. elongata) with minor freshwater/ oligohaline mollusc species (Melanopsis spec.1) and a brackish water ostracod fauna (Cyprideis heterostigma, Tyrrhenocythere amnicola, Candona elongata, C. devexa; C. xanthica; Nebert, 1958; F. Grossi, pers. comm.) Paleocurrent measurements show directions towards the south and southwest. Rare conglomerate beds (facies Gc) consist of crudely stratified, poorly-sorted, granule to pebble-grade, clast-supported conglomerates forming laterally extensive to broadly lenticular beds 0.5 to 1 m thick. Their base is sharp and locally scoured but deeply incised channels have not been observed. Gravel clasts are subangular to subrounded, and matrix is a moderately sorted mixture of sand, silt and mud. Interpretation ‒ The interbedded mudstone-siltstone/sandstone deposits of DF1 are interpreted as distal parts of a deltafront environment (Davies-Vollum et al., 2012). The graded sandstone beds reflect waning currents and are interpreted as deposition of periodic, hyperpycnal density currents (Maestro, 2008). Mudstone and siltstone of facies Fl1 and Fs were deposited by suspension fallout during low flow conditions, whereas sandstones of facies Sm, Sl, and Sr were formed by tractive

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Table 2 Summary of the facies associations of the Tosunlar section. Facies Facies association subassociation Delta front (DF)

Delta plain (DP)

Lithology and sedimentary structures

Distal delta front (DF1)

Interpretation

Thinly wavy or parallel laminated, dark gray heterolithic mudstone (facies Fl1) and siltstone (facies Fs) at the base and very fine- to coarse-grained, massive- to planar-laminated to ripple cross-laminated sandstones (facies Sm, Sl, and Sr) at the top. Some crudely-stratified conglomerate beds (facies Gc) at the lower and middle parts. Proximal delta Fine- to medium-grained sandstones intercalated with thin laminated siltstone beds (facies Fs). front (DF2) Planar- laminated to cross-laminated sandstones (facies Sl and Sp) at the base and middle part of the beds and rippled cross-laminated sandstones (facies Sr) in the upper parts of the beds. Rare crudely-stratified conglomerate beds (facies Gc) at the lower and upper parts. Distributary Fine- to coarse-grained sandstone with laminated siltstone (facies Fs). Medium- to channel (DP1) coarse-grained, trough cross-stratificated sandstone (facies St) with minor horizontally stratified sandstone (facies Sh) and planar cross-stratified sandstone (facies Sp) at the base and middle part of the beds and very fine- to fine-grained ripple and climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone (facies Sr) at the upper parts of beds. Interdistributary Finely laminated, very fine- to fine-grained, small rippled sandstone-siltstone (facies Fl2), massive swamp (DP2) mudstone (facies Fm) and very small rippled massive siltstone (facies Fsm) alternations

transport during flood conditions in fluvial feeder channels in the delta front environments (Schomacker et al., 2010; Tänavsuu-Milkeviciene and Sarg, 2012). The sheet-like bed geometry and the clast-supported texture of the crudely-stratified conglomerate beds of facies Gc likely represents subaquatic cohesionless debris flow (e.g., Hölzel and Wagreich, 2004). 4.1.2. Subassociation DF2: Proximal delta front Description ‒ This coarsening-upward association overlies distal delta front deposits (DF1) and grades into delta plain facies association (DP) (Fig. 4). The DF2 deposits are up to 45 m thick and consist of yellow, well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained sandstones intercalated with 5– 15 cm thick laminated siltstone beds (facies Fs). The base of the beds is composed predominantly of planar-laminated to cross-laminated sandstones (facies Sl and Sp) in the lower and middle parts and ripple cross-laminated sandstones (facies Sr) in the upper parts of the beds (Fig. 5C). These sandstone units are up to 6 m thick and laterally extensive and tabular to lenticular packages. The lower bed boundaries are commonly sharp and flat to gradational and can be slightly erosive: they contain mud chips and soft sediment deformation structures. The sandstone beds include brackish water mollusc species (Micromelania phygrica, Didacna bukowskii, Theodoxus bukowskii, Pyrgula? spec.1.) with minor amounts of (possibly reworked) freshwater/oligohaline mollusc species (Melanopsis spec.1, Pisidium crassisimum, Pseudamnicola orientalis, Bythinia sp., Valvata sp.). Also a brackish water ostracod fauna occurs (Cyprideis heterostigma, C. obesa; Tyrrhenocythere amnicola; Candona (Caspiolla) lobata, C. (Caspiolla) fastigata, C. candida; Loxoconcha kochi, L. elliptica, and L. agilis. A very few characean oogons were also found (Nebert, 1958; F. Grossi, pers. comm.). Minor crudely-stratified conglomerate beds (facies Gc) are present at the lower and upper parts. Paleocurrent measurements (e.g., cross-stratification, ripple marks) display a depositional direction towards the south to southwest. Interpretation ‒ This association represents predominantly sand deposition on proximal parts of a deltafront environment (Moore et al., 2012) and unidirectional migration of subaqueous sandy bedforms of varying sizes and flow regimes (Taylor, 2002). These deposits were probably formed by gradual progradation of a delta into the lake, resulting in the coarsening-upward sequences (Davies-Vollum et al., 2012). The good preservation of characean oogonia also suggests that these sediments were deposited at shallow water depths (usually less than 10 m) and under low-energy conditions, which favour growth of these green algae (Anadón et al., 2000). An upward transition from planar to cross-lamination to ripple lamination reflects a decrease in flow velocity (Maestro, 2008). These depositional features associated with unidirectional migration of subaqueous sandy bedforms probably reflect distributary mouth bar deposits that migrated over sublittoral strata, forming laterally continuous sandstone sheets (Rajchl et al., 2008; Moore et al., 2012; Tänavsuu-Milkeviciene and Sarg, 2012). Facies

Deposition from unidirectional currents with little or no wave reworking

Unidirectional migration of subaqueous sandy bedforms

Unidirectional migration of subaqueous sandy bedforms with episodes of bioturbation and rapid suspension load fallout

Suspension load fallout that has experienced burrowing and periods of subaerial exposure

