Perceptions of Artificial Reefs as Scuba Diving ...

Annals of Leisure Research

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Perceptions of Artificial Reefs as Scuba Diving Resources: A Study of Australian Recreational Scuba Divers Paul Stolk , Kevin Markwell & John Jenkins To cite this article: Paul Stolk , Kevin Markwell & John Jenkins (2005) Perceptions of Artificial Reefs as Scuba Diving Resources: A Study of Australian Recreational Scuba Divers, Annals of Leisure Research, 8:2-3, 153-166, DOI: 10.1080/11745398.2005.10600968 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2005.10600968

Published online: 14 Jan 2013.

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Date: 06 June 2016, At: 18:33

Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8 No. 2-3

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Perceptions of Artificial Reefs as Scuba Diving Resources: A Study of Australian Recreational Scuba Divers Paul Stolk, Kevin Markwell and John Jenkins, University of Newcastle, Australia

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Abstract Marine-based recreation and tourism activities have experienced substantial growth over the past few decades and concerns about the ecological sustainability of many of these activities have been recognised by researchers, policy-makers and the recreation and tourism industries. One strategy to deal with diver-induced impacts is the creation of new or artificial reefs which, when established, can become substitute dive sites for more naturally occurring reefs. However, there have been very few studies into the acceptability of these substitute reef environments to divers and the social aspects of diving on artificial reefs. This paper explores the perceptions of diving on artificial reefs through a questionnaire survey of a sample of 337 Australian scuba divers. The awareness of artificial reefs as dive sites among respondents was very high, as were the levels of satisfaction with diving on such sites. Many divers recognised the value of these reefs in reducing diver impacts on natural reefs, and the study shows that artificial reefs do hold considerable attraction to divers. It is concluded that artificial reefs have significant potential for broadening the scuba diving resource base and the range of experiences available, and for simultaneously reducing visitor impacts and pressures on natural reefs.

Background The marine environment is the setting for a range of tourism and recreational pursuits that are diverse in both type and scale, ranging from swimming to two person sea-kayak tours to high volume cruising run by multi-national cruise-ship corporations (Orams, 1999). Tourism and recreation in the marine sphere has experienced rapid growth since the mid-twentieth century. This growth is a result of a combination of many factors, but most notably it is related to: technological advancements that have facilitated greater human access both above and below the surface of the ocean (e.g. high-speed ferries and underwater breathing apparatus); the attraction and use of marine areas as recreational sites; and the general rise in population levels and urban expansion along coastal areas around the world (Miller, 1990; Miller and Auyong, 1991; Pigram and Jenkins, 2006). The increased size of the marine tourism and recreation industry has generated concerns about pressures and impacts on fragile marine habitats. Greater attention is currently given to the ecological sustainability of all forms of marine tourism and recreation. The concept of ecotourism, for example, with its strong terrestrial origins, is now readily applied in marine and coastal areas. The term


