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A review of the road transport of cattle T. G. KNOWLES The transport of farm animals has been the subject of much research in recent years. This paper reviews the recent scientific literature pertinent to the road transport of cattle. The state of knowledge is summarised and recommendations for best practice based upon this are given. Areas which require further work are also identified. THE literature covering the transport of cattle is extensive. Rather than attempt to review every paper published on the subject this paper tries to present the state of knowledge with particular reference to road transport within the European Union (EU), and to make recommendations based upon it. The more recent papers on a particular topic are referenced. The literature on animal transport in the EU has been reviewed by Hails (1978) and Connell (1984), and that on cattle transport specifically, by Leach (1981), Tarrant (1990), Warriss (1990), Tarrant and Grandin (1993) and Morris (1994). A bibliography ofpublications from 1984 to 1994 covering the transport and handling of livestock has been compiled by Berry (1994). Almost all adult cattle are transported at some time in their lives. Within the EU the majority of cattle are transported by road and most of the more recent research has dealt with this form of transport. With a steady decline in the number of slaughterhouses in the UK and the EU it is probable that transport distances and times are increasing. A high percentage of cattle are also still marketed through live auction markets, a process which extends transport times and multiplies the number of occasions that animals are loaded, unloaded, driven, introduced to unfamiliar environments and mixed with unfamiliar animals. All of these factors combine to affect the animals adversely in a variety of ways. Loading, unloading and driving are particularly associated with physical damage and injury. Mixing groups of unfamiliar animals leads to an increase in the number of social interactions which in turn may lead to psychological stress and physical exhaustion. These stresses are associated with physiological changes which lead to poor welfare, reduced meat quality and economic losses. Long journeys inevitably involve the withdrawal of food and water for extended periods of time, leading to weight loss and dehydration.

reported that mortality during rail transport was twice that during road transport. Mortality rates during sea transport can be high, and are variously attributed to lack of appropriate feed and water, too high a stocking density and inadequate temperature and/or ventilation (Hails 1978, Connell 1984).

Weight loss When an animal is deprived of food and water it loses weight. Shorthose and Wythes (1988) estimated the rate of loss to be approximately 0-75 per cent of an animal's initial weight per day. When deprivation is compounded with transportation liveweight is lost more rapidly. The rate of liveweight loss reported in the literature varies widely (Warriss 1990); during the first 24 hours, from approximately 3 per cent to 11 per cent losses of initial bodyweight have been reported. Most of the losses occur in the first 24 hours of deprivation with the greatest rate occurring during the first 12 hours. This loss is due primarily to loss of gut contents, with animals fed on roughage losing more weight than animals fed more concentrated diets. Access to water during feed deprivation reduces the amount of liveweight lost. The range of losses of carcase weight reported in the literature is also wide, from < 1 per cent to 8 per cent over 48 hours of deprivation. The weight of the liver also decreases with fasting and the rumen contents tend to decrease in volume and become more fluid (Warriss 1990). On the basis oftheir own work, and that of others, Schaefer and others (1997) recommended the prophylactic use of oral electrolytes to reduce the losses ofboth liveweight and carcase weight during transport and also to reduce the deterioration of meat quality. They have shown that the losses of liveweight and carcase weight can be reduced by several per cent. Jubb and others (1993) found that treating animals with an injectable solution of vitamins A, D and E did not reduce liveweight loss during transport, contrary to anecdotal evidence.

Physiological responses EFFECTS OF TRANSPORT

Mortality

Veterinary Record (1999) 144, 197-201 T. G. Knowles, BSc, MSc, PhD, School of Veterinary

Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DY

Young calves are especially vulnerable when transported and losses can be high (Knowles 1995). However, adult cattle are more resilient than other livestock and mortality during transport appears to be low. Cattle are one of the most valuable types of slaughter animal and as Hails (1978) pointed -out, the concern shown for an animal being transported increases in proportion to its value. In South Africa where transport conditions are generally harsher than in the UK, Henning (1993) reported figures of 0-01 per cent mortality among slaughter cattle transported by road in 1980, and then no mortality in a later survey of 22,000 cattle carried out in the early 1990s. No figures could be found for mortality during transport within the UK. The Meat Hygiene Service now publishes slaughterhouse returns from within the UK and these give a figure for dead upon arrival but they are not yet in a form which makes it possible to estimate deaths during transit or deaths in lairage. Most other published figures relate to rail and sea transport but Rodenhoff and Schonherr (1971) The Veterinary Record, February 20, 1999

