Perceived family continuity

This article was downloaded by: [University of Valencia] On: 23 July 2014, At: 07:01 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Revista de Psicología Social: International Journal of Social Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rrps20

Perceived family continuity: Implications for family identification and psychological wellbeing a

b

Marina Herrera , Fabio Sani & Mhairi Bowe a

b

Universidad de Valencia, Spain

b

University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Published online: 23 Jan 2014.

To cite this article: Marina Herrera, Fabio Sani & Mhairi Bowe (2011) Perceived family continuity: Implications for family identification and psychological well-being, Revista de Psicología Social: International Journal of Social Psychology, 26:3, 387-399, DOI: 10.1174/021347411797361275 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021347411797361275

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Perceived family continuity: Implications for family identification and psychological well-being MARINA HERRERA1, FABIO SANI2 AND MHAIRI BOWE2 1

Universidad de Valencia, Spain; 2University of Dundee, Scotland, UK

Downloaded by [University of Valencia] at 07:01 23 July 2014

Abstract Research has shown that people tend to perceive the national and regional groups to which they belong as temporally persistent. In this paper we conducted two studies to investigate that the family may also be perceived as having different degrees of continuity through time, and that those perceptions have implications on family identity and psychological well-being. In the first study (N = 149; with a mean age of 23, SD = 5.7), we found that perceived family continuity was positively correlated with several family related variables (e.g., family functioning, perceived family entitativity) and with psychological well-being. Our second study (N = 152; with a mean age of 40.80, SD = 12.68), replicated and extended previous findings by showing that perceived family continuity was also positively related to generative concern. Furthermore, we tested a model which revealed that perceived family continuity had a positive influence on family identification, which in turn enhanced psychological well-being. It is argued that these findings confirm the necessity to treat the continuity of the family group and the implications of family identity on well-being. Keywords: Generativity, group identity, perceived family continuity, positive group functioning, psychological well-being.

Continuidad familiar percibida: Implicaciones para la identificación con la familia y el bienestar psicológico Resumen La investigación ha demostrado que las personas tienden a percibir continuidad temporal en los grupos nacionales y regionales a los que pertenecen. En este trabajo se realizaron dos estudios para analizar la percepción de continuidad de la familia, y sus implicaciones en la identidad familiar y el bienestar psicológico. En el primer estudio (N = 149; media de edad = 23, DT = 5,7) se encontró que la continuidad familiar percibida correlaciona positivamente con diversas variables relacionadas con la familia (p.ej., el funcionamiento familiar, la percepción de entitatividad) y con el bienestar psicológico. El segundo estudio (N = 152, media de edad 40.80, DT = 12,68) replicó y extendió los hallazgos previos; reveló que la percepción de continuidad familiar también correlaciona positivamente con la generatividad. Además, se testó un modelo que demostró que la continuidad familiar percibida influye positivamente en la identificación con la familia, lo que a su vez aumenta el bienestar psicológico. Se argumenta que estos resultados confirman la necesidad de abordar la continuidad del grupo familiar y las implicaciones de la identidad familiar en el bienestar. Palabras clave: Generatividad, identidad grupal, continuidad familiar percibida, funcionamiento grupal positivo, bienestar psicológico.

Acknowledgement: This research was made possible by a research project awarded to the second author by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC): RES-000-27-0185. Author’s Address: Marina Herrera. Departamento de Psicología Social, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Valencia. Avda. Blasco Ibáñez, 21, 46010-Valencia. Tel. 963864571, Fax: 963864668. E-mail: [email protected]. Original recibido: 25/01/2011. Aceptado: 26/04/2011 © 2011 by Fundación Infancia y Aprendizaje, ISSN: 0213-4748

Revista de Psicología Social, 2011, 26 (3), 387-399

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Revista de Psicología Social, 2011, 26 (3), pp. 387-399