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'marine ecotourism' is recognised and frequently employed to describe what are considered to be the most sustainable forms of marine tourism and recreation. Recreational scuba diving is one activity frequently positioned as a typical example of marine ecotourism in practice. This is due to scuba diving's strong nature-based orientation, the environmental education opportunities provided to divers and the sustainable nature of the act of scuba diving itself. But, like marine tourism and recreation generally, growth in the number of operators, participants and dive sites is challenging the way in which the typical scuba dive experience is delivered. Participation in recreational scuba diving activity increased dramatically during the 1980s and through the 1990s, leading several authors to cite scuba diving as possibly the fastest growing recreational activity in the world (Dignam, 1990; Orams, 1999; Tabata, 1992). Certification statistics from the Professional Association of Dive Instructors (PADI), the largest scuba diver certification agency in the world accounting for 950,000 certifications in 2004, lend some support this claim> But the statistics also highlight a decline in growth rate over the same time period (see PADI, nd, for more detail). The mean annual PADI certification growth rate worldwide, including certifications for new and existing divers, during 1980–1989 was 15.1 per cent, but in the period 1990–1999 dropped to 7.7 per cent. While the pressures caused by recreational scuba diving form a small part of a much greater anthropogenic impact on the marine environment (consider the biophysical impacts of recreational and commercial fishing, sewage outfalls, commercial and recreational shipping, and siltation and eutrophication in coastal rivers), there is an increasing body of evidence that suggests high volumes of dive activity and/or inappropriate diver behaviour can adversely stress marine flora and fauna (see e.g. Davis and Tisdell, 1995; Harriott, Davis, and Banks, 1997; Hawkins and Roberts, 1993; Medio et al., 1997). Accordingly, marine resource management agencies are, in certain cases, broadening or 'hardening' the marine resource base by creating new reef structures. New reefs offer a means of redistributing diver numbers to minimise negative environmental impacts and ensure that recreational amenity and satisfaction are not diminished by noticeably damaged ecosystems and social problems such as crowding. These created structures are commonly referred to as artificial reefs, and increasingly they are promoted as tourism resources in order to attract scuba diving travellers. Like agricultural land, golf courses, parks, sewage lagoons and urban landfill sites, artificial reefs are a form of 'modified space' (Lawton and Weaver, 2001), capable of supporting wildlife populations commonly thought to reside only in unmodified or 'natural' settings. The term artificial reef is widely used in many publications but there are notable inconsistencies as to precisely which structures are suitable for inclusion or exclusion under this term (Pickering, Whitmarsh and Jensen, 1998). Distinctions are often made based on how the structure arrived in the marine environment – that is, by deliberate or accidental placement (e.g. a


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shipwreck). However, the origins of a human-made structure underwater do not appear to deter either divers or marine life from associating with it and collecting around it. Thus, this article adopts a broad view on what constitutes an artificial reef. Artificial reefs aggregate fish and other mobile marine organisms very quickly after deployment and, given time, also host fixed life forms such as algae, barnacles, mussels, sponges and soft and hard corals. In fact, 'established' artificial reefs have the potential to sustain a greater density and/or variety of biota (particularly fish species) than nearby natural reefs (Bohnsack 1991; Clark and Edwards, 1999; Diamant et al., 1986; Wilhelmsson et al., 1998). By attracting marine species such as fish and coral, artificial reefs in turn attract recreationists seeking nature-based experiences. Many artificial reefs have significant potential for use as recreation resources, particularly for non-consumptive underwater observation activities such as scuba diving and snorkelling. However, research on artificial reefs has focused mostly on their ecology and structure. The ecological and biophysical emphasis in the research literature reflects the historically strong association that artificial reefs have had with commercial fishing, aquaculture and marine engineering projects. Understanding scuba divers' attitudes, perceptions and satisfaction levels with regard to artificial reef environments is important in order to adequately plan for future sustainable tourism and recreation. As has already been suggested, natural coastal reefs and other aquatic systems face substantial direct and indirect pressures from recreational activity. The severity of such pressures on the marine environment can been seen in places such as Hurghada on the Red Sea, Egypt, where rapid, unplanned tourism development has had negative impacts on popular coral reefs through sedimentation and eutrophication (Hawkins and Roberts, 1994). However, if properly planned, designed and managed, artificial reefs may augment the supply of marine resources available to diving enthusiasts without compromising their preferred type of experience. The modification of sunken objects by marine ecological processes generates a number of opportunities for recreation and can provide unique experiences for visitors. Much of the interest surrounding artificial reefs centres on their ability to provide a novel setting for humans to interact with natural environments and, in some cases, cultural heritage. Shipwrecks and old piers are good examples of artificial reefs where a recreational user can experience a combination of human and natural history. Common forms of marine tourism and recreation that take place around artificial reef settings include fishing (line and spear), swimming, snorkelling, scuba diving, surfing, kayaking, boating and submarine touring. Few studies have addressed issues relating to recreational use of artificial reefs and the broader social dimensions of such use. However, as nations such as the USA and Australia have become more active in the management of artificial

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reefs specifically for diving-related tourism and recreation (Seaman and Jensen, 2000), a social science-based research effort is required to understand how artificial reefs contribute to underwater recreation experiences. Using Australian recreational scuba divers as subjects, this article investigates aspects of artificial reefs as marine recreation and tourism resources from a user perspective. Research aim and questions The aim of this paper is to profile Australian recreational scuba divers and report on their dive practices and on their attitudes and opinions towards artificial reefs as dive sites. Underpinning this aim are five research questions that frame the discussion that follows. • • • • •

What are the characteristics, preferences and dive practices of recreational scuba divers in Australia? What do divers understand an artificial reef to be and what aspects of artificial reefs make them attractive to divers? What are the qualities of an artificial reef dive experience that contribute to diver satisfaction? Are there identifiable types of artificial reef that are particularly satisfying to dive on? How does an artificial reef dive experience compare with a natural reef dive experience?

Study setting: Australia, scuba diving and artificial reefs Australia possesses a large, relatively accessible coastline with high quality natural reefs in both temperate and tropical waters. The UNESCO World Heritage Listed Great Barrier Reef (GBR), for example, is the largest coral reef system in the world and is made up of more than 2500 individual reefs and shoals and 900 continental and coral islands that span approximately 2000 kilometres of Australia's north east coast (Coleman and Marsh, 2003). Not surprisingly natural marine resources, such as the GBR and others like Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia (a globally recognised whale shark viewing location), contribute greatly to Australia's international reputation as a high quality scuba diving destination. Estimated conservatively, the GBR alone features well over a hundred popular diving sites that include an array of coral-constructed habitats, including pinnacles, walls and caves. Collectively, Australia's natural marine environment offers recreational divers a highly diverse range of settings. However, the deliberate sinking of the ex-HMAS Swan off Western Australia in 1997 for recreational scuba diving use prompted what appears to be a growing interest by divers and the broader Australian community in developing humanmade reefs to facilitate marine-based tourism and recreation. Since the Swan was



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scuttled, the Perth, Hobart and Brisbane – all former Royal Australian Navy destroyers of similar class – have been deliberately sunk in coastal waters off Western Australia (2001), South Australia (2002) and Queensland (2005) respectively. Figure 1 shows their approximate locations. The Swan, Perth, Hobart and Brisbane are now established resources for recreational diving and each vessel hosts regular visits from a number of dive charter operators. The Perth and Hobart have dedicated websites where information, photographs and, in the case of the Perth, web-cameras provide insights into their new role as underwater attractions (see City of Albany, nd). The Perth also features an interpretative trail for divers, consisting of 12 plaques attached at various points along the external superstructure, with information about the surrounding marine life and the wreck itself. Figure 2 presents an example of a plaque. Figure 1. Map of Australia showing major natural and artificial reefs

Source: Adapted from Geosciences Australia

The development of artificial reefs in Australia has also involved the restoration of existing structures that are only partly submerged, such as the 140-year-old Busselton Jetty in Western Australia. The 1.8 kilometre-long jetty, formerly used for the loading and unloading of cargo vessels, supports a diverse underwater community of flora and fauna on and around its wooden piles. Busselton Jetty has

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been a popular site for scuba diving, snorkelling and fishing for many years. However, structural concerns about rotting wood and damaged sections threatened


Figure 2. Example of interpretative signage placed on the Former HMAS Perth artificial reef

Source: Image adapted from: City of Albany (nd)

ongoing public access. With local government and community assistance, the structure was rehabilitated and is now managed as a major cultural and recreational resource. The unique qualities and aesthetic values of Busselton Jetty were made even more accessible to the public with the construction of an interpretative centre in 2001 and an underwater observatory in 2003. The Australian interest in artificial reef creation and restoration documented above has broadened the potential resource base for scuba divers and other wildlife observation-based activities. Surprisingly recreational scuba divers in Australia do not appear to have been surveyed prior to the creation of artificial reefs and their supporting infrastructure and related services, despite constituting the target user group. The expectation appears to be, to paraphrase Ditton et al. (2002), that 'if we sink it, they will come'. More information is required about the opinions and


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preferences of divers if artificial reefs in Australia are to uphold the projections for visitation and economic activity that are now being attached to their creation. Study method Using a questionnaire, a sample of Australian recreational scuba divers was surveyed during the period August 2004 to June 2005. The questionnaire was made available to participants in two formats, electronic (via a link accessible through the Internet) and hard copy. Completed questionnaires of both formats were returned by 337 respondents within the survey period, with 280 received electronically and 57 submitted in hard-copy form. The questionnaire is the first primary data collection instrument used in a larger multi-method research project that also involves the conduct of focus groups and in-depth interviews with divers and diving industry stakeholders from New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia. The findings from the questionnaire survey will be used to inform the conduct of both the focus groups and in-depth interviews. This paper focuses on the findings from the questionnaire survey. Questionnaire The questionnaire (printed in English only) was developed with reference to previous overseas studies (Ditton et al., 2002; McCawley and Teaff, 1995; Musa, 2002; Tabata, 1992), scuba diving agency training manuals (PADI, 1991), communication with dive industry professionals and personal experiences of one of the authors (PS) who is a qualified scuba diver. The instrument contained four sections, each addressing a different theme. The first section (8 items) dealt with diver ability and preferences; the second section (14 items) looked at artificial reef awareness, use, satisfaction and comparison of artificial reefs with natural reefs; the third section (2 items) measured attitudes toward artificial reefs, and the final section captured respondent demographics (9 items). The questionnaire employed a variety of closed questions, including checklists and Likert-type scales, with open-ended questions to allow respondents opportunities to expand or clarify responses. Where possible, the demographic questions were aligned with those used and well tested by the Australian Bureau of Statistics to facilitate comparisons of the demographic characteristics of participants in this study with those of the Australian population, comparisons which will be discussed in later publications arising from the study. Sampling Noting the difficulties cited in other studies in accessing records of an entire population of scuba divers (Ditton et al., 2002), a sampling plan that publicly promoted participation in the survey by qualified scuba divers was adopted. Participants were recruited by actively publicising information about the study,


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including the questionnaire and the methods by which the questionnaire could be accessed and submitted. Various promotional channels were used, including print, radio and television, dive club newsletters and noticeboards, electronic mail bulletins from community organisations, internet chat rooms, news stories on websites and word of mouth communication. This approach was implemented as a means of accessing 'hidden' divers who are not members of dive clubs and/or not participants in commercial dive charter trips and hence would be missed by sampling approaches that draw solely on club membership lists or passenger manifests from dive charter boats. The questionnaire was made available to participants in both formats for almost ten months, from 1 September 2004 until 12 June 2005. Promotional information about the questionnaire was deliberately released in two stages, commencing with wider media promotion (television, radio and newspapers) in September and October 2004 and then moving to more specialised media (for example dive club newsletters and scuba diving web-sites) for the remainder of the questionnaire collection period. Some interesting outcomes arose as a result of this sampling procedure and they appear to be related to the types of communication channel used. For example, a media release was issued in September 2004 to help raise community awareness about the study. The media release attracted coverage from a dive industry-published newspaper, commercial and community newspapers in Newcastle and Sydney (NSW), and radio (Newcastle, Sydney) and television stations (Newcastle). Despite the scale of publicity, the period immediately following the media exposure did not generate a large volume of electronic responses. As well as constituting over 80 per cent of the sample, electronic responses are more suitable for monitoring for this purpose as they have virtually no time delay once sent or announced, unlike hard copy responses that are invariably received through the postal system and can have a lag of several days. Only seven electronic responses were received during September 2004, while 39 were received in October. In contrast, the more successful periods of the study, in terms of number of responses, came following a third-party posting on an internet notice board early in November 2004 (51 responses for the month) and following coverage in May 2005 in an email nationally distributed by a community organisation focused on marine issues (54 responses) and in June 2005 in a supportive story appearing on a commercial diving website (107 responses). The total responses received was 337. There are at least two limitations inherent in the sampling approach taken. First, the reliance on electronic responses involved a bias against those potential respondents who did not have access to a computer, particularly those without an internet connection. Efforts were made to mitigate this by mailing hard copies of the questionnaire to individuals and hand-distributing questionnaires at information



