BRIEF REVIEW
PERFORMANCE ASPECTS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES IN MALE AMATEUR BOXING COMPETITIONS: A BRIEF REVIEW MAAMER SLIMANI,1 HELMI CHAABE`NE,1,2 PHILIP DAVIS,3 EMERSON FRANCHINI,4 FOUED CHEOUR,5 6 AND KARIM CHAMARI 1
Research Laboratory “Sports Performance Optimization,” National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia; 2National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia; 3Combat Sports Performance, Braintree, Essex, United Kingdom; 4Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sa˜o Paulo, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil; 5High Institute of Applied Biology of Me´denine, Me´denine, Tunisia; and 6Athlete Health and Performance Research Center, ASPETAR, Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar ABSTRACT
Slimani, M, Chaabe`ne, H, Davis, P, Franchini, E, Cheour, F, and Chamari, K. Performance aspects and physiological responses in male amateur boxing competitions: a brief review. J Strength Cond Res 31(4): 1132–1141, 2017—Boxing is one of the most popular striking combat sports in the world. The aim of this review was to present data concerning performance analysis (time-motion and technical-tactical analysis) and physiological responses (i.e., blood lactate concentration [BLC], heart rate, and oxygen consumption) during novice and elite male simulated and official amateur boxing competitions in any age category. The present review shows that boxing competition is a high-intensity intermittent striking combat sport. Typically, the activity-to-rest ratio was higher in elite (18:1) than in novice (9:1) boxers and significant differences were observed between rounds (first round = 16:1, second round = 8:1, and third round = 6:1) in novice boxers. Thus, total stop-time and total stop-frequency increased over subsequent rounds in novice boxers. The technical-tactical aspects in elite and novice boxing bouts were different between rounds and dependent on the match outcome (i.e., winners vs. losers). Particularly, the current review highlights that triple-punch combinations, total combinations, block- and counter-punch combinations, total punches to the head, technical performance effectiveness, and defensive- and offensive-skills effectiveness may have contributed to win in novice and elite boxing competitions. Higher frequencies of technical movements were also observed in elite compared with novice boxers. From a physiological point of view, BLC increased significantly from postround 1 compared with postround 3 in novice boxing match. BLC was also higher in The last two authors contributed equally to this work. Address correspondence to Maamer Slimani,
[email protected]. 31(4)/1132–1141 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research Ó 2016 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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official than in simulated elite boxing matches in senior compared with junior boxers and in medium heavy-weight category compared with light- and medium-weight categories in junior boxing competition. A higher percentage of maximal heart rate (%HRmax) and maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2max) were reported in round 3 compared with rounds 2 and 1 in elite boxing competition. In conclusion, these data are useful for both technical– tactical and physical conditioning sessions. Coaches and fitness trainers are encouraged to adjust their training according to these particular characteristics, specifically in terms of age, participants’ level, weight categories, and combat contest type.
KEY WORDS activity profile, technical, tactical, physiology, combat sport
INTRODUCTION
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oxing is one of the most popular striking combat sports in the world, with nearly 200 nations affiliated to its international governing body the “Amateur International Boxing Association” (AIBA) (27). For instance, in the United Kingdom it is widely practiced at elite, intermediate, and novice levels with ;140,000 individuals participating at least once per week (28,32) and ;21,500 are registered to compete (1). Historically, the first appearance of boxing was in Ethiopia as early as 6000 B.C. and there is evidence that it took place at the Olympic Games in 688 B.C. (29). A typical boxing competition contains 3 3 2-minute rounds in novice boxers, 4 3 2-minute rounds in intermediate boxers, and 3 3 3- or 4 3 2-minute rounds in open-class boxers by agreement of the coaches and boxers (6,32). However, most existing literature is based on the 3 3 3-minute bout format in elite boxers (6,13,25,26) and 3 3 2-minute in novice boxers (8,18). Boxing medalists perform five to seven combats during one international competition. In addition to the Olympic competition and the World Championship, AIBA events are
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TABLE 1. Activity profiles of novice and elite boxers across rounds.* Novice (8) Total stop time (s) Referee stop time (s) Time before first stop (s) Total clinch time (s) Activity rate (per s)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
7.0 12.6 18.5 1.6 3.1 7.1 89.0 51.7 52.3 5.3 9.4 11.3 1.2 1.1 1.2
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
1.4 11.7 19.7 3.5 5.0 13.0 41.3 31.3 39.9 9.4 8.3 13.3 0.2 0.2 0.4
Elite (6)
P
95% CI
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
,0.0001 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 0.1667 0.0187 0.2129 0.0119 0.0041 0.0028 ,0.0001 0.7223 ,0.0001 0.0138
219.8156 to 29.1844 227.0706 to 212.3294 242.5356 to 220.8644 210.5363 to 24.2637 216.8263 to 27.1737 213.1076 to 2.3076 4.5869 to 48.8131 26.3964 to 28.1964 4.8544 to 37.7456 212.2067 to 22.3933 212.8263 to 22.7737 224.9537 to 29.8463 20.09180 to 0.13180 20.35180 to 20.12820 20.37583 to 20.04417
21.5 32.3 50.2 9.0 15.1 12.5 62.3 40.8 31.0 12.6 17.2 28.7 1.18 1.34 1.41
15.0 18.0 25.0 8.3 12.9 18.4 50.3 40.0 29.5 11.0 12.1 17.7 0.26 0.26 0.30
*CI = confidence interval; R = round.