Gc is interpreted as subaquatic cohesionless debris flows, which may be related to extreme flooding events (Hölzel and Wagreich, 2004). 4.2. Delta plain facies association (DP) Delta plain deposits, up to 45 m thick, occur in the upper part of the Tosunlar section and overlie delta front deposits of DF (Fig. 4). This association is represented by fining-upward successions defined by the presence of medium- to coarse-grained sandstone (facies Sp, St, and Sr) that form subassociation DP1, interbedded with gray to black laminated mudstone (facies Fl) and fine- to medium-grained, massive sandstone (facies Sm) with thinly laminated siltstone interbeds (facies Fs) of subassociation (DP2). 4.2.1. Subassociation DP1: Distributary channel Description ‒ This subassociation is characterized by up to 2 m thick channel infill successions composed of intraformational clast conglomerate (facies Gc) at the base, succeeded by variously interbedded planeparallel, low-angle, trough cross-stratified (facies St), horizontally stratified (facies Sh), and planar cross-stratified sandstone (facies Sp) beds, and subordinate volumes of current-ripple laminated very fine to fine-grained sandstone (facies Sr) and laminated siltstone (facies Fs) (Fig. 5E). The DP1 deposits mostly incise the interdistributary swamp deposits of DP2 (Fig. 5D) and intercalated with DF2 deposits of proximal delta front (Fig. 4). The individual channels are characterized by concaveup basal scour and near horizontal upper surfaces. The concave-up structures vary from a few meters in thickness and a few to tens of meters in width. Mud clasts are commonly present in the basal parts of the beds. Paleocurrent measurements (e.g., cross-stratification, ripple marks) show a depositional direction towards the south to southwest, similar to those of DF2 deposits. Interpretation ‒ Cross-stratified sandstone facies of DP1 deposits formed by migration of two and three-dimensional bedforms in lower flow regime conditions within a distributary channel environment of a delta plain (e.g., Johnson and Graham, 2004; Mancuso and Caselli, 2012). This interpretation is supported by lenticular geometry, sedimentary structures and other facies relationships. An upward transition from trough cross-stratification to ripple cross-lamination indicates a decreasing mean flow velocity (Taylor, 2002; Maestro, 2008). The lenticular sandstones of DP1 deposits reflect meandering distributary channel deposits which prograde over underlying distributary mouth bar deposits of DF2. 4.2.2. Subassociation DP2: Interdistributary swamp Description ‒ This subassociation is typically fining-upward and alternates with distributary channel deposits of DP1 (Figs. 4 and 5D). DP2 deposits consist of alternations of massive mudstone (facies Fm),

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Fig. 4. Summary of Tosunlar section. Lithologic columns, facies and facies associations of the studied sections and stratigraphic position of the studied mollusc samples.

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Fig. 5. Examples of facies and facies associations from the Tosunlar section (see Figs. 3 and 4 for the stratigraphic locations). (A) Massive sandstone (Sm), laminated siltstone (Fs) and laminated mudstone (Fl1) of the distal delta front facies association (DF1), gy: gypsum beds (scale: 20 cm); (B) Massive mudstone (Sm), low angle cross-stratified sandstone (Sl), and ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr) of the distal delta front facies association (DF1), mc: mud chips (scale: 15 cm); (C) Low angle cross-stratified sandstone (Sl) and ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr) of proximal delta front facies association (DF2) (scale: 10 cm); (D) The incised distributary channel deposits of DP1 deposits into the interdistributary swamp deposits of DP2; (E) Trough cross-stratified sandstone (St), horizontally-stratified sandstone (Sh), planar cross-stratified sandstone (Sp), and ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr) of distributary channel (DP1) of delta plain facies association (scale: 20 cm); (F) Carbonized plant remains bearing massive mudstone (Fm); (G) Alternating of massive mustone (Fm), finely laminated, sandstone-siltstone (Fl2), and massive siltstone (Fs) of the interdistributary swamp (DP2) in delta plain facies association (scale: 10 cm); (H) Alternating of massive mustone (Fm) and massive siltstone (Fs) of the interdistributary swamp (DP2) in delta plain facies association (scale: 10 cm).

finely laminated, sandstone-siltstone (facies Fl2), and massive siltstone (facies Fsm) (Fig. 5F). The DP2 beds are typically 50 cm to 1 m thick and laterally continuous and tabular with sharp flat contacts.

Facies Fm (Fig. 5F–G) consists of conspicuous dark gray massive, silty or sandy mudstone, containing mammal remains (Mimomys pliocaenicus, Borsodia sp.: Kaymakçı, 2006, Microtus sp. (L. van den Hoek-Ostende, pers.

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comm.), and Mus sp.: A. Tesakov, pers. comm.), pollens (e.g. Artemisia, Amaranthaceae), carbonized plant fragments, and root casts (1–5 cm in length), and mudcracks. The finely laminated sandstones (facies Fl2) comprise very fine- to fine-grained sandstones in beds 0.5–1 m thick with siltstone interbeds (Fig. 5G). The sandstone beds contain smallscale current ripples range in height from 1 to 3 cm with wave-lengths from 10 to 15 cm, mudcracks, and disseminated lenticular gypsum crystals, with crystal sizes ranging from 10 to 15 cm. The siltstones (facies Fsm) are massive, with some small-scale current ripples as well in facies Fl2 (Fig. 5G–H). Interpretation ‒ The fining-upward fine-grained sandstone, massive mudstone, and massive siltstone alternations of DP2 subassociation accumulated in interchannel areas or backswamps of the delta plain (Melchor, 2007; Moore et al., 2012). Facies Fm indicate swamp environment where the clastic input is low and swamp and peat bogs occurred (Rajchl et al., 2008). This interpretation is confirmed by the presence of the abundant preserved carbonaceous plant fragments, rootlets, and mammal remains indicating open, meadow-like environments (van den Hoek-Ostende et al., 2015). The laminated sandstones indicate rapid deposition from ephemeral hyperconcentrated flows during periods of intense overbank flooding (Rajchl et al., 2008). Laminated to ripple-laminated siltstones (facies Fs) are indicative of flood deposits and abandoned interchannel plain of delta distributaries (Melchor, 2007). The presence of lenticular gypsum crystals and mudcracks in the mudstones and sandstones indicate periods of subaerial exposure.