The physiological responses of cattle to transport have been reviewed by Leach (1981). The effects of preslaughter handling on the levels of blood plasma constituents have been reviewed by Shaw and Tume (1992). There are generally increases in body temperature, heart and respiration rate. The pituitary-adrenal axis is activated, with an associated increase in circulating levels of cortisol, glucose and free fatty acids. The levels of muscle enzymes in the blood increase, indicating that there is muscular exertion, and the immune system is affected. There is an increase in the numbers of white blood cells and neutrophils and a decrease in the numbers of lymphocytes, eosinophils and monocytes (Kent and Ewbank 1983, Tarrant and others 1992). Schaefer and others (1997) reported an increase in the ratio of neutrophils/lymphocytes with transport, together with a decrease in blood pH and increases in serum chloride, blood haemoglobin, urine sodium and urine osmolality.

Shipping fever Shipping fever, also known as bovine respiratory disease, is generally considered to be caused by stress-induced changes 197

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in the immune system during transport (Tarrant and Grandin 1993). It is characterised by fever, dyspnoea and fibrinous pneumonia. A similar disease frequently affects horses that have been transported. It is the cause of an estimated loss of 1 per cent of feedlot cattle in the USA (Irwin and Gentleman 1978). It is of less economic consequence in the UK, where the majority of adult cattle are transported for immediate slaughter, giving little time for the clinical signs to become apparent. Feedlot losses due to shipping fever tend to occur in clusters, by truck loads or by pens, especially when the general incidence is high, but further work is required to determine whether contagious or non-contagious factors are responsible for such clusters (Ribble and others 1994). Greater mixing of animals from different sources was correlated with an increase in the incidence of fatal fibrinous pneumonia (Ribble and others 1995b) and the risk of the disease was found to be seasonal, with the maximum risk occurring in Alberta in November, shortly after the peak in numbers of calves transported to the feedlots (Ribble and others 1995a).