Members of a group tend to see their group as retaining a certain degree of temporal persistence and endurance, as being an entity that moves through time (Reicher & Hopkins, 2001). In line with this assumption, Sani and his associates (Sani et al., 2007; Sani, Bowe & Herrera, 2008a) devised a measure of ‘perceived collective continuity’ (PCC), with specific reference to national and regional groups, and investigated its correlates and consequences. An important finding emerging from this research was that PCC correlated positively with measures addressing various aspects of ingroup identification and evaluation (Haslam, 2000; Haslam et al., 2008; Haslam, Jetten, Postmes & Haslam, 2009; Herrera, Sani & Bowe, 2010; Jetten, Haslam & Haslam, in press; Sani, in press). More precisely, people with higher perceptions of collective continuity were more strongly identified with the group, had a stronger sense that the ingroup was part of the self, had higher levels of collective self-esteem, felt warmer and more favorable to the group, defined ingroup members in more positive terms, and experienced more positive emotions when interacting with ingroup members, than people with lower perceptions of collective continuity. Another relevant result of research conducted by Sani and colleagues was the positive impact of PCC on social dimensions of well-being (Sani, Bowe & Herrera, 2008b). More precisely, these researchers found that higher PCC scores led to stronger levels of integration within society, and to a lowered sense of anomy and estrangement. These results are in keeping with important research conducted by Chandler and colleagues (Chandler, Lalonde, Sokol & Hallett, 2003; Chandler & Proulx, 2008). In a series of studies using various methodologies, they found that institutional continuity predicts well-being in aboriginal adolescents in Canada, to the extent that adolescents belonging to tribes lacking in institutional continuity are at greater risk of committing suicide than adolescents whose tribes retain some degree of continuity. These researchers used objective rather than subjective measures of institutional continuity. However, it is plausible to imagine that objective collective continuity is strongly related to perceptions of collective continuity. Interestingly, findings by Sani and colleagues showing that PCC is related to group identification and has positive effects on well-being are consistent with existing research that has focussed on the family group. This theme has been especially investigated by researchers interested in family storytelling and the family life cycle (e.g., Pratt & Fiese, 2004). The general argument put forward by these researchers is that family members tell stories and construe shared narratives about the extended family – emphasising family culture, values, and norms – in order to establish symbolic links between different family generations and to maintain and reinforce a sense of family continuity, identity, and integrity (Kellas, 2005). In turn, a sense of family continuity and a strong family identity improve family functioning and foster wellbeing in the family members. For instance, Fivush, Bohanek and Duke (2008; see also Fivush & Nelson, 2006) have provided evidence about the links between perceived family continuity, family identification, and well being in children. Their study involved the recording of dinner-table conversations within families and the measurement of various dimensions of well-being in preadolescent members of these families. They demonstrated that, in preadolescents, family story-telling and reminiscing creates a sense of self as embedded in the continuous history of the family (i.e., a sense of identification with the intergenerational family) which in turn has positive effects on preadolescents’ self-understanding and well-being. Along similar lines, Pratt and Fiese (2004) have suggested that establishing links between the present and the past of the family may afford a sense of security in one’s place in the world and help to develop self-confidence in children. With

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Perceived family continuity and well-being / M. Herrera et al.

regards to the other end of the age continuum, King and Wynne (2004) have pointed to the fact that older adults who manage to achieve a sense of intergenerational family identity through narratives and other means, and who therefore feel “a part of the unfolding intergenerational sequence of lives and family events” (p. 18) will retain a sense of belongingness within their family and will be more satisfied with their life. In accordance with the fact that there are benefits associated with a sense of family continuity, stability and identity, clinicians have even conceived therapeutic procedures for helping individuals to restructure and restore their understanding and knowledge of the family group (e.g., Shields, King & Wynne, 1995). Important and stimulating as it may be, the research discussed above has some limitations. To start with, it is largely based on qualitative data and, although interesting as it is, to our knowledge perceived family continuity has never been measured nor have its implications for psychological well-being been quantitatively investigated. Second, this research generally relies on relatively small samples, and therefore the generalizability of the findings is questionable. Third, although it seems obvious that perceived family continuity and family identification should have effects on individuals of all ages, this research tends to focus either on children or, in some cases, on older adults, excluding a large part of the age spectrum from investigation. The general aim of the research presented in this paper is to study the interplay between perceived family continuity, family identification, and psychological wellbeing in the adult population, using procedures that may overcome the limitations of existing research. In so doing, we also hope to constitute a spur for social psychological research on group identity related issues that takes the family as the object of study. After all, despite being probably the most fundamental ingroup to which people may belong, and despite repeated assertions that the notion of social identity is equally applicable to large and small groups (e.g., Hogg, 1996), the family has not been of primary focus in social identity research. STUDY 1 The aim of our first study was twofold. First, we wanted to devise a manageable and reliable measure of perceived family continuity. To our knowledge, while there exist scales trying to measure objective family continuity, using indicators of contact and quality of relationships within the family (e.g., Sussman, 1954), instruments measuring subjective perceptions of family continuity are not available. Second, we wanted to test the prediction, based on the literature discussed above, according to which perceived family continuity would be positively related to knowledge about family history, family identification, family functioning, perceptions of family entitativity (i.e., sense of family cohesion and unity) and psychological well-being. Method Participants and Procedure The study involved 149 Spanish undergraduate students (19 men, 130 women) at the University of Valencia. They were recruited from psychology classes and participated voluntarily. Their mean age was 23 years (SD = 5.7). The sample included a number of mature students. More specifically, there were 19 participants exceeding 25 years, with the oldest being 52 years of age. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that was presented as a study of family life and health.