delimits the base at the lowest whorl. The aperture is damaged in both specimens. The incomplete preservation of the two specimens does not allow for its identification. Within the late Miocene of the Denizli Basin, Wesselingh et al. (2008) recorded an unidentified Pyrgula species, but the latter is relatively broader and has a single low spiral on its early teleoconch whorls. Pyrgula lives in non-ephemeral freshwater bodies (springs, streams, lakes: Zhadin, 1965; Glöer, 2002). It is not entirely certain whether this species, a like Pseudamnicola orientalis (Fig. 6C) is not reworked, yet Pyrgula? spec. 1 is lighter coloured and less abraded than the former. Micromelania phrygica (Oppenheim, 1918) Fig. 6D–G This is the most abundant species in the studied material. It concerns a highly variable robust ornamented elongate conical hydrobiid species. Within the material one type of ornamentation occurs (Fig. 6D, with intermediates to “regularly” ornamented shells, Fig. 6E) that has not been observed in the Miocene specimens or morphologies documented by Wesselingh et al. (2008) (the latter being similar as those seen in Fig. 6F and G). In the morphological extreme shells the location of the two spiral ribs is very much suppressed towards the upper and lower part of the whorls. The upper spiral with its regular beads can form a distinct subsutural ridge, whereas the lower spiral forms a suprasutural ridge with a tightly impressed suture in between. The whorl profile between the ribs is initially straight but can become concave. The species is known only from the Denizli Basin.

5. Mollusc paleontology The mollusc fauna is composed of thirteen species (Table 3), but five of these species are likely reworked from older deposits. The reworked faunal component contains Didacna cf. elongata Taner, 1974b, D. phrygica (Oppenheim, 1918), Pseudamnicola orientalis (Bukowski, 1895: see Fig. 6B), operculas of unidentified Bythinia species and unidentified Valvata species. The reworked taxa are rare components of the fauna, and often strongly abraded and/or strongly lithified. The three identifiable species are known from late Miocene deposits in the Denizli Basin (Wesselingh et al., 2008). We think that only six species make up the autochthonous fauna in the Tosunlar section (Table 3, treated below) and these are mostly endemic to the Denizli Basin. Most of the shells show very little signs of abrasion and in various cases paired bivalves were found. Class GASTROPODA Family NERITIDAE Theodoxus bukowskii (Oppenheim, 1918) Fig. 6A 2008 Theodoxus bukowskii (Oppenheim, 1918) - Wesselingh et al., 865, Fig. 5 (5–7), and references therein. The studied specimens are relatively high and the shoulder is welldeveloped, but they fall within the morphological range of the late Miocene specimens reported by Wesselingh et al. (2008). It concerns a shallow lacustrine to fluvial species living on hard substrate (endurated lake floor, shell or gravel beds or subaqueous vegetation), from where it grazed on microalgae (Zhadin, 1965; Gittenberger et al., 1998; Glöer, 2002, and references therein). Family HYDROBIIDAE Pyrgula? spec. 1 Fig. 6B Two damaged, possibly subadult specimens were found in sample TO7. The protoconch of this high-spired species is bulbous and smooth, but the boundary with the teleoconch could not be established due to wear. On the first two teleoconch whorls two very low spiral ribs are located at one quarter and two-thirds of the whorl height respectively. Very low, slightly prosocline axial wrinkles occur on the entire shell. The subsutural ramp can be very slightly concave. A third spiral rib

Family MELANOPSIDAE Melanopsis spec. 1 Fig. 6H 1974a Melanopsis cf. bergeroni Stefanescu, 1896, Taner: 116, pl. 9, figs. 16–21. It has an ovate smooth Melanopsis species that is found in a few samples. The suture is adnate. The maximum width on whorls is located at the base. The height of the spindle-shaped aperture is nearly half the height of the shell. A distinct knob is located on the upper part of the parietal margin. The base of the aperture has a very subtle siphonal contraction. Today, numerous Melanopsis species live in areas around the Mediterranean. The species are often difficult to separate based on shell morphological grounds. The Denizli specimens contain relatively few characters, and we are not able to establish the specific identity. Smooth-shelled Melanopsis species, like this one, are known from springs, streams, rivers, and lakes (Glaubrecht, 1993). Family CARDIIDAE Didacna bukowskii (Oppenheim, 1918) Fig. 6I-J 1918 Cardium (Pseudocardita) bukowskii Oppenheim, p. 139, pl. 7, figs. 12, 13. 1974b Didacna (Pontalmyra) elongata Taner, p. 154, pl. 13, Figs. 4–5. 1974b Didacna (Pontalmyra) rostriformis Taner, p. 155, pl. 14, Figs. 1–4. 1974b Pseudocardita bukowskii Oppenheim: Taner, p. 160, pl. 16, Figs. 3–6, pl. 17, Figs. 1–8. This is an endemic species of the Denizli Basin and the second-most abundant species in the material studied. It has an intermediate aequivalve cockle (L c. 25 mm). The umbo is located almost at the anterior margin, and the dorsal margin and the semidiameter are broadly curved. Together with low, short, and rounded antero-ventral margin the shell has an oblique slightly comma-shaped outline. The exterior of the shell contains 15–25 radial ribs that are low and have undulating narrow interspaces. The ribs can be regularly sized but also thinner ribs may occur in between or cover the posterior part. Interspaces are very low but become excavated as a result of poor preservation (probably due to preferential shell dissolution and removal). Also, very fine and numerous commarginal growth lines are seen, some of which can be more pronounced. The hinge is very robust, with well-develop cardinals

Didacna bukowskii

Pisidium crassisimum

Didacna cf. elongata

Didacna phrygica

Pseudamnicola orientalis

Valvata sp. indet.

Pulmonata indet.

Dreissena sp. indet.