a stocking density of 600 kg/m2. Wythes and others (1980) reported that horns accounted for 50 per cent of all bruising among cattle in their studies and that removing the tips of the horns did not help to reduce the problem (Wythes 1979). Most authors report that sale through an auction market leads to increased bruising. Jarvis and others (1995) found more bruising in cattle arriving for slaughter from auction markets than in those sent direct from farms. They found bruising on 97 per cent of the carcases, and that each animal in the slaughterhouses studied had been subjected to a mean of 1-4 bruising events. The use of a stick for driving the animals was correlated with the amount and location of the bruising found. McNally and Warriss (1996) also found more bruising among slaughter cattle from auction markets, and also found that the extent of bruising increased with the distance travelled and with the time spent in lairage. They also found a positive correlation between increases in bruising and increases in the ultimate pH of the muscle, indicative of a decrease in meat quality. The mounting behaviour of cattle in lairage, especially by groups of unfamiliar bulls, results in a Behaviour during transport decrease in the carcase and meat quality. Kenny and Tarrant There appears to be little difference between the responses of (1987c) found that an overhead electrified wire grid reduced bulls and steers to transport. At the beginning of a journey the mounting behaviour and resulted in less carcase bruising. cattle are generally anxious and restless, and defaecate and The major influence of transport on lean meat quality is urinate more frequently. As the animals' circumstances grad- through the depletion of muscle glycogen stores by physical ually change, from encountering a new environment, to social activity and physical stress. During the 24 hours after slaughregrouping, to confinement on a lorry, to confinement and ter muscle glycogen is converted to lactic acid and there is an motion, the numbers of social interactions are initially high, associated decrease in the pH of the muscle/meat. If the glycobut gradually decrease. In contrast, the frequency of urina- gen levels are reduced the decrease in pH is also reduced, and tion, and the levels of plasma cortisol increased with each suc- the resistance of the meat to microbial action and thus its cessive stage (Kenny and Tarrant 1987a, b). keeping quality are also reduced. There is also an associated Compared with other species (Knowles 1998, Warriss darkness and dryness to the meat which is often referred to as 1998), cattle prefer to stand during transport but they do lie dark cutting beef (DCB) or dark, firm dry (DFD) beef (Warriss down, especially during long journeys, suggesting that they 1990). Such meat looks abnormal and is discriminated against begin to get tired and find the effort of standing quite by consumers. The condition is generally caused by the longdemanding. Kent and Ewbank (1985) found that 225 kg cat- term physical stress induced by fighting or prolonged transtle lay down less and ruminated less than control animals dur- port, or by the emotional stress due to regrouping, but not ing 18 hours of transport. They lay down mainly towards the usually by the withdrawal of feed alone, unless it is very proend of the journey and during periods when the lorry was sta- longed (Crouse and others 1984). The recovery of glycogen tionary. During the first 24 hours of recovery the animals lay levels after they have been depleted appears to take at least two down for four hours longer than normal, and during the sec- days, even in undisturbed animals with access to feed and ond 24 hours for 2-7 hours longer. water (Warriss 1990). Regrouping and mixing are considered Tarrant and others (1992) found that 600 kg cattle began to be the major cause of DFD meat (Bartos and others 1993). to lie down after 16 hours of transport. However, animals at The overhead electrified wire grid used in preslaughter lairage the highest stocking density of 600 kg/m2 were unable to lie by Kenny and Tarrant (1987c) was found to eliminate DFD down because of the lack of room to manoeuvre and possi- meat. Killing animals as soon as they leave the lorry has been bly a fear of being trampled. Warriss and others (1995) and found to reduce the prevalence of DFD meat, as has holding Tarrant and others (1992) found significant increases in bulls in individual pens in lairage (Matzke and others 1985). plasma creatine kinase, after 15 and 24 hours of transport There is an increased prevalence of DFD meat after only 90 respectively, indicative of physical fatigue. The majority of minutes in lairage (Augustini and others 1980) but holding incidents in which cattle adjust their position, stumble, or fall animals overnight leads to a very marked increase in the probare associated with sudden changes such as braking, gear lem (Fabiansson and others 1984, Wajda and Wichlacz 1984). changes or cornering. Culled cows show a high prevalence of DCB. This is probably Jarvis and others (1996) studied the behaviour of cattle not because they are generally unfit, because most are culled in a UK slaughterhouse lairage. They found that cattle from because they are thought to be barren, although many are markets, and cattle that had travelled longer distances from found to contain a calf at slaughter. Brown and others (1990) either a farm or market, spent more time drinking and lying surveyed the incidence of dark cutting carcases in UK slaughdown than animals sent direct from farms. Market cattle, and terhouses. Using pH as an indicator of potential DFD meat cattle held overnight before slaughter, had higher levels of they found the prevalence to be 8-0, 6-0, 3-8, 3-7 and 1-4 per plasma free fatty acids and showed greater signs of dehydra- cent among bulls, cull dairy cows, steers, calves and heifers, tion. The levels of plasma free fatty acids increase with the respectively. time since the last feed.

Carcase quality and meat quality Transport mainly affects carcase quality in terms of the extent of bruising. Bruising detracts from the visual quality of the product and if it is severe enough the bruised meat has to be trimmed away, leading to a direct loss. Tarrant and others (1992) have shown that the extent of bruising increases with increased stocking density with 'severe bruising' occurring at 198

External variables

Distance and time The time a journey takes is generally more important than the distance covered (Warriss 1990). On the basis of measurements of blood constituents, Tarrant and others (1992) found that 600 kg steers transported for 24 hours suffered considerable dehydration, and were noticeably tired. Most of the animals drank and then lay down in a busy slaughterhouse lairage. The pH of the meat

The Veterinary Record, February 20, 1999

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was higher after 24 hours of transport than after one hour of transport, suggesting that muscle glycogen had been depleted and that there would be an increased propensity for DFD meat. The authors suggested that journeys lasting more than 24 hours would be detrimental to animal welfare. Pregnant heifers had high blood haemoglobin levels and haematocrits and drank from 1 to 6 litres of water immediately after 18 hours of transport (Lambooy and Hulsegge 1988). Warriss and others (1995) transported 350 kg cattle for 15 hours, and found that the effects were little different from the effects of 10 hours of transport, they concluded that 15 hours of transport was acceptable from the point of view of the animals' welfare. The animals' pretransport liveweight was recovered only after five days with access to feed and water. There appears to be little information on the ameliorating effects, or otherwise, of mid-transport lairage during extended journeys. However, if they are given the opportunity, cattle will eat and drink shortly after unloading (Connell 1984). The present EU Directive (1991) allows cattle to be transported for 14 hours followed by a further 14 hours after a rest stop of one hour. On the basis of the evidence reviewed above it is most unlikely that a one-hour rest stop would be sufficient to allow any real recovery.