regularly organized at regional, national, and international levels according to the athletes’ level, sex, and weight class. Boxing is a high-intensity intermittent combat sport relying mostly on the aerobic energy pathway over the combat’s duration. In fact, this energy system contributes to the boxers’ ability to repeat attacks with the highest strength and speed over the total duration of the combat (7). In addition, the aerobic pathway also insures the recovery process during the brief periods of rest, particularly the recovery of the high-energy phosphate system, and also for an effective recovery between rounds (5,7,19). Thus, the anaerobic metabolic pathway provides energy for short and intense attacks of maximal power (19). Amateur boxers have been studied for competitive performance improvements over the past 2 decades, contributing to an increase in knowledge of the sport through the characterization of their physical and physiological profile (4). The fitness components include cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Skill-related components include speed, agility, power, balance, coordination, and reaction time (4). Most combat sports require a mix of technique, strength, aerobic fitness, power, and speed. Usually, no single performance characteristic dominates in combat sports (23). Indeed, physiological responses, especially heart rates and maximal oxygen _ O2max), recorded during competitive situations and uptake (V blood lactate values recorded postcontest consistently demonstrate differences between weight categories (18) and combat rounds (7). For instance, from a physical conditioning perspective, the main goal of boxing training is to prepare the boxers to effectively manage both the technical-tactical and the
physiological demands of combat. To that end, the determination of the different parameters (i.e., performance aspects and physiological responses) related to high-level boxing performance is very important for sport scientists, coaches, and fitness trainers, especially for those who work with amateur boxers to create training programs and inform them it is the best way to monitor training load and improve performance. In addition, little is known about the performance aspects (activity-to-rest [A:R] ratio and technical-tactical analysis) that distinguish higher-level from lower-level boxers. This information can provide further insight into the development of the optimal performance aspects that characterize elite-level boxers (15). A synthesis of the literature about performance analysis and physiological responses related to male amateur boxers in novice and elite competitions may be helpful and of great applicable relevance towards understanding the level of the efforts and the real physiological demands of competition. However, a literature review about this topic has not been published. Therefore, the aim of the current review was to discuss the performance aspects (i.e., activity profile and technical-tactical analysis) and physiological responses of male amateur boxers in relation to the competitive levels (i.e., novice vs. elite), combat rounds, match outcome, and type of contest (i.e., official vs. simulation).
METHODS Literature Search Strategies
A computerized search was performed in the PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus databases (up to April 2016) for English-language, peer-reviewed VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2017 |
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Performance Aspects in Boxing Competition
TABLE 2. Most techniques performed by winners compared with losers in each round. Round 1 Novice boxers (3 3 2-min) (8) Total punches to the head Total number of punches landed Number of punches with the lead hand Lead-hand combinations 2-punch and 4-or-more-punch combinations Total combinations Block and counter punch combinations Elite boxers (3 3 3-min) (6,11) Number of punches to head, particularly straight and uppercuts Number of landed punches to head, particularly straight Landed punches to body for hooks Number of punches to head, particularly hook Number of 2-punch combinations Defensive skill effectiveness
Round 2 Total punches to the head Lead-hand hooks landed Lead-hand hooks Total punches Triple-punch combinations
Round 3 Total punches to the head Body-head combinations Lead-hand hooks landed 2-punch or 4-or-more-punch combinations Total punches
Total combinations Total combinations Block and counter punch combinations Block and counter punch combinations Number of punches to head, particularly hook Number of landed punches to head, particularly straight Number of landed punches to head, particularly uppercuts 3-or-more punch combinations Defensive skill effectiveness Technical performance effectiveness
Offensive skill effectiveness Technical performance effectiveness
investigations using the terms “boxing” alone and also together with “performance,” “activity profile,” “technical,” “tactical,” and “physiological response.” Manual searches were also made using reference lists from the recovered articles.