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Measures


Perceived Family Continuity (PFC) scale We included 26 items tapping on the notion of perceived family continuity (PFC). More specifically, items referred either to the perception that family ingroup traditions, norms, beliefs, values, and habits are trans-generationally transmitted and are temporally persistent (‘the values, beliefs and attitudes my family share have lasted across time’) or to a more general sense of connection between the past, present, and future history of the family. Several items were adapted from items pertaining to the PCC scale by Sani and colleagues (Sani et al., 2007). After assessing the 26 items, a shorter, more manageable and reliable 7item PFC scale was constructed, whose internal consistency was quite high (Cronbach’s alpha = .91). See the Results section and the Appendix for details of the final version of the Perceived Family Continuity (PFC) scale - This is a seven-item scale to which participants rated how much they disagreed or agreed with each item on a scale ranging from 1 (I totally disagree) to 7 (I totally agree). Higher scores indicate more perceived family continuity. In addition to the PFC items, the questionnaire included the following measures. Family Identification (FI) This is a four-item global measure of identification with a social group adapted from Doosje, Ellemers and Spears (1995) (e.g., ‘I see myself as a member of my family group’). This specific measure of social identification was preferred to others because it is succinct, easily adaptable, and generally reliable. Respondents specified how much they agreed with each item on a 7-point scale. Higher scores indicate more family identification (Cronbach’s α = .91). Perceived Group Entitativity (PGE) This is a four-item scale addressing the extent to which the group is seen a cohesive, unified whole (e.g., ‘my family group is like a unified whole’). Items are adapted from Sani et al. (2007). Respondents specified how much they agreed with each item on a 7-point scale. Higher scores mean higher levels of perceived entitativity (Cronbach’s α = .92). General Family Functioning (GFF) This is the twelve-item subscale of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (Epstein, Baldwin & Bishop, 1983) measuring general family functioning (e.g., ‘We can express feelings to each other’). In order to be consistent with the other family scales, originally a 4-point scale this measure was adapted for the present study such that respondents specified how much they agreed with each item on a 7-point scale (from 1 = I totally disagree to 7 = I totally agree) (i.e. “Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statements below concerning your family”). Negative items were reversed-coded so that higher scores indicate better family functioning (Cronbach’s α = .91). Family Knowledge (FK) This is a measure designed specifically for this study to assess respondents’ degree of knowledge and interest in their family’s history. The scale is based on six questions (e.g., ‘Do you know what your maternal grandparents did for a living?’). Respondents provided yes or no responses to each question. The total number of positive responses was used as the participant’s score.

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Psychological Well-Being (PWB)