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sessions for dive clubs. Despite these efforts, there were undoubtedly many potential respondents who were not aware of the study or unable to easily obtain a questionnaire. Second, specific dive club meetings attended, they were deliberately concentrated in the Newcastle, Central Coast and Sydney regions of New South Wales in order to reduce travel costs. This approach places an obvious bias on the claims of the sample being representative of all of the Australian recreational scuba diving population. In terms of the number of responses received the promotional-style sampling procedure was a success but somewhat timeconsuming in comparison to other approaches where the population is known and readily accessible. The arguments for using electronic questionnaires are, however, strong, particularly as they can reduce the effort required from respondents to return a questionnaire (thereby increasing the likelihood of response) and, depending on the format used, can enable manual coding and transcription phases of data processing to be bypassed. Results and discussion Respondent demographics The sample was predominantly male (approximately 70%) and the median age was 36 years. Of respondents, 83 per cent were below 50 years of age, with the oldest being 75 years and youngest 18 years of age. According to Pro Dive Australia (a large PADI training provider, see Pro Dive Australia, nd), the minimum age to learn to scuba dive is currently 12 years old. Australian citizens made up 84 per cent of the sample, with 92 per cent of the sample currently residing in Australia. Postcode of residence was provided by only 57 per cent of the respondents who indicated they resided in Australia. The largest representations came from NSW/ACT (41%) and Victoria (24%). Two thirds of respondents indicated that they had completed some form of tertiary education such as a diploma or bachelor degree. A breakdown of the type of qualifications held showed that 61 per cent of the respondents with a tertiary education held a bachelors degree. Exactly 70 per cent of respondents indicated they were employed full-time. Almost half of the respondents who provided their gross weekly income details earned A$1000 or more per week before deductions, and over 70 per cent indicated taht their gross weekly income fell into one of the top 3 categories of $800 to $999 (23%), $1000–$1499 (26%) and $1500 or more (22%). The demographic findings from this study are comparable with other published demographic profiles of recreational divers summarised in Table 1. Gender, age and education details are reasonably similar across nearly all the studies appearing in the table, despite differing sampling sizes, procedures and nationality mixes. Income comparison is a little more difficult to measure given


Table 1: Scuba diver demographics from published research Authors, reference S a m p l e G e n d e r : Age Size % male Holecek & Lothrop (1980) 386 86 63% 21-30 yrs Skin Diver 1989 as reported by Tabata (1992) W ilks (1992) McCawley & Teaff (1995)

n/a

65

35.3 yrs median

294 223

61 62

29.2 years mean 67.7% 15-36 yrs

Mundet and Ribera (2001)

500

81

56% 31-45 yrs

Ditton et al. (2002)

256

75

39yrs mean

Musa (2002)

314

65

34.9 yrs mean

Stolk, Markwell & Jenkins (2005) (current paper)

337

69

36 yrs median

Education

Nationality

Income

76% at least some college education 84% attended college or beyond n/a 53% 4 yr college degree or higher 89% ‘middle or university level’ 64% 4+ yrs of college education 71% post-school qualifications 67% tertiary education other than a trade cert. or apprenticeship