Total punches landed Lead hand punches Rear hand punches Hook rear hand landed Number of 2-punch combinations 3-or-more punch combinations Offensive skill effectiveness Technical performance effectiveness
Design: original investigations published in peerreviewed journals; Time filter: none applied; Language filter: articles written in English language exclusively.
Inclusion Criteria
Studies were included in the review if they met all the following criteria: Population: studies recruiting male novice and elite amateur boxers at any age category as participants; Intervention or Exposure: (a) Original investigations focusing on the activity profile of male amateur boxing; (b) Investigations studying the technical and tactical aspects of amateur boxing matches; (c) Studies that examined the physiological responses (i.e., blood lactate concentration [BLC], heart rate, and oxygen consumption) in simulated or in official amateur boxing matches; Outcome(s): the activity profile, the technical and tactical aspects, or the physiological responses (i.e., BLC, heart rate, and oxygen consumption) of male amateur boxing matches;
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Exclusion Criteria
Studies not meeting with the above-mentioned criteria were excluded, namely: Reviews, commentaries, interviews or expert opinions, letters to editor and editorials, posters, book chapters, and books, theses and dissertations, and conference proceedings. In general, nonpeer reviewed or gray literature was discarded to keep only high-quality studies; Studies choosing female boxers as participants; Studies not written in English. Statistical Analyses
The activity profiles and technical movements between novice and elite amateur boxers were made by calculating the independent student’s t-test. The 95% confidence intervals were calculated and a significance level of p # 0.05 was considered for all the analysis.
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TABLE 3. Technical movements’ (attacking and defensive movements and punch combinations) differences across rounds between novice (3 3 2-minute) and elite (3 3 3-minute) boxing bouts.* Round Total punches Total to head Total straights Total hooks Punches lead hand Punches rear hand Punches per minute 2-Punch combinations Block and counter Total defense Foot defense Trunk defense Hand defense
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Novice (8) 46.7 40.6 42.3 39.4 33.9 35.2 26.9 22.3 22.3 16.6 15.6 17.6 30.7 25.5 25.7 15.9 15.1 16.6 23.3 20.2 21.1 9.8 9.1 8.9 0.7 0.4 0.2 9.1 8.0 5.8 4.6 3.6 2.8 3.1 3.4 2.4 1.3 1.0 0.5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
15.5 11.2 11.9 11.9 9.6 9.9 11.0 9.9 1.4 1.3 8.4 8.6 1.5 7.8 8.2 8.2 6.4 7.1 7.7 5.6 5.9 4.9 4.2 3.0 1.2 0.8 0.7 4.9 6.3 4.1 2.4 3.0 2.1 2.9 3.0 2.2 2.1 2.1 1.2
Elite (6)
P
95% CI
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0.0018 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 0.0058 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 0.1409 0.0010 0.0007 0.0001 ,0.0001 0.0060 0.1080 ,0.0001 0.0013 0.0002 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 0.0246 0.3168 0.1912 0.7891 0.0559 0.1871 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 ,0.0001 0.9273 1.0000 0.2238 0.3418 0.3225 0.0861 0.3600 0.8951 0.3270 0.0046 0.0367 0.1229