This is an 18-item scale devised by Ryff (1989) measuring six dimensions of positive psychological functioning: self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, positive relations with others (e.g., ‘For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing and growth’) (see also Díaz et al., 2006). Respondents specified how much they agreed with each item on a 6-point scale. After data were entered in the statistical package, the appropriate items were reversed, and a composite psychological well-being score was computed by averaging the items of the six subscales (see Keyes & Ryff, 1998). Higher scores indicate more positive levels of psychological well-being. The internal reliability of the overall psychological wellness scale was good (Cronbach’s alpha = .81). Results and Discussion To start with, we submitted the 26 PFC items to principal component analysis, in order to investigate possible underlying dimensions. Results revealed the existence of five factors with eingenvalues above 1. Closer inspection however showed that the first factor explained 41.61% of the variance while the other factors explained only 8.26%, 5.64%, 4.46%, and 4.01% of the variance respectively. Also, most of the items with high loadings on either the second, third, fourth, or fifth factor loaded substantially on the first factor too. Finally, factors two to five had low interpretability. As a consequence, we decided to retain only the first factor. After dropping all items loading less than .35 on this factor, 14 items remained. In order to further reduce the number of items, as to obtain a short and manageable scale, we submitted the 14 items to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using the Amos program, Version 5 (Arbuckle, 2003). The fit of the model was assessed through the χ2 value, the comparative-fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) index. We obtained the following results: χ2(77) = 170.80, p < .001; CFI = .92; RMSEA = .09. At this point we used modification indexes and standardised residuals to identify weaker items and we removed them. The fit of the model was then re-assessed by running a further analysis. These operations were repeated until removal of items did not lead to a significant decrease in the χ2 value. The application of this procedure allowed us to achieve a 7-item model with the following fit characteristics: (χ2(14) = 22.93, p > .05, ns; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .07). We then assessed the internal consistency of the seven items, which was good (α = .91). The seven items for the ‘perceived family continuity’ (PFC) scale are included in Appendix. At this point we calculated the correlation coefficient between all the variables. As expected, perceived family continuity correlated significantly not only with the other family variables, but also with psychological well-being. Moreover, psychological well-being had relatively strong correlation with general family functioning (r = .40), and its correlations with family identification (r = .28) and with perceived group entitativity (r = .22) were also positively significant. (All correlations, together with means, standard deviations, and reliabilities for all the variables, are reported in Table I). These results fully confirm our expectations. Clearly, perceptions of family continuity are intimately related to a sense of family cohesion, to the functioning of the family, to the degree to which one identifies with the family, and to a sense of being a typical representative of family values and characteristics. Also, these perceptions are generally linked to good psychological stability and well-being.

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TABLE I Means, Standard Deviations and Reliabilities for Variables, and intercorrelations in Study 1 Variable

1

2

3

4

5

1. PFC (M= 4.46; SD = 1.17; α = .91)

-

2. FI (M= 5.90; SD = 1.09; α = .91)

.47**

-

3. PGE (M= 4.77; SD = 1.44; α = .92)

.61**

.66**

-

4. GFF (M= 5.32; SD = 1.04; α = .91)

.36**

.62**

.66**

-

5. FK (M= 5.24; SD = 1.13)

.36**

.40**

.32**

.43**

-

6. PWB (M= 5.06; SD = .60; α = .81)

.22**

.28**

.22**

.40**

.19*

6

-

Note. PFC = Perceived Family Continuity; FI = Family Identification; PGE = Perceived Group Entitativity; GFF = General Family Functioning; FK = Family Knowledge; PWB = Psychological Well-being. * p < .05; ** p < .01

STUDY 2 The present study was conducted with four major aims in mind. First of all, we wanted to replicate some of the correlational results obtained in the first study, using a sample of adults drawn from the general public. Second, we were interested in assessing the relationship of PFC with one additional variable, in order to test a new hypothesis. We hypothesised that PFC would be positively related to generative concern (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992). That is, people with higher perceptions of family continuity should particularly appreciate the intrinsic value of intergenerational connections, and therefore should have higher concerns for the wellbeing of future generations. Obviously, we expected that generative concern would be positively correlated not only with PFC, but with all the other measures as well. Third, we wanted to explore possible gender differences, and the effects of some other potentially relevant demographic variables – including age, marital status, number of siblings, order in siblings, and parental education – on family related variables. Fourth, based on the literature reviewed above, we wanted to test a specific and parsimonious model predicting that perceived family continuity will influence family identification, which in turn will affect psychological well-being. Method Participants and Procedure Participants were 152 Spanish adults recruited from continuing education and training courses for adults in Valencia. They were asked to complete a questionnaire at scheduled sessions, and participated voluntarily. The demographic characteristics of the participants were as follows. Their age ranged from 22 to 65 years, with a mean of 40.80 years (SD = 12.68). There were 77 under 39 years of age, and 75 aged 39 or above. In total, 66 were men and 86 were women. Their marital status was: 77 married and 74 all others (1 failed to report their marital

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status). They agreed to complete a questionnaire that was presented as a study on family life and health.