1

238

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1218

202

789

0

2

225

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1259

162

865

0

1

231

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO20

1168

152

820

0

1

195

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO19

1148

178

750

0

0

220

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO18

730

2

680

0

1

47

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO17

791

3

730

0

2

55

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO16

556

1

547

0

0

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO15

231

1

203

0

0

27

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO14

1014

3

988

0

0

23

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO13

545

0

523

0

0

21

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO12

2127

3

1996

0

0

124

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0 0

TO22 TO21

Distal delta front (DF1)

Proximal delta front (DF2)

Autochtonoustaxa

Bythinia sp.(operculum)

Micromelania phygrica

0

Melanopsis spec.1

Theodoxus bukowskii

863

Pyrgula? spec.1

number of specimens (n)

210

TO23

Reworked taxa

0%

TO11

321

0

281

0

0

40

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO10

968

4

750

0

0

209

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

TO9

183

3

132

2

5

41

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO8

156

5

105

1

9

36

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO7

99

2

57

2

11

24

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO6

380

16

318

0

1

45

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO6.2

354

22

277

0

1

54

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO.6.1

320

20

258

0

1

41

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO5.2

37

4

27

0

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO5.1

41

6

30

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO5

33

4

24

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO4.2

70

0

25

0

0

45

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO4.1

76

0

20

0

0

56

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO4

62

0

15

0

0

47

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO3

1121

35

1000

0

0

84

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

TO2

598

10

496

0

1

91

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TO1

232

17

142

0

0

71

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

Theodoxus bukowskii

Micromelania phrygica

Melanopsis spec.1

Didacnabukowskii

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Pyrgula?

70%

80%

90%

100%

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1312

Sample no

Facies subassociation

Table 3 Mollusc data from the Tosunlar section.

107

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Fig. 6. Molluscs from the Tosunlar section (see Fig. 4 for the stratigraphic locations). All material from the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene Kolankaya Formation. (A) RGM 608.440 Theodoxus bukowskii (Oppenheim, 1918), level TO19, H 6.0 mm; (B) RGM 608.093 Pyrgula spec. 1, level TO7, H 2.0 mm; (C) RGM 608.393 Pseudamnicola orientalis (Bukowski, 1895), level TO10, H 2.6 mm; (D–G) Micromelania phrygica (Oppenheim, 1918), level TO7: (D) RGM 608.099, H 12.4 mm, (E) RGM 608.097, H 11.6 mm, (F) RGM 608.100, H 10.7 mm, (G) RGM 608.098, H 12.2 mm; (H) RGM 608.091 Melanopsis spec. 1, level TO7, H 17.1 mm; (I-J) Didacna bukowskii (Oppenheim, 1918), level TO11: (I) RGM 608.408, left valve, W 21.7 mm, (J) RGM 608.407, right valve, W 22.9 mm; (K) RGM 608.390 Pisidium crassisimum Oppenheim, 1918, level TO7, W 2.0 mm.

and corresponding sockets. The posterior margin of the nymph in the right valve is truncate. The pallial line is poorly impressed and located well within the shell's margin. It is entire, although at the posterior part it may be slightly irregularly and very marginally indented. Didacna is today only known from the Caspian Sea. It lives in sandy bottoms in anomalohaline conditions (Zhadin, 1965). The nature of the pallial line indicates that it was a very shallow burrower (Wesselingh, 2007). Family SPHAERIIDAE Pisidium crassisimum Oppenheim, 1918. Fig. 6K This is a rare species in the Tosunlar material. The specimens are similar as those from late Miocene intervals reported by Wesselingh et al. (2008: 870) from the Babadağ section in the Denizli Basin. The material has a very robust hinge platform with relatively broad lateral teeth. Pisidium species are restricted to freshwater. They live in ephemeral settings as well in more permanent but little agitated water bodies, even in lakes (Gittenberger et al., 1998).

6. Stable isotope geochemistry The results of stable isotope analyses of mollusc samples of the Tosunlar succession are listed in Table 4 and in Fig. 7A. No fractionation effects were seen between the two species (Micromelania phrygica and Didacna bukowskii) analyzed (Fig. 7B). The δ18O ratios of the shells typically lie between −4.68 and +0.21‰ PDB (mean = −2.47‰ PDB) and δ13C values between ca. + 0.43 and + 3.27‰ PDB (mean = + 1.91‰ PDB). A δ18O and δ13C cross-plott for the entire section shows the lack of correlation (r = −0.16, n = 91; Figs. 7A and 8).

6.1. Interpretation The negative δ18O isotope ratios in mollusc samples indicate a flux of isotopically light, 18O-depleted meteoric water (Leng and Marshall, 2004). These units contain a diagenetic isotopic signature, an interpretation supported by the presence of negative and little-varied δ18O isotope ratios.

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A

inclining delta slope (0.5°–1°) dominated by gravity flow processes (Moore et al., 2012). Such shallow deltaic systems are documented from the Eocene Green River Formation (SW Uinta Basin, USA; Moore et al., 2012), Pennsylvanian Waterloo beds (Pennine Basin, UK; Davies-Vollum et al., 2012), Holocene lacustrine deltaic beds (Atchafalaya Basin, USA; Tye and Coleman, 1989), Eocene Green River Formation (Uinta Basin, USA; Taylor and Ritts, 2004), late Neogene fluvio-lacustrine beds (Zhada Basin, SW Tibet; Kempf et al., 2009), and Triassic Yanchang Formation (Ordos Basin, China; Caineng et al., 2010).

δ13C (‰)

3.5

3.0

109

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

7.2. Facies association stacking pattern 0.5

δ18O (‰) 0.0 -5.0

-4.0

-3.0

-2.0

-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

1.0

2.0

Tosunlar molluscs

B

δ13C (‰)

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

δ18O (‰)

0.0 -5.0

-4.0

-3.0

-2.0 Micromelania

-1.0

0.0

Didacna

Fig. 7. (A) δ18O-δ13C cross-plot of various facies associations of the Tosunlar section (see Figs. 3 and 4 for the stratigraphic locations). (B) Comparison of δ18O and δ13C values of the genera Micromelania and Didacna of the Tosunlar section.