USA (Michigan, Ohio, Indiana) USA

US$18K average household income US$64K average household income n/a 73% US$30K+

Australian USA French 28% Catalan 15% USA (81% Texan) Japanese 27% British 13% Australian 84%

n/a US$60-69.9K median n/a US$30-38K median gross income


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wage inflation over the time period involved (1980 to present), lack of information from some studies and currency differences. However, if a 'typical' recreational diver demographic existed, that person would likely be male, aged 30–40 years, with a college or university qualification and an above average income. Such a demographic profile befits both the expensive nature of scuba diving as a recreational pursuit and the level of physical fitness necessary to participate (Mundet and Ribera 2001). The gender imbalance in the sample also corroborates with PADI statistics for USA certifications (1990 to 2000) that show female divers representing only 31.7 per cent (1990) to 34.6 per cent (2000) of all certifications issued (PADI, nd). Respondent scuba diving participation profile The sample captured a wide range of diver certifications, with Advanced Open Water the largest category (27% of the responses) and Open Water (20.2%) and Instructor (14.2%) certifications also well represented. Considering the level of commitment required to complete an Instructor certification, the sample from this study is perhaps skewed toward the higher end of diver certifications. Median length of time the highest certification had been held was 4 years, while the mean was 6.8 years and the mode was 3 years. Seventy-five per cent of the sample had held their certification for 9 years or less. Average length of a respondent's diving career was 10.9 years; median was 8 years and the mode 5 years. Twenty-five per cent of the sample indicated they had been diving for more than 16.75 years. Mundet and Ribera (2001) report onethird of their diver sample as having been diving for over 10 years and they class these divers as 'veterans' while the divers in the study of Ditton et al. (2002) average 8.4 years of diving certification. Another indicator of a diver's experience level is the total number of dives made, but this measure has not been readily used in published research. Although 50 per cent of the sample from this study indicated they had made 200 dives or less (median response was 200), some very high values of 10,000 and 9,000 influenced the mean (714.24). By combining both measures of experience (number of years diving and number of dives made) it is suggested that the sample for this study contains a high proportion of very experienced divers. Respondents were asked to best describe how frequently they go scuba diving. 'Monthly' received the most responses (78 or 23%), while another 37 per cent of responses were captured by the categories of 'Fortnightly' and '3–6 times per Year'. Respondents were also asked to describe the nature of their dive participation across four different categories that varied in terms of setting (local versus holiday dives) and method of organisation (club or shop versus independent). They indicated their diving participation occurred mostly in local setting compared to a dive holiday and that their dives were organised either independently (70%) or by a club or shop (67%).


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Respondents were also asked their preferred group size when scuba diving. In hindsight this question did not provide enough information for an accurate answer to be given as it did not consider the entire dive experience which typically involves a number of settings (for example, above water versus below water) where the number of other divers can vary greatly. Despite this shortcoming, the most preferred group size was 2 (52 responses) followed by 4 (48 responses) and 6 (36 responses), with the responses (or categories) 2–4 and 2–3 divers also frequently mentioned (see Table 2). The prevalence of even-numbered groups in the responses is most likely a reflection of the 'buddy system' that is taught to recreational scuba divers during the certification process. Divers are required to dive in close contact with a 'buddy' (or partner diver) by scuba diving training agencies for predominantly safety reasons, and the buddy system is widely employed by dive charter companies and dive clubs during a diving excursion. A typical group of 4 or 6 recreational scuba divers would thus constitute 2 or 3 buddy groups respectively.

Table 2: Selected responses indicating preferred group size when scuba diving Responses Preferred size of group Number % 2 52 15.4 2-3 12 3.6 2-4 35 10.4 4 48 14.2 4-5 3 0.9 4-6 28 8.3 6 36 10.7 Note: This was in response to an open ended question. Som e respondents indicated very sm all to very large groups (e.g., 2 – 20) so this table lists only the m ost com m on responses.

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