Measures We included the PFC scale together with Family Identity, Perceived Group Entitativity, and Psychological Well-being. (In order to keep the questionnaire relatively short, General Family Functioning and Family Knowledge were not included this time.) In addition we included the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS) (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992). This is a 20-item measure of generative concern, a notion derived from Erikson’s theory about life-cycle challenges. It is related with the extent to which people feel concerned with the maintenance and improvement of society, in order to foster the well-being of future generations (e.g., “I have important skills that I try to teach others”). Respondents indicated how much each item applied to them on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0 = never to 3 = very often. Some family-related demographic questions were also included. More precisely, we asked participants to specify their number of siblings, their order among siblings (i.e., whether they were born first, second, etc.), and the level of education of both father and mother (i.e., whether or not they had a higher degree). Results and Discussion We began by calculating the correlation coefficients between the main variables. (All correlations, means, standard deviations, and reliabilities for all the variables are shown in Table II). As expected, perceived family continuity correlated positive and significantly not only with the other family variables, but also with generative concern (r = .28) and with psychological well-being (r = .23). Moreover, the correlation between psychological well-being and family identification (r = .38) was also relatively noticeable. Generative concern correlated as well with the other family related variables and with psychological well-being (r = .39). TABLE II Means, Standard Deviations and Reliabilities for Variables, and intercorrelations in Study 2 Variable

1

2

3

4

1. PFC (M= 5.08; SD = .87; α = .84)

-

2. FI (M= 6.28; SD = .78; α = .88)

.42**

-

3. PGE (M= 5.23; SD = 1.04; α = .78)

.55**

.55**

-

4. PWB (M= 4.68; SD = .46; α = .74)

.23**

.38**

.20*

-

5. LGS (M= 1.79; SD = .35; α = .71)

.28**

.18*

.27**

.39**

5

-

Note. PFC = Perceived Family Continuity; FI = Family Identification; PGE = Perceived Group Entitativity; PWB = Psychological Well-being; LGS = Loyola Generative Scale. * p < .05; ** p < .01

At this point we explored the possible implications of demographic factors for the three family related variables (PFC, PGE, and FI). To start with, we focussed on gender.

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We calculated the variable mean scores for either male or female participants separately (N = 66 and 86 respectively). We found that women had statistically significant higher scores than men on PFC (M = 5.21 and 4.91 respectively; t(150) = 2.10, p < .05), PGE (M = 5.43 and 4.97, t(150) = 2.73, p < .01) and FI (M = 6.44 and 6.07, t(149) = 2.91, p < .01). Subsequently we looked at possible variations in the variable means in different age groups. In order to obtain roughly similar number of cases in each age group, we subdivided the sample into participants under 39 years of age (N = 77), and participants aged 39 or above (N = 75). Analyses revealed that the two age groups did not differ at all in terms of mean variable scores. We then looked at possible variations in the variable means in different marital status groups. Following Keyes and Ryff (1998), we subdivided the sample into married participants (N = 77) and all other participants (N = 74) (one failed to specify their marital status). Analyses revealed that these two marital status groups did not differ in terms of mean variable scores. We then looked at the possible effects of number of siblings, order in the siblings, and parental education. Concerning the number of siblings, we considered three categories: those with no siblings (N = 12), those with one (N = 52), and those with two or more (N = 88). Analyses revealed no differences between the three groups in terms of PFC, PGE, and FI mean scores. To assess the effects for the participants’ order in the sibling we allocated participants to three categories: those who were born first (N = 57), those who came second (N = 49), and those who were born third or more (N = 34) (total number of respondents here was 140 because 12 failed to specify their position). Mean scores for PGE and FI did not differ across the three groups. However, we obtained the following PFC mean scores: 5.00 (.89), 4.95 (.94), and 5.42 (.87) for first, second, and third (or over) born respectively. An ANOVA revealed that this difference was statistically significant: F(2, 137) = 3.61, p < .05. Finally, we looked at possible differences due to the level of education of either the mother or the father of the respondent. Concerning the degree of education of the mother, the mean scores for participants whose mother held a higher degree (N = 21) and for those whose mothers had not attended university (N = 131) did not differ. With regard to the level of education of the father, we found a marginally significant difference on PFC scores (p = .07): participants whose father had a higher degree (N = 32) scored higher than participants whose father had not obtained a higher degree (N = 116), that is 5.32 (.63) and 5.00 (.93) respectively. We then tested the predicted model following a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) approach (Kline, 1998), using AMOS program, Version 4 (Arbuckle, 2003). The results of the analyses are shown in Figure 1. FIGURE 1 Hypothesized path model in Study 2, testing the relationships among perceived family continuity (PFC), family identification (FI), and psychological well-being (PWB)