The Tosunlar succession shows a cyclic deltaic environment, where the facies associations change depending on location and position in the stratigraphic section (Fig. 4). The distal and proximal delta front deposits (DF1 and DF2) and distributary channel system deposits (DP1) and associated interdistributary swamp (DP2) deposits occur in repetitive facies subassociations that represent periods of lake level changes (Fig. 8). These repetitive successions are attributed to as “sedimentary cycles”, ranging from 0.5 to 15 m thick. Each cycle reflects a gradual transition from delta front (DF1 and DF2) to delta plain (DP1 and DP2) environments and shows a distinctive shoaling upward trend, although the full range of environments may not be presented in each vertical section. Cycles are bounded by widely traceable surfaces that commonly are characterized by desiccation cracks. In all cases, the cycle boundary is abrupt and reflects an advancement of the shoreline and an increase in water depth. The distal or proximal delta front facies subassociation reflects the high lake level during the deposition of an individual cycle. The upper contact of the delta front subassociations is gradational with overlying mudstone and sandstone-siltstone beds of the delta plain subassociation (DP2), indicating gradual shoreline retreat and decreasing lake level. As a result, the each cycle is characterized by regressive deltaic facies associations, which is also consistent with a shallowing upward cycle. 7.3. Paleohydrology and paleoclimate

The generally positive δ13C ratios suggest (i) a high rate of surface water productivity that resulted in heavier δ13C ratio due to the photosynthetic activity of plants (Dunagan and Driese, 1999), (ii) the capture of lighter 12C by vegetation, subsequently buried in the lake deposits (Talbot and Kelts, 1990; Paz and Rossetti, 2006), and possibly (iii) derivation of DIC from groundwater and surface runoff from dissolved bedrock carbonates, the respiration of plants and the ionic exchange with atmospheric CO2 (Valero-Garcés et al., 2000; Melezhik et al., 2001). 7. Discussion 7.1. Depositional model of the Tosunlar paleodelta The sedimentary record of the Tosunlar section is interpreted as a fluvial-dominated deltaic sequence in the margins of a semi-isolated brackish long-lived lake. The lower portion represents distal delta front settings (DF1) that grade into prograding mouth-bar complex and proximal delta front settings (DF2). The latter is overlain by distributary channel system deposits (DP1) and associated interdistributary swamp to overbank deposits (DP2). The entire Tosunlar succession represents a shallowing and coarsening upward trend of a prograding delta into a marginal to open lake environments, where the lacustrine facies pass upward into delta front and delta plain facies associations, as presented in Fig. 9. The rivers were located to the N-NE of the section and discharged in the Tosunlar area through several distributaries, forming a fluvial-dominated shallow-water delta. The overall geometry of these deposits is probably the result of progradational streams of the distributary channels formed at points where these channels intersected the lake margin. This delta is represented by a wide slightly

Stable oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of mollusc shells commonly reflect of the chemistry of lake waters, and therefore are a useful paleolimnological proxy (e.g., Fritz and Poplawski, 1974; Leng et al., 1999). The δ18O ratios of lacustrine carbonates represent the isotopic composition and temperature of the lake water, whereas the δ13C values represent the isotopic composition of the TDIC (Total Dissolved Inorganic Carbon) (Talbot and Kelts, 1990; Leng and Marshall, 2004; Anadón et al., 2008). Lake water ratios are a function of isotopic values of the meteoric and groundwater inputs, evaporation (in the mostly enclosed lake basin), outflow (that was at least partially absent), and their interplay (Talbot and Kelts, 1990). The correlation between δ18O and δ13C of mineral precipitates as well as biogenic carbonates has been used to distinguish hydrologically open and closed lakes (Talbot, 1990; Talbot and Kelts, 1990; Li and Ku, 1997). Hydrologically closed lake waters are characterized by a characteristic, high correlation (r ≥ 0.7; Talbot, 1990; Talbot and Kelts, 1990), which have a long residence time and indicate evaporative concentration of heavier isotopes in the evolving isotopic composition of lake waters (Talbot, 1990). In contrast, a weak or no correlation between δ18O and δ13C is typical of primary carbonates formed in hydrologically open lakes that have short residence times (r b 0.7, Talbot, 1990; Talbot and Kelts, 1990). Therefore, the oxygen isotopic composition of the carbonates should be closely related to the bulk isotopic compositions of inflow waters (Talbot, 1990; Talbot and Kelts, 1990). The relatively low δ18O isotope ratios and the lack of significant 18 δ O/δ13C correlation in the Tosunlar molluscs presumably reflect diagenetic overprints and hydrologically open lake, indicating groundwater diagenesis. In shallow lacustrine carbonates, early diagenesis can modify isotopic signature of the primary carbonates, leading to a

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Fig. 8. Summary of the depositional history of the Tosunlar succession, including sedimentological and isotope data, and their paleoenvironmental interpretation.

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loss of covariant trend (e.g., Anadón et al., 2000). The low δ18O isotope ratios are indicative of a lake with an inflow of meteoric and/or groundwater, reflecting the composition of the catchment precipitation. These inflowing waters may have altered the original oxygen-isotope composition of molluscs. Open lake carbonates are characterized by small variations in δ18O (Leng and Marshall, 2004; Anadón and Gabàs, 2009). Therefore, the low isotopic ratios of Tosunlar molluscs, which display narrow spread (up to 4.5‰) in δ18O, can be linked to isotopically diluted waters that indicate meteoric signals, supporting a hydrologically open lake. The δ18O values of the inflows also suggest that the effect of evaporation on the isotopic balance was minor. The isotopic composition of the input water flux is very similar to the outflow flux and the change in δ18O of the lake water marks the change in δ18O of input water, which is linked to moisture source and air temperature in the environment (Anadón and Gabàs, 2009). The lack of δ18O/δ13C correlation in the Tosunlar record implies a period when lake level changes were relatively small due to the small changes in P/E balance and vapor exchange with the atmosphere forced δ18O and δ13C to remain relatively constant (Li and Ku, 1997). Intervals with relative low δ18O ratios probably reflect relative high lake levels due to changes in P/E balance with increase of 18 O-depleted meteoric water (Lamb et al., 2002). The very low δ18O values (ca. − 4‰) recorded in some of beds probably are related to short dilution periods due to a greater influx of isotopically lighter waters. This indicates a high lake level and low salinity when the lake was hydrologically open. In contrast, the low δ18O values (ca. − 1‰) are characterized by a minimum influx of these waters, suggesting a low lake level with high salinity when the lake was hydrologically closed. The bedrock in the Denizli Basin and its surroundings consists of a thick succession of Mesozoic dolomitic carbonates in the NE and S-SE and Palaeozoic methamorphic rocks in the S-SE and N-NW (Fig. 2). Leaching of metamorphic and dolomitic carbonate bedrocks accounts for alkaline, supersatured water drained into the Denizli Basin, with a −1 high Ca/Mg ratios and an elevated CO−2 3 /HCO3 ratio. Compared to geochemistry of modern wells and springs, water stored in the Tosunlar lake succession must have been of the Na-Ca-HCO3-SO4 (thermal waters) and Ca-Mg-HCO3(cold waters) types, supersaturated with respect to the calcite and dolomite (Şimşek, 2003; Alçiçek et al., in press). The Tosunlar through-flowing open lake system is characterized by oligosaline to mesosaline waters (relatively rich in Na-Ca-HCO3-SO4 and Ca-Mg-HCO3). These features can be explained by the input of alkaline to saline rich groundwaters that likely derived from the leaching of gypsum-bearing Sazak Formation deposits and the Triassic evaporitic bedrocks by meteoric waters (Alçiçek et al., 2007; Alçiçek et al., in press). This is supported by modern alkaline to saline well and spring waters with high salinity (EC values with ca. 2900 μS/cm and low δ18O ratios with ca. −8‰; Şimşek, 2003; Alçiçek et al., in press) from Yenice field near to the Tosunlar. The δ18O values from the Tosunlar mollusc samples can compare to the isotopic composition of the meteoric inflow to the lake system. No data exist on the isotopic composition of late Pliocene–early Pleistocene precipitation in the Denizli Basin. But, the δ18O values of modern spring waters in the basin can be used as a proxy of the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene mean values for the meteoric inflow to the basin, even though the change between late Pliocene–early Pleistocene and present δ18O values of rainfall remains unknown. The low δ18O values has been also documented in several modern waters in the geothermal fields along the northern margin of the Denizli Basin (Fig. 2), all associated with dolomitic carbonate and metamorphic catchments. The Yenice geothermal field (Fig. 2) is the closest example, located only ~ 15 km to the northeast of the Tosunlar locality. The δ18O values of Yenice cold and thermal springs have ca. -8‰ (Alçiçek and Bülbül, 2015). The lack of correspondence between δ18O variations and salinity changes deduced from faunal associations confirms inputs of alkaline