2.5

-EU (Min) EU (Max) FAWC Formula Randalls Formula FAWC Recommendation

2

ETI L C

1 *5 450 kg/n) 600kg/ni

.500 kg/nd

0

ji Cl

.300 kg/ni

Q.5 co

0 0

200

400 Liveweight (kg)

600

800

FIG 1: Recommendations for the stocking density of cattle during road transport as contained in the European Union (1991), FAWC (1991) and Randall (1993). Stocking density is shown as the space allowance of an individual animal at a particular weight. The stocking densities studied by Tarrant and others (1988, 1992) are shown as the column of Xs displayed in relation to an animal of 600 kg

but they found that in all cases 600 kg/m2 was an unacceptably high density. This density was of particular interest because it was what would be considered a full load, in that Stocking density There is little experimental work on it was the maximum number of animals which could be which to base recommendations for stocking density and loaded and the doors of the lorry still be closed easily. At most codes are based on a consideration of the animals' size, 600 kg/mi2 the animals were not able to adopt the preferred and on practical experience. The stocking densities used in orientation across, or in line with, the direction of travel. practice vary greatly and depend on many variables such as Because they were cramped they were unable to adjust their the haulier, the size, age and type of animal, whether they are position to maintain balance and as a result they suffered for slaughter or not, the distance, the type of lorry, the more falls, bruises and general carcase damage than cattle carambient temperature and the number of animals available ried at the lower stocking densities. When they did go down to fill a load. A survey of the stocking densities of cattle they were often unable to regain their feet because other anitransported within the UK has recently been funded by the mals closed over them. The other animals were then likely to Meat and Livestock Commission but the results are still stumble over the animal that was down. Plasma cortisol, glucose and creatine kinase all increased with increasing stockconfidential (Meat and Livestock Commission 1996). The Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAwc) (1991) gives a ing density, suggesting increased stress and fatigue with higher formula for calculating a minimum area for each animal, stocking density. The recommended stocking densities and the stocking based on liveweight: A = 0 021 W0O67, where A is the area in square metres and W is the weight of the animal in kg. The densities used by Tarrant and others (1988, 1992), with the Council considered that the use of this formula required fur- exception of the 200 kg/m2 treatment which is outside the ther investigation but recommended 360 kg/m2 as a guideline scale, are illustrated in Fig 1. They are shown as the space value for the maximum stocking density for adult cattle. On allowance for an individual animal at a particular weight. the basis of published guidelines for stocking density from Although this measure is most suitable for illustrative purother sources Randall (1993) derived the equation A = 0-01 poses and is used in many guidelines, FAWC (1991) points out W0 78; however, he recommended the use of the equation that recommended stocking densities are best given as given by FAWC because it is more generous in its space liveweight per square metre. A further improvement would allowance, especially for larger animals. He qualified the use be to express the density in terms of space allowance per of these equations by suggesting that they should only be used 100 kg liveweight (Knowles 1998) because this gives a more for journeys of less than five hours. The Animal Welfare intuitive figure to work with in the field and leads to simpler Advisory Committee (1994) in New Zealand, in its latest calculations. Fig 1 shows that most recommendations follow the same codes for the transportation of cattle, have adopted Randall's equation as a minimum space allowance and FAWC's equation trend, except for the recommendation by FAWC (1991) of as a maximum. The EU (1991) has set maximum and mini- 360 kg/m2, which gives a more generous minimum space mum limits on stocking density for cattle transported by road allowance for animals over 400 kg. Although it was well carand these are referred to by the current UK legislation, The ried out and useful, the work by Tarrant and others (1988, 1992) has not covered in any depth the range of stocking denWelfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997. There have been a few investigations of the effects of stock- sities which are presently recommended and likely to be more ing density during road transport. Tarrant and others (1988) generally in use. Eldridge and Winfield (1988) carried out a study of 360 kg looked at the effects of three stocking densities (approximately 200,300 and 600 kg/mi2) on 600 kg steers during jour- animals transported at stocking densities more closely within neys lasting four hours. They varied the stocking density the range of the various recommendations. They found that either by varying the number of animals in a pen from three within this tighter range animals at the higher stocking dento nine or by varying the pen size for groups of five animals. sities had lower heart rates and lower movement scores. In a second study Tarrant and others (1992) used groups of Animals in smaller pens also had lower heart rates and lower six 600 kg steers which were transported for 24 hours at stock- movement scores than animals at the same stocking density ing densities of approximately 450, 500 and 600 kg/m2. With in large pens. All the work taken together indicates that there these group sizes they found there was little difference is an optimum stocking density and that the animals' welfare between the two methods of achieving the stocking density can be poor if the stocking density is either too high or too The Veterinary Record, February 20, 1999

199

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low; however, stocking density is not the only factor to consider. There is an interaction between stocking density, group size and pen size.

Other factors Randall (1993) considered acceptable ventilation rates during transport. He concluded that simple guidelines on ventilation are misleading and that actual values should be based on a consideration of specific circumstances. However, in general a temperature of 30°C should not be exceeded for cattle. For temperatures well below 30°C humidity is of little consequence but transport near this temperature and at high humidity should be avoided. The use of video auctions is increasing within the UK and worldwide. Video recordings of the cattle are made on farm and bidding takes place 'on line' while the images of the cattle are viewed. The cattle are then marketed directly from farm to buyer. These auctions appear to combine the benefits of both live auction markets and direct marketing. Bailey and others (1991) found that prices for cattle paid by buyers and received by sellers in the USA were higher at video auctions than at traditional auction markets.

Handling Most of the recommendations for handling cattle at markets have been formulated by Grandin (1980a, b). Cattle will readily move as a group and there is usually a dominant animal which will take the lead; thus it is usually easier and more efficient to move them as a group rather than as individuals. Cattle are reluctant to move into dark and dim areas. They have poor depth perception and can confuse contrasting colours and lights with solid objects; thus it is important to keep all areas well lit and visually simple if they are to accept a new environment readily. High, solid walls are recommended for raceways and pens because they visually isolate the cattle, which are not distracted while they are being moved or are resting in lairage. Apparent dead ends and sharp corners are best avoided because they slow the animals' movements and may 'spook' them. Non-slip flooring is essential to avoid physical damage, and cattle are more assured when they have a firm footing. Mixing groups of unfamiliar animals at any stage in the marketing process results in increased social interactions. Mixing is especially detrimental in groups of young bulls which will butt and mount each other, activities which reduce the quality of the carcase and meat. The human factor is of utmost importance in handling cattle and an experienced handler will make a great difference to the ease with which animals are moved. Grandin (1997) discussed the factors which may be responsible for the variations between different studies of animal transportation, and between the behavioural responses of individual cattle to different circumstances. Both genetic factors and previous experience interact in complex ways to affect an animal's behaviour. In order to assess an animal's reaction satisfactorily a combination of behavioural and physiological measurements is required. DISCUSSION Unlike smaller farm species cattle do not readily lie down while being transported. Because of their weight they are more likely to suffer discomfort through the jolting of a lorry, and the presence of other animals increases the danger and difficulty of lying down. As a result of standing, cattle become physically tired during transport in a way not observed in pigs and sheep. There is some evidence that cattle are appreciably tired after approximately 15 hours of road transport, but further research is required to establish a maximum journey time between rest intervals.

200

There would appear to be an optimum stocking density, although it has not yet been established for the majority of transport conditions. The welfare of cattle transported at higher or lower stocking densities is poorer. The guidelines that have been reviewed probably encompass this optimum for some types of animal but optimum stocking densities need to be established properly through investigation. However, there are a large number of variables to consider. Little is known about the benefits, or otherwise, of rest stops during long distance transport. Work is required to establish acceptable mid-transport lairage times and conditions. Many studies have shown that cattle passing through auction markets suffer more bruising than those marketed directly from farm to slaughterhouse, and their welfare is therefore poorer. In addition, the increased bruising is associated with poorer meat quality. Direct marketing of cattle from farm to slaughter is to be preferred. At present there appears to be a move among the major supermarkets to specify direct marketing of cattle in their quality assurance schemes, this should be to the benefit of both cattle and consumer. The extent of bruising on cattle has been shown to be a direct result of poor handling, especially the over use of a stick. Those who handle cattle at any stage of the marketing process need to be made aware of the economic and welfare consequences of poor handling and need some training in animal behaviour and handling. To some extent this has begun. In accordance with Artide 9 of The Welfare ofAnimals (Transport) Order 1997, as from July 1, 1998 any person in the UK who cares for cattle transported on any journey by air, sea or rail, or for journeys of over eight hours by road, must have demonstrated that they are'qualified to handle, transport, care for and safeguard the welfare of the animals'. Mixing groups of unfamiliar animals at any stage during marketing, even on the home farm, results in increased antagonistic behaviour, poorer welfare and poorer meat quality, especially among bulls. There should be an effort to devise marketing processes which minimise the extent to which mixing needs to occur. The high prevalence of DFD meat found in culled cows at slaughter within the UK suggests that they find marketing and transport to slaughter particularly stressful. The same problem occurs in bulls, but the causes and their solutions are thought to be understood. The marketing of culled cows needs to be investigated and measures taken to improve their welfare.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This review was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food.