.14

.17

PFC

.42**

FI

.38**

PWB

** p < .01

As expected, analysis indicated that PFC predicts FI (β = .42; p < .01) and that an enhanced FI leads to higher PWB (β = .38; p < .01). The amount of variance explained by the model was R2 = .14. To assess the fit of the model, we relied on four goodness of fit criteria, namely the chi-square value, the normed fit index (NFI), the

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comparative-fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) index. Results indicated that the fit of the model with the data was good: Chi-square (1) = 1.1, p = .29, ns; NFI = .98; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .03. However, an alternative explanation of the data should be considered in order to avoid confirmation bias (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). Therefore, we also tested an alternative, theoretically meaningful model. In accordance with recommendations by MacCallum and Austin (2000), we tested an alternative model retaining the same level of complexity (i.e., the same degrees of freedom) as the predicted model, for comparability. In this model we assumed that FI has a positive influence on PFC, and that PFC has positive effects on psychological well-being. This model is theoretically plausible, as it would be legitimate to argue that an enhanced identification with the family may inflate the perceived continuity of the family itself, and, in turn, a higher perception of family continuity may increase psychological well-being. Findings are shown in Figure 2. FIGURE 2 Alternative path model in Study 2, testing the relationships among family identification (FI), perceived family continuity (PFC), and psychological well-being (PWB)

.05

.17

FI

.42**

PFC

.23**

PWB

** p < .01

Results show that, although the path coefficients were statistically significant, the variance explained by this alternative model was rather small, as R2 was .05. What is more, the fit of the model was unsatisfactory: Chi-square (1) = 15.8, p < .001; NFI = .70; CFI = .68; RMSEA = .31. Further information concerning the relative fit of the tested models is provided by the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). This is a non-standardized measure that can be used to compare different models estimated from the same data set; the smaller the AIC the better the model. We compared the predicted model with the alternative model. The AIC of the hypothesised model was 17.10 while the AIC of the alternative model was 31.79. The fact that the hypothesised model had a much smaller AIC constituted a further confirmation that this model was superior to the alternative one. In general, these findings replicate findings from Study 1 about the relationship between perceptions of family continuity, various family related constructs such as family identification, and psychological well-being. In addition to that, results have shown that the sense of family persistence through time is related to one’s concern for the well-being of future generations. This points to the possible existence of a constellation of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours stemming from an awareness of the ties among different generations of family members and members of society more generally (Keyes & Ryff, 1998). Interestingly, according to our expectations, this study has also shown evidence of a path model linking family continuity perceptions to psychological well-being through self-identification with the family. It has revealed that the degree to which people identify with their family is the intermediate link between perceptions of family continuity and psychological well-being. In other words, results appear to confirm the thesis, supported by a number of researchers (Fivush et al., 2008; Fivush & Nelson, 2006; Kellas, 2005) that having a sense that one’s own family has temporal endurance