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to saline groundwaters of meteoric origin, and inputs of shallow meteoric freshwaters. Meteoric freshwater input is supported by the presence of the freshwater molluscs (Pyrgula?, Melanopsis, Pisidium, and Bythinia) in some beds of the studied section. Consequently, the lake water chemistry of the Tosunlar indicates that the salinity of this lake was derived from the contamination of fresh meteoric waters with underground saline waters containing dissolved gypsums from the Neogene Sazak Formation and the Triassic evaporites. Today, a variety of wells and springs in the Denizli Basin have δ18O ratios of ca. − 7 to − 9‰ (Kele et al., 2011; Karakuş and Şimşek, 2013; Alçiçek and Bülbül, 2015) and are very similar to modern mean δ18O ratios of − 8.9‰ for Lake Acıgöl (Helvacı et al., 2010; Fig. 1), mean −7.98‰ for Lake Gölhisar waters (Eastwood et al., 2007) and mean of ca. −8‰ of Lake Gölhisar mollusc shells (−9.7 to +1.3‰; Jones et al., 2002), as well as from other locality Lake Burdur (Jones, 2004) in SW Turkey (Figs. 1 and 10). Consequently, oxygen ratios of the Tosunlar molluscs are typically 5 per mil or higher than those of Holocene. According to those isotope data, the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene regional climate (mean of − 2.5‰ in δ18O of Tosunlar) was warm and semi-arid, and more arid than the present-day (mean of −8.1‰ in δ18O, 30-year IAEA Ankara record; IAEA/WMO, 2001) in SW Turkey, as observed in Fig. 10. This predominant semiarid condition is also supported by the presence of gypsum crystals in the delta front and delta plain deposits and the MN17 arid-adapted mammal taxa in the upper part of the Tosunlar section (Figs. 3 and 4). Around 2.6 Ma B.P., in the late Villanyian (biozone MN17), a regional climatic deterioration brought about a spell of aridity that persisted until ~ 1.8 Ma B.P., representing strong temperature fluctuations and a significant cooling and aridification (e.g., Zachos et al., 2001; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2007), and decrease in vegetation (e.g., Popescu et al., 2010). The vegetation pattern is characterized by the dissapearance of thermophilous and hygrophilous species and increasing xerophytes and Mediterranean taxa (e.g., Popescu et al., 2010). This is consistent with the Tosunlar (author's unpublished data) and Bıçakçı pollen records from SW Turkey (Çameli Basin, G. Jiménez-Moreno, written commun.) which is represented by such as abundant xerophytes (e.g., Artemisia, Amaranthaceae, and Ephedra). At that time, similar aridification trend is also recorded elsewhere in the Mediterranean (e.g., Spain: Hernández Fernández et al., 2007; Italy: Ghinassi et al., 2004), and Africa (e.g., deMenocal, 1995). During this period, the mammal fauna became more steppic and adapted to arid conditions particularly in southeastern Europe (for example Greece and Turkey: Koufos et al., 2005; Alçiçek, 2010). The MN17 mammal fauna in the Tosunlar locality in the Denizli Basin is characterized by arid-adapted taxa such as Mimomys pliocaenicus and Borsodia sp. (Kaymakçı, 2006), and Mus sp. (A. Tesakov, written commun.). Similar fauna is also documented from the Bıçakçı locality in the Çameli Basin (Fig. 1; Alçiçek et al., 2005; van den Hoek-Ostende et al., 2015), Equus and Bos from the Karacasu Basin (Fig. 1; Açıkalın, 2005), and Mimomys and Apodemus from the several other localities in western Anatolia (Alaşehir/Gediz and Büyük Menderes basins; Fig. 1; Ünay et al., 1995; Saraç, 2003). These taxa have been also found in the adjacent Greek island of Rhodes, as well as at many sites in eastern and central Europe. Mus sp. is documented in North Africa since the Pliocene (Martínez-Navarro et al., 2014). However, it is known in Mediterranean since middle and late Pleistocene (e.g., Greece: Mayhew, 1977 and Israel: Maul et al., 2011). 7.4. Paleoecology The autochtonous fauna from the Tosunlar section is dominated by Micromelania phrygica and Didacna bukowskii and further characterized by the common occurrence of Theodoxus bukowskii (Table 3). These three species make up 99.8% of the numbers of specimens. They represent shallow anomalohaline lacustrine settings, with the grazing Theodoxus being dependent on light penetration for food. The apparent

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Table 4 δ18O-δ13C isotope ratios of Tosunlar mollusc fauna. Facies subassociation

Sample species

Sample no.