223.0659 to 25.5341 -39.2345 to -21.1655 229.8303 to 213.1697 219.5487 to 23.4513 233.915 to 216.885 226.0006 to 210.3994 213.334 to 1.934 222.2573 to 25.9427 218.8946 to 25.3054 212.1766 to 24.2234 218.9151 to 28.2849 212.9476 to 22.2524 210.6813 to 1.0813 219.6765 to 27.5235 215.3181 to 23.8819 214.271 to 24.729 221.6209 to 211.3791 216.5496 to 27.2504 0.5143 to 7.2857 24.7652 to 1.5652 21.0230 to 5.0230 21.9288 to 2.528 24.659 to 0.059 23.2464 to 0.6464 23.4622 to 21.5378 23.7851 to 22.0149 23.1449 to 21.2551 22.2790 to 2.0790 22.6061 to 2.6061 23.4129 to 0.8129 21.8504 to 0.6504 22.1015 to 0.7015 22.5748 to 0.1748 22.2156 to 0.8156 21.6078 to 1.4078 21.8124 to 0.6124 0.33484 to 1.76516 0.04848 to 1.47152 20.09149 to 0.75149
61.0 70.8 63.8 50.9 59.3 53.4 32.6 36.4 34.4 24.8 29.2 25.2 35.5 39.1 35.3 25.4 31.6 28.5 19.4 21.8 19.1 9.5 11.4 10.2 3.2 3.3 2.4 9.2 8.0 7.1 5.2 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.0 0.25 0.24 0.17
20.5 23.5 21 20.1 22.5 20.2 19.2 21.3 19.2 11.2 13.0 13.0 16.6 15.7 14.4 11.3 13.3 11.5 6.6 7.4 6.7 4.5 5.5 4.8 2.5 2.4 2.6 4.3 4.7 4.7 2.8 2.9 3.4 3.4 3.3 2.8 0.71 0.68 0.50
*CI = confidence interval; R = round.
RESULTS Study Selection
The search strategies yielded a preliminary pool of 674 possible papers. The full text of 32 articles were retrieved and assessed for eligibility against the inclusion criteria. After a careful review of their full texts, 18 articles were excluded and the remaining 14 articles were eligible for inclusion in the review. Particularly, 2 papers (5,8) examined the activity profile of male novice and elite amateur boxing competitions. Seven articles (6,8,11,17,25,26,31) focused on technical-tactical analysis and 8 studies (2,7–9,14,16,18,19)
examined acute physiological responses (i.e., BLC, heart rate, and oxygen consumption) to amateur boxing competitions. Activity Profile
Overall, by reviewing the evidence, the current review shows that the activity-to-rest (A:R) ratio was higher in elite (18:1) than in novice (9:1) amateur boxers. In novice boxers, in particular, significant differences were observed between rounds (first round = 16:1, second round = 8:1, and third round = 6:1). Therefore, the total stop-time and the total stop-frequency increased across rounds in novice boxers. VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2017 |
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Performance Aspects in Boxing Competition
TABLE 4. Blood lactate concentration after sparring and official boxing competition.* Study
Sample characteristics (gender, n) Combat duration (min)
Simulated boxing Arseneau et al. (2)
Canadian novice (male, n = 9)
Nassib et al. (19) Tunisian elite (male, n = 15) Official boxing Khanna and Manna (18) Indian junior (male, n = 21)
3 3 2-min 3 3 3-min 3 3 2-min
Davis et al. (8) Davis et al. (7)
Novice (male, n = 32) Novice (male, n = 10)
3 3 2-min 3 3 2-min
Hanon et al. (14)
World-class amateur (male, n = 33)
3 3 3-min
[La] mmol$L21 9.4 6 2.2 in the GYM 6.1 6 2.3 in the LAB 8.87 6 2.02 Light weight R1 5.3 6 1.5 R2 6.2 6 1.1 R3 7.1 6 1.2 Medium weight R1 5.0 6 1.1 R2 6.5 6 1.5 R3 7.4 6 1.3 Medium heavy weight R1 6.9 6 1.9† R2 8.1 6 1.6z R3 9.9 6 1.5†z 11.8 6 1.6 6.7 6 1.4 break 1 8.6 6 1.5 break 2§ 9.5 6 1.8 post bouts§k 14.8 6 2.9¶ (intermediate category: 60–64 kg) ;12 (heaviest and lighter categories)
*[La] = blood lactate concentration; R = round. †p # 0.05 compared with medium-weight category. zp # 0.05 compared with light-weight category. §Significantly different from round 1 or break 1 at p # 0.05. kSignificantly different from round 2 at p # 0.05. ¶Significantly different from other weight categories.