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enhances the sense of belonging to the family, which in turn has beneficial psychological effects. Finally, this study has shown that women perceive higher family continuity and entitativity, and have higher identification with the family, than men. These results may be a reflection of the centrality of the family as a key source of identity for women. It might be because, although women are often interested in establishing both career and family identities, traditional views which regard the family as a central and ‘natural’ social identity for females still persist (Barnett, 2004; Kerpelman & Schvaneveldt, 1999). Moreover, the study has revealed some intriguing effects of specific family related demographic variables on perceived family continuity. It appears that, while one’s number of siblings does not have any effects on family continuity perceptions, the order in siblings does matter. People who were born third or more have higher perceptions of family continuity than people who were born first or second. Why this may be is open to speculation. We suspect that third born, fourth born, and so on are exposed to the effects of attitudes, values and beliefs transmission not only from one generation to another, but also from parents to the older brothers and sisters. This probably reinforces a sense of intergenerational ties within the family. GENERAL DISCUSSION Clearly, many other researchers, especially outside psychology, have considered the importance of family continuity before us. However, most researchers have focussed their attention on the objective, manifest dimension of family continuity. Besides, those who have more or less explicitly recognised the importance of perceived family continuity (e.g., Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998; Spanier, 1989) have never measured it nor have they systematically and quantitatively investigated its implications for family related perceptions and sentiments, and for well-being. In this paper we have presented two studies in which we have shown that the perception of the family as an entity that persists over time is amenable to psychological measurement. Using our scale of perceived family continuity (PFC), we have then demonstrated that this notion is related to other important variables such family identification, the perceived entitativity of the family group, family knowledge, family functioning, generative concern, and psychological well-being. Moreover, we have found that PFC has positive effects on family identification, which in turn has a positive influence on psychological well-being. Finally, our analyses have revealed that women have higher scores than men on family related variables, and that third born in the order of sibling produce higher PFC ratings than either first or second born. We believe that these are important findings for at least four reasons. First, these results are generally consistent with those we obtained in our investigations of perceived collective continuity. There, as here, we found that perceptions of group continuity are related with group identification, perceived group entitativity, and measures of well-being. This seems to indicate that group identification and perceptions of the ingroup as continuous and cohesive are inextricably interconnected, and that these phenomena are linked to well-being, in groups of very different size and nature, thereby pointing to deeply ingrained social psychological mechanisms, and to their influence on positive psychological functioning (see Bandura, 2011). Second, results showing that perceived family continuity improves psychological well-being mirror the results of studies showing that perceptions of individual continuity enhance subjective well-being (e.g. Chandler et al., 2003). This adds novel and valuable information about the parallels between the personal self (the self

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experienced as a unique, idiosyncratic individual) and the collective self (the self experienced in terms of group membership), and about the self-system as a whole. Third, these findings confirm the necessity of studying the influence of perceptions of the self in time (Moore & Lemmon, 2001; Sani, 2008) on well-being and mental health. Current research appears to show that a sense of diachronic disunity is substantially related to dissociation, thereby suggesting that experiencing the self as having some degree of temporal stability and coherence may be a necessary precondition for mental health (Lampinen, Odegard & Leding, 2004). However, it seems obvious to us that further empirical work addressing this important yet neglected issue in psychology is needed. Fourth, these findings demonstrate that different family members may have difference perceptions of family aspects such as, for instance, continuity and entitativity, based on social variables like gender and order in siblings. These intriguing findings urge social psychologists not only to study the family as an ingroup and as an important object of social identification, but also to study how different positions within this type of group may affect social identification itself, and other related variables. Obviously, our research is not without limitations, and it is necessary to conduct further research in order to confirm, refine, and extend these findings. To start with, the demographic characteristics of the samples have shown to be uncompensated, especially in the first study (e.g. preponderance of women). Second, our results have been obtained through a cross-sectional design. That means that the causal links established by the tested model can only be accepted with reserve. Therefore, despite the encouraging fact that our model fits data better than a theoretically plausible alternative model, it is necessary to produce experimental evidence that may confirm the existence of the hypothesised causal chain. Third, we should keep in mind that participants in our studies pertain to a very specific cultural context. As a consequence, our findings might not fully apply to cultures other than the one we have used. For instance, what are the implications of family continuity perceptions for well-being in cultures that are arguably either more collectivist (South America, East Asia) or more individualistic (North America) than the Spanish one? It might be that PFC has stronger implications for well-being in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures, due to importance placed on relationships and connections – both vertical and horizontal – in collectivistic cultures (Triandis, 1989). Future research could address this and many other fascinating issues that might arise if a stronger consideration is given to perceived family continuity, a phenomenon that social psychologists have thus far regrettably overlooked.

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Appendix Perceived Family Continuity (PFC) scale Respondents specify their level of disagreement or agreement with each statement, on a 7-point scale, where: 1 = I totally disagree 2 = I disagree 3 = I slightly disagree 4 = I neither disagree nor agree 5 = I slightly agree 6 = I agree 7 = I totally agree

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1. My family has preserved its traditions and customs throughout history. 2. My family has a set of values which have been maintained across time. 3. There are certain traditions my family upholds that make us who we are as a group. 4. There are customs my family have upheld for so many years that it seems likely each future generation will continue to practice them. 5. The knowledge and experience my family have gained will be passed on through the generations. 6. There are some traditions that I think my family might never let go of. 7. If I were asked to describe what people in my family were like, I would be able to give a description that could apply in some ways to every generation of family members.


Sum the scores to the seven items and divide the result by 7.

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