References ANIMAL WELFARE ADVISORY COMMITTEE (1994) Code of Recommendations and Minimum Standards for the Welfare of Animals Transported Within New Zealand. AUGUSTINI, C., FISCHER, K. & SCHON, L. (1980) Untersuchungen zum Problem des dunklen, leimigen Reindfleisches dark cutting beef. Fleischwirtschaft 60, 1057-1062 BAILEY, D., PETERSON, M. C. & BRORSEN, B. W. (1991) A comparison of video cattle auction and regional market prices. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 73, 465-475 BARTOS, L., FRANC, C., REHAK, D. & STIPKOVA, M. (1993) A practical method to prevent dark-cutting DFD in beef Meat Science 34, 275-282 BERRY, D. A. (1994) Transport and Handling of Livestock and Poultry. United States Department of Agriculture, Quick Bibliography, Series ofthe National Agricultural Library. p 1052-5378 BROWN, S. N., BEVIS, E. A. & WARRISS, P. D. (1990) An estimate of the incidence of dark cutting beef in the United Kingdom. Meat Science 27, 249-258

The Veterinary Record, February 20, 1999

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CONNELL, J. (1984) International transport of farm animals intended for slaughter. Commission of the European Communities, Report EUR 9556. p 67 CROUSE, J. D., SMITH, S. B. & PRIOR, R. L. (1984) Bovine muscle glycogen as affected by fasting and feeding. Journal ofAnimal Science 59,384-387 ELDRIDGE, G. A. & WINFIELD, C. G. (1988) The behaviour and bruising of cattle during transport at different space allowances. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 28, 695-698 EUROPEAN UNION (1991) Council Directive 91/628 on the Welfare of Animals in Transit as amended by Directive 95/29 FABIANSSON, S., ERICHSEN, I. & REUTERSWARD, A. L. (1984) The incidence of dark cutting beef in Sweden. Meat Science 10, 21-33 FAWC (1991) Report on the European Commission Proposals on the Transport of Animals. London, MAFF Publications GRANDIN, T. (1980a) Livestock behaviour as related to handling facilities design. International Journal of the Study ofAnimal Problems 1, 33-52 GRANDIN, T. (1980b) Designs and specifications for livestock handling equipment in slaughter plants. InternationalJournal ofthe Study ofAnimal Problemns 1, 178-200 GRANDIN, T. (1997) Assessment of stress during handling and transport. Journal ofAnimal Science 75, 249-257 HAILS, M. R. (1978) Transport stress in animals, a review. Animal Regulation Studies 1, 289-343 HENNING, P. A. (1993) Transportation of animals by road for slaughter in South Africa. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Livestock Environment, 6-9 July 1993, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. pp 536-541

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_ ABSTRACT_ Risk factors for Neospora caninum infection in dairy cows A CASE-control study was used to investigate the risk factors for Neospora caninum infection in dairy herds in Quebec. Twenty-four herds in which the organism had been detected in an aborted fetus and 22 herds in which it had not been definitively diagnosed were used, and in total, 3059 cows were sampled. All the case herds and 16 of the control herds had at least one seropositive cow; the median seroprevalence in the case herds (22.5 per cent) was significantly higher than in the control herds (7.5 per cent). The only significant risk factor detected was the presence and number of dogs kept on the farms during the previous three years, with the case farms keeping dogs more often and in larger numbers than the control farms. It is suggested that the access of dogs to barns and cattle should be restricted. PARE, J., FECTEAU, G., FORTIN, M. & MARSOLAIS, G. (1998) Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 213, 1595

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A review of the road transport of cattle G. Knowles Veterinary Record 1999 144: 197-201

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