The activity profiles differed significantly across rounds (Table 1). Particularly, when comparing novice and elite amateur boxers, this review shows that the total stop-time and total clinch-time were higher in elite compared with novice boxers over the three rounds. In addition, higher referee stop-time in rounds 1 and 2, higher activity rate in rounds 2 and 3, and lower time before first stop in rounds 1 and 3 in elite compared with novice boxers were recorded. Technical/Tactical Analysis
By reviewing the evidence, the current review shows that triple-punch combinations, total combinations, block- and counter-punch combinations, total punches to the head, total technical performance effectiveness (i.e., the sum of defensive and offensive movements divided by the total numbers of rounds), and defensive (i.e., the amount of successful boxers’ foot, hand, and trunk defense divided by the whole number of attempts displayed by the competitor in attack and counterattack during the fight) and offensive (i.e., the amount of effective offensive movements attack and counterattack divided by the full amount of attempts made during the fight)
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skills effectiveness may have contributed to winning in novice and elite amateur boxing competitions (Table 2). In addition, the present review shows that the frequencies of technical actions differed significantly between the weight categories in novice and elite amateur boxers, with lower frequencies for the “lighter” and “middle” weight groups, and higher frequencies for the “heavy” group. Higher frequencies of technical movements (i.e., total punches, total to head, total straights [only in rounds 2 and 3], total hooks, punches lead hand [only in rounds 2 and 3], punches rear hand, punches per minute [only in round 1], block and counter, hand defense [only in rounds 1 and 2]) were also reported in elite compared with novice boxers (Table 3). Physiological Responses
Combat rounds, boxing contests (i.e., simulated vs. official boxing bouts), training conditions (i.e., laboratory [LAB] vs. GYM), participants’ level (i.e., novice vs. elite), age, and weight categories were the major moderator variables of boxing match–physiological response relationship. Particularly, BLC increased significantly from postround 1 to
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DISCUSSION To succeed in competition, boxing requires well-developed technical-tactical skills and a high level of physical and physiological fitness (8). Physiological measurement during competition in combat sports is difficult. Nevertheless, an effective way to obtain information for creation of a training prescription, as well as to quantify physical and technical patterns, is to understand the time structure of these sports (4). This may provide important guidelines for training in a chosen sport. Time–motion analysis is a noninvasive performance analysis technique that provides broader insights into the activity pattern and physiological demands of boxing competition. This method may provide an ergonomic framework to inform the structure of conditioning sessions for boxing competition and the design of specific exercise or test protocols for the purposes of monitoring competitors’ fitness. The activity pattern of the amateur boxing match is intermittent and characterized by short-duration, highintensity bursts of activity interspersed with periods of lower intensity or pauses caused by boxers’ clinching or the referee’s interruption (6,8). For instance, the average A:R ratio (i. e., time spent active compared to time spent in a break, irrespective of the cause of the break) in male novice boxing bouts is approximately 9:1 (without including breaks between rounds) (8), with significant decrease across rounds (i.e., higher A:R ratio in round 1 [16:1] than in round 2 [8:1] and in round 3 [6:1]). Particularly, total stop-time and total stop-frequency were lower in round 1 than in round 2 and in round 3 (8). The increase of stoppage-time across rounds could be explained by increased fatigue in novice boxers. Similar results were observed in studies with elite karate and kickboxing athletes (20,24,31). Silva et al. (22) showed that the A:R ratio in novice kickboxing bouts was approximately 1:2 with an average of 6 seconds of effort and 12 seconds for pauses which is much different from that reported for novice boxers. In regional mixed martial art matches, Del Vecchio et al. (10) reported a ratio between high to low intensity actions (Hi:Lo) of 1:2–1:4. Moreover, the difference in the A:R ratio between amateur striking combat sports could be explained by the specificity of each sport in terms of technical and tactical actions and the duration of the competition. When comparing winners and losers in novice boxers, the activity rate was higher in winners than in losers in the second round (8).