δ18O (‰PDB)

δ13C (‰PDB)

Distal delta front (DF1)

Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Didacna bukowskii Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica

TO1 TO1 TO1 TO1 TO1 TO2 TO2 TO2 TO2 TO2 TO2 TO2 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO3 TO4 TO4.1 TO4.2 TO5 TO5 TO5.1 TO5.2 TO6.1 TO6.2 TO6 TO6 TO6 TO6 TO6 TO6 TO7 TO7 TO7 TO8 TO9 TO10 TO10 TO10 TO10 TO10 TO10 TO11 TO11 TO11 TO11 TO11 TO11 TO11 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO12 TO13 TO13 TO14 TO14 TO14 TO14 TO15 TO15 TO15 TO15 TO16 TO16 TO16

−2.89 −3.31 −3.29 −2.73 −2.43 −2.96 −2.90 −3.34 −2.71 −4.65 −4.45 −3.95 −2.28 −2.09 −1.71 −1.88 −1.20 −1.65 −2.44 −2.73 −1.93 −1.59 −1.39 −1.82 −2.43 −2.85 −2.59 −3.59 −2.25 −1.62 −1.64 −2.70 −1.96 −1.72 −1.59 −0.42 −1.96 −1.80 −3.38 −2.92 −3.22 −3.17 −2.87 −3.35 −2.65 −3.14 −2.83 −3.58 −3.44 −3.60 −3.26 −4.68 −3.32 −3.18 −3.42 −4.11 −3.91 −3.39 −3.06 −3.42 −3.83 −3.13 −1.39 −1.08 −1.44 −0.70 −1.07 −1.65 −2.61 −1.54 −1.63 −2.47 −2.81 −2.35 −3.49

2.22 2.66 2.15 1.95 3.09 2.10 2.23 1.25 1.04 1.69 1.44 1.73 1.48 1.75 2.17 2.19 2.54 2.69 1.89 1.63 1.26 1.25 1.68 2.22 1.91 0.43 0.71 1.50 2.76 2.11 1.94 1.54 1.39 1.64 0.96 1.39 1.30 1.86 1.73 1.43 2.73 3.15 2.82 2.45 2.23 2.97 2.44 2.37 2.62 2.02 2.53 2.46 2.73 2.77 2.64 1.43 1.63 2.77 2.62 2.49 1.78 2.05 3.27 2.29 2.54 2.73 2.65 2.19 2.40 2.21 2.51 2.72 1.93 1.63 1.43

Proximal delta front (DF2)

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Table 4 (continued) Facies subassociation

Sample species

Sample no.

δ18O (‰PDB)

δ13C (‰PDB)

Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica Micromelania phrygica

TO16 TO17 TO17 TO17 TO17 TO18 TO18 TO18 TO18 TO19 TO19 TO19 TO20 TO21 TO22 TO23

−2.39 −3.28 −3.43 −2.82 −3.81 −3.37 −3.40 −2.57 −3.21 0.93 0.21 −0.10 −0.69 −0.54 −0.98 −1.38

1.65 1.07 1.44 1.11 1.67 1.49 1.28 1.54 1.45 0.67 1.24 1.67 0.90 0.53 0.74 2.08

poor ability of Didacna to burrow deep as well as the rarity of abraded material indicates low-energy lacustrine conditions, despite the shallow nature of the deposits. Two species (Melanopsis spec.1 and Pisidium crassisimum) that are usually associated with freshwater settings occur in very low numbers in seven of the samples and appear in general to be more abraded. They may have derived from episodic influence of rivers into the lake and indicate the very close proximity of the lake margin near the Tosunlar section (which at the time was located to the north-northeast). The ostracod fauna from the Tosunlar succession is also dominated by brackish water taxa (Cyprideis, Tyrrhenocythere, and Loxoconcha) with some freshwater to oligohaline taxa (Candona) (F. Grossi, pers. comm.). The genus Cyprideis is a typical brackish dweller with a wide salinity tolerance 0.4 to 150‰ (Neale, 1988; Van Harten, 1990). Van Harten (1990) considered that Cyprideis is ‘anomalohaline’. Benson (1978) also suggested that Cyprideis is a littoral genus which inhabits shallow waters and is more typical of oligo–mesohaline conditions (0.5–18‰). As suggested by Krstic (1977), fossil forms of the genus Tyrrhenocythere (oligohaline to low-mesohaline) lived in shallow waters with an estimated salinity of 5–15‰. The living genus Loxoconcha inhabits shallow environments in mesohaline to euhaline waters. Candonidae are characteristic of shallow waters of freshwater to oligohaline conditions (Meisch, 2000). The mammal fauna from the uppermost Tosunlar section contain Mimomys and Borsodia (Kaymakçı, 2006), and Mus sp. (A. Tesakov, written comm.). Genus Mimomys reflect a preference for meadow-like

environments, whereas Borsodia indicate a dry, open landscape (van den Hoek-Ostende et al., 2015). Genus Mus is documented from dry and open habitats (e.g., steppes, semi-deserts and live commensally with humans throughout the whole world (Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999). 7.5. Factors controlling sedimentation Paleoclimate- and tectonic-based lake basin model, including lake level changes related to sediment and water supply, lake chemistry, productivity, and hydrology during tectonic subsidence (accommodation space), may allow us a better understanding of both productivity and lake type influence on diversity (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004). The development and distribution of lacustrine systems reflect paleogeographic changes that were strongly influenced by tectonics, sediment supply, and climate changes (Bohacs, 2004, 2012). The balance between rates of potential accommodation generated by tectonic subsidence versus sediment supply influences the type of lake basin (overfilled, balanced-fill, or underfilled lakes; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Bohacs et al., 2000) (Fig. 3). The Tosunlar succession represents the upper part of the Kolankaya Formation (Fig. 3). Comparison of the Kolankaya Formation siliciclastic and lacustrine deposits of the lake basin types as suggested by Carroll and Bohacs (1999), tend to classify the Kolankaya context as a balanced-fill basin (Fig. 3; Alçiçek et al., 2007). This is supported by alternation of open and closed hydrology with brackish and minor freshwater mollusc fauna (Alçiçek et al., 2007; Alçiçek, 2010). In this lake-

Fig. 9. Depositional model of the Tosunlar paleodelta. (Facies subassociation codes from Table 2).