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Davis et al. (6) showed that the A:R ratio was 18:1 in elite boxing matches, specifically during the semifinal and final matches of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Santos et al. (21) reported that the A:R ratio was 1:7 in the 2007 World Taekwondo Championship and 2008 Olympic Games. A study by Ouergui et al. (20) reported that the A:R ratio was approximately 1:1 in high-level full-contact kickboxing competition. Recent studies in elite karate practitioners have shown that the A:R ratio was 1:1.5 (3,30). These results clearly highlight the higher activity rate in elite amateur boxers in comparison with other striking combat sports. In addition, Davis et al. (6) reported that the decrease in activity rate in elite boxing matches does not seem to be directly linked to fatigue, as vertical hip movements and activity rate both increased in the studied elite boxers over subsequent rounds. The present review revealed that the activity-to-rest (A:R) ratio was higher in elite (18:1) than in novice (9:1) boxers. The activity profiles differed significantly across rounds (Table 1). Particularly, a higher total stop-time and a total clinch-time were observed in elite compared with novice amateur boxers over the three match rounds. In addition, higher referee stop-time in rounds 1 and 2, higher activity rate in rounds 2 and 3, and lower time before the first stop in rounds 1 and 3 in elite compared with novice amateur boxers were recorded. Collectively, these findings highlight the need for adopting different training strategies, taking into account the specific requirement of participant’s level. The challenge for future researchers is to determine the activity profile during both elite and novice amateur boxing competitions according to weight categories, match outcome, and to compare them to the findings presented in the present review. It is worth noting that the studies presented here used different analytical methods. For instance, some studies classified the time structure into three phases: preparatoryactivity time, fighting-activity time, and stoppage-activity time (24,30); another reported data from observation, preparation, and interaction actions (22), whereas, Davis et al. (6,8) mainly considered the time spent in active and in break phases to calculate an A:R ratio. For that reason, the difference between the results should be cautiously interpreted. Thus, the disadvantages of video-based time–motion analysis is that not all types of motion analysis systems used in sport are suitable for combat sports and the intraobserver reliability ranged from poor to high. To overcome the opponent and win, boxers have to master specific technical-tactical skills to achieve success in competition, or achieve a knockout. In the regional and national level, the jab, rear hand cross, lead, and rear hooks were the most frequently used punches by boxers (31). In the same context, the arms, followed by trunk and foot defenses were the most frequent defensive techniques used (31). However, in novice boxers, Davis et al. (8) revealed that the total number of punches landed (20.7 6 8.1 vs. VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2017 |
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Performance Aspects in Boxing Competition 12.6 6 6.4), the number of punches with the lead hand (34.2 6 1.9 vs. 26.5 6 9.4), lead-hand combinations (4.3 6 2.9 vs. 2.3 6 1.8), body–head (1.9 6 1.9 vs. 0.7 6 1.4), 2punch (11.0 6 3.3 vs. 8.3 6 5.9) and 4-or-more-punch combinations (1.1 6 1.4 vs. 0.5 6 0.9) were higher in round 1 in winners compared with losers. Winners also used more triple-punch combinations in rounds 1 (3.7 6 2.0 vs. 1.9 6 2.0) and 2 (2.9 6 1.8 vs. 1.3 6 1.6) than losers, respectively, whereas the ratio of punches thrown to punches landed (i.e., ratio of punching efficiency) was lower for winners than for losers (2.6:1 vs. 3.4:1) in round 1, respectively. Lead-hand hooks landed (4.4 6 2.2 vs. 2.7 6 2.0), lead-hand hooks (9.6 6 3.2 vs. 6.4 6 5.0), total number of punches landed (18.6 6 6.1 vs. 13.0 6 4.7), and total punches (44.9 6 12.5 vs. 36.5 6 9.2) were higher in winners than in losers in rounds 2, respectively. However, air punches (11.8 6 4.7 vs. 8.5 6 3.0) were higher for losers than for winners in the same round, respectively. In addition, in the third round, winners used more body or head (1.8 6 1.7 vs. 0.3 6 0.4), 2-punch (10.2 6 2.7 vs. 7.7 6 3.1), and 4-or-more-punch combinations (1.3 6 1.3 vs. 0.3 6 0.6), lead-hand hooks landed (4.9 6 2.7 vs. 2.8 6 2.5), and total punches (47.5 6 1.1 vs. 37.3 6 12.4) than their loser counterparts, respectively. Total punches to the head (round 1: 44.0 6 1.2 vs. 34.4 6 12.5; round 2: 37.8 6 1.9 vs. 3.3 6 7.3; round 3: 39.5 6 9.4 vs. 31.3 6 9.7), total combinations (round 1: 24.7 6 7.0 vs. 16.3 6 8.3; round 2: 20.3 6 5.9 vs. 14.5 6 6.8; round 3: 19.6 6 5.7 vs. 12.5 6 5.1) and block and counter punch combinations (round 1: 1.4 6 1.4 vs. 0.1 6 0.5; round 2: 0.8 6 1.0 vs. 0.0 6 0.2; round 3: 0.6 6 0.9 vs. 0.0 6 0.0) were higher also for winners than for losers over all 3 rounds, respectively. With regards to the defensive variables, there were no significant differences between winners and losers (8). The data obtained in the present review highlight that landing punches may not be the only way to win, but triple-punch combinations, total punches directed to the head, block, and counter punch combinations seem to contribute further to success in a boxing match. Particularly, triplepunch combinations and offensive actions seem to have the highest probability of being scored by judges and increased the likelihood of landing a scoring blow and, ultimately, winning a bout (8,31). Across rounds, irrespective of combat outcome, the total number of punches decreased between rounds 1 and 2 (8). The number of punches with the lead hand, total straights, total punches to the head, lead-hand straight punches, and punches per minute were higher in round 1 than in rounds 2 and 3. With respect to punch combinations, total combinations, lead-hand combinations, and block and counter combinations they were higher in round 1 than in round 3. For winners and losers, total defensive movements were lower in round 3 than in the first 2 rounds, hand and foot defense decreased between round 1 and round 3 and trunk defense decreased between round 2 and round 3. The leadhand hook to the head was the only punch where accuracy changed between rounds. In fact, lead-hand hook accuracy
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increased between rounds 1 and 2 and rounds 1 and 3. When looking at the accuracy of punches directed to the body they were more accurate than punches to the head for the lead-hand straight and rear-hand hook in rounds 1 and 2, lead-hand hook in round 1, and the rear-hand straight in round 3 (8). Irrespective of round progression and amateur boxers level (i.e., regional and national level), winners performed high offensive output (i.e., attacks launched, total punches, and backhand cross), but few arm and trunk defenses than losers (31). Indeed, in elite boxing competition, winners used an increased number of punches to head, particularly straight (35.4 6 8.7 vs. 31.2 6 5.5) and uppercuts (2.4 6 1.1 vs. 1.6 6 0.8) in round 1 and hooks in rounds 1 (12.6 6 6.4 vs. 4.6 6 2.5) and 2 (11.3 6 5.3 vs. 5.1 6 2.4), and number of landed punches to the head, particularly straights in rounds 1 (8.1 6 2.6 vs. 4.2 6 3.6) and 2 (6.2 6 3.1 vs. 3.6 6 2.7) and uppercuts (1.0 6 0.7 vs. 0.4 6 0.8) in round 2, compared with losers (11). Thus, winners landed more punches to body for hooks (0.9 6 0.6 vs. 0.5 6 0.4) in round 1 (11) and more hooks rear hand landed (3.5 6 3.1 vs. 2.1 6 1.7) in round 2 (6) than losers. However, in the third round, total punches landed (14.8 6 7.2 vs. 11.3 6 5.4) (6), total punches (52.3 6 11.8 vs. 36.7 6 13.8), lead hand punches (24.7 6 8.6 vs. 19.8 6 7.5), rear hand punches (21.6 6 6.3 vs. 16.8 6 5.9), uppercuts punches landed to the head (0.8 6 0.6 vs. 0.2 6 0.1), total uppercuts punches to body (2.2 6 1.2 vs. 1.3 6 0.9) (11), and hook rear hand landed (3.1 6 2.4 vs. 1.7 6 1.8) (6) were greater for winners than for losers. Likewise, the ratio of punches thrown to landed (2.3:1 6 1.1:1 vs. 3.0:1 6 1.3:1) and hook lead hand (11.8 6 6.8 vs. 16.3 6 8.2) were lower for winners than for losers in round 3 (6). Concerning punching combinations, the number of 2-punch combinations was higher for winners than for losers in rounds 1 (27.7 6 6.6 vs. 19.8 6 4.2, 13.4 6 4.7 vs. 10.5 6 3.6, respectively) and 3 (22.3 6 5.9 vs. 15.7 6 3.8, 11.5 6 4.1 vs. 8.1 6 2.4, respectively) (11). Also, the 3 or more punch combinations were higher for winners than for losers in rounds 2 (4.8 6 3.1 vs. 2.3 6 1.9) and 3 (3.9 6 2.6 vs. 1.8 6 1.4) (11). In addition, regarding the defensive techniques, trunk (2.6 6 1.7 vs. 4.4 6 4.2) and total defense (6.7 6 3.7 vs. 9.3 6 5.3) were both lower for winners than for losers in round 2 (6). Although El-Ashker (11) showed that defense with the feet (3.7 6 0.8 vs. 7.4 6 2.6) was lower for winners than for losers in round 1. Thus, defensive skill effectiveness in rounds 1 (0.33 vs. 0.29) and 2 (0.30 vs. 0.25), offensive skill effectiveness in rounds 1 (0.28 vs. 0.24) and 3 (0.24 vs. 0.19), and technical performance effectiveness in all rounds (round 1: 0.59 vs. 0.51; round 2: 0.55 vs. 0.46; round 3: 0.49 vs. 0.41) were higher in winners than in losers (11). Across rounds the majority of attacking movements and punch combinations decreased (Table 3). The straight punches to head, lead hand punches, hook rear hand, punches per minute, total hooks, and total punches decreased significantly between round 1 and round 3 for both winners and losers (6,11), with total