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These species were present in the latest Miocene Babadağ section in the Denizli Basin (Wesselingh et al., 2008). The stratigraphic continuity of these lake endemics from the latest Miocene possibly up to the early Pleistocene in the Denizli Basin is remarkably long, probably indicating long-lived lake. Endemic species in long-lived lake environments are well known to develop anagenetic change over time and may form the basis of species radiations (Magyar et al., 1999; GierlowskiKordesch and Park, 2004; Wesselingh, 2007). Mollusc anagenetic change or turnover can be very rapid in long-lived lakes. 8. Conclusions

Fig. 10. Comparison of δ18O and δ13C values of the Tosunlar paleodelta, Lake Gölhisar, and Lake Burdur (SW Turkey) (based on Jones et al., 2002; Talbot, 1990; Leng and Marshall, 2004).

basin-type, the rates of sediment + water supply (climate influenced) and accommodation space (tectonic influenced) are roughly in balance during the formation of the sedimentary sequences. But, water inflows are not always in equilibrium with outflows and are rarely insufficient to fill accommodation space. These interpretations may indicate groundwater oscillations, characteristic of balanced-fill lake basin type (Bohacs et al., 2000) as well in Tosunlar paleodelta. This lake type is characterized by both aggradational and progradational fill with sedimentary deposits indicating alternation of open and closed hydrology (Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Bohacs et al., 2000), as well in the Kolankaya Formation (Alçiçek et al., 2007). Low-relief deltas, such as depicted for the Tosunlar deltaic system, indicate lacustrine sedimentation within a balanced-filled lake basin (Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Bohacs et al., 2000). Therefore, the progressive changes from the distal delta front (DF1) through proximal delta front (DF2) to the upper distributary channel and interdistributary swamp of delta plain (DF1 and DF2) deposits in the Tosunlar section reflect a balance in the basin. This tripartite lake type classification can be applied to modern and fossil lake basins (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004). Fossil examples from the Laney Member of the Eocene Green River Formation (Uinta Basin, USA) and modern examples from the East African rift valleys (i.e., Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria) represent a balanced-filled lake basin (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004). These examples may be considered as analogous of Tosunlar paleodelta due to their similar diversity and hydrology. Biodiversity is high in Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria and Laney Member of the Eocene Green River Formation, which is the typical characteristic of the balanced-filled lakes (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004). Modern examples Lake Tanganyika has endemic 43 mollusc and 219 fish species, whereas Lake Victoria has 13 mollusc and N 400 fish species. Fossil example Laney Member has also 13 mollusc and 10 fish species. Similarly, endemic 12 mollusc and 12 ostracod species have been described from the Tosunlar paleodelta. Therefore, these lakes may be close examples to Tosunlar paleodelta. The Tosunlar fauna is dominated by only three endemic species (Micromelania phygrica, Didacna bukowskii, and Theodoxus bukowskii; Table 3) with minor endemic species (Didacna cf. elongata, Didacna phrygica, Pseudamnicola orientalis, Valvata sp., Pisidium crassisimum, Bythinia sp., Dreissena sp., Pyrgula? sp., Melanopsis spec.1; Table 3).

The late Pliocene–early Pleistocene Tosunlar sedimentary succession of the Denizli Basin in southwestern Turkey is characterized by fluvialdominated delta deposits. The Tosunlar section shows overall upwardcoarsening and -fining and shallowing. Two facies associations have been identified: delta front (proximal and distal deltafront deposits: DF1 and DF2), and delta plain (distributary channel and interdistributary swamp deposits: DP1 and DP2). These deposits occur in repetitive facies subassociations (sedimentary cycles) that indicate periods of lake level changes. Each cycle exhibit a gradual transition from delta front (DF) to delta plain (DP) environments and displays a distinctive shoaling upward trend. The delta front facies association implies the high lake level, whereas the delta plain association indicates gradual shoreline retreat and low lake level. The sedimentary and stable isotopic records of the Tosunlar succession are characterized by a fluvial-dominated, shallow deltaic sequence in the margins of a semi-isolated brackish long-lived lake. The relatively low δ18O isotope ratios and the lack of significant δ18O/δ13C correlation in the Tosunlar molluscs probably indicate diagenetic overprints and hydrologically open lake. The δ18O values from the Tosunlar molluscs can correlate to the isotopic composition of the meteoric inflow to the lake system. The δ18O values of modern waters in the basin can be used as a proxy of the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene mean values for the meteoric inflow to the basin. According to those isotope data, the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene regional climate (mean of −2.5‰ in δ18O of Tosunlar) was warm and semi-arid, and more arid than the present-day (mean of −8.1‰) in SW Turkey. The Tosunlar mollusc fauna is characterized by endemic, brackish water species, and noticeably stable in composition and morphologies throughout the section. Despite changes in water chemistry of the succession, mollusc fauna is noticeably stable in composition over time. The Tosunlar mollusc fauna may be considered as analogous to the East African rift lakes due to similar diversity and hydrology. Acknowledgements We thank Charles Barnard (NCB Naturalis) for assistance with preparing samples. Hubert Vonhof (VU Univ., The Netherlands) is thanked for isotope analyses. The study was supported by TUBITAK research grant 113Y551. MCA thanks to the Outstanding Young Scientis Award by Turkish Academy of Sciences (TUBA-GEBIP). G. Saraç (Mineral Res. & Exp. General Directorate, Turkey), A. Tesakov (Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia), L. van den Hoek-Ostende (Naturalis, The Netherlands) and F. Grossi (Roma Tre Univ., Italy) are also thanked for determining the rodent, fish, and ostracod fossils. The authors thank to A. Bülbül (Pamukkale Univ.) for field assistance. We are also grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their useful suggestions. References Açıkalın, S., 2005. Sedimentary evolution of the Karacasu cross-graben (Aydın, West Anatolia). MSc Thesis, Osmangazi Univ., Eskişehir. (In Turkish.). Alçiçek, H., 2010. Stratigraphic correlation of the Neogene basins in southwestern Anatolia: regional palaeogeographical, palaeoclimatic and tectonic implications. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 291, 297–318.

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