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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research hooks and landed punches to the body for winners and uppercuts to the head for winners also decreased across rounds (11). Punches rear hand, straight punches rear hand, and vertical hip movements all increased between round 1 and round 2. Punches-rear-hand also decreased between round 2 and round 3 (6). Total punches landed, hook lead hand, total straight punches, and 2-punch combinations all increased between round 1 and round 2 (6). Particularly, winners total combinations decreased in the third and second rounds compared with round 1, and similarly decreased in the third round compared with second round for losers (11). The ratio of punches thrown to punches landed decreased between round 1 and round 3, and block and counterpunch combinations decreased between round 2 and round 3 (6). As stated by Thomson and Lamb (31), the present review also shows that frequencies of technical actions were significantly different between weight categories in novice and elite boxers. Higher frequencies of technical actions were also reported in elite than in novice boxers (Table 3). This could be explained by the external (ring dimensions) and internal (aerobic and anaerobic capacity of boxers) demands of combat and differences in the bouts duration (11 minutes vs. 8 minutes) between elite and novice boxers. Smith et al. (26) showed that male amateur boxers competing in 3 3 3-minute bouts threw 37 punches per minute. For the same combat duration, Davis et al. (6) indicated that bouts require the ability to maintain an activity rate of ;1.4 actions/s, comprising ;20 punches, ;2.5 defensive movements, and ;47 vertical hip movements, all per minute, over 3 successive rounds each lasting ;200 seconds in male elite amateur boxing bouts. El-Ashker (11) reported that Egyptian national-level male amateur boxers competing in 3 3 3-minute bouts threw ;15 punches per minute, almost 1.5 to 2.5 times less than the values reported in the studies of Davis et al. (6) and Smith et al. (26) over the same duration of competition, respectively. Furthermore, senior and junior international amateur boxers competing in 4 3 2-minute bouts threw 38 punches per minute both from the lead and the rear hand in punching combinations (25). Over the same combat duration, Kapo et al. (17) found that the lead straight punch to the head and the lead hook to the head were the most-often-used techniques, representing 29 and 23%, respectively, of all attacking actions. Further studies are needed to investigate the relationship between boxers’ level and punching pace (number of punches per minute). Scientific studies dealing with the physiological responses in boxing competition have been mostly relying on heart rate (HR) and blood lactate measures (2,7,14,13). Ghosh et al. (13) observed that amateur boxing of 3 3 3-minute rounds is a highly demanding sports where the boxers exhibit a high BLC and a high HR (approximately, 9.0 mmol$L21 and 180 b$min21, respectively) over a total duration of one match of 11 minutes. Hanon et al. (14) reported that the BLC in intermediate (60–64 kg) weight category
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(14.8 6 2.9 mmol$L21) was higher than in heavier and lighter categories (;12 mmol$L21) in World-class amateur boxing competition. The values recorded in the previous study were higher than those reported by Ghosh et al. (13) and Nassib et al. (19). This can be due to the difference in boxing contests, i.e., it was a simulation contest in the studies of Ghosh et al. (13) and Nassib et al. (19) and official combat in the study of Hanon et al. (14). In simulated boxing matches consisting of 3 3 2-minute, Arseneau et al. (2) reported a post bout BLC of 9.4 6 2.2 mmol$L21. Similar results were shown in the study of Davis et al. (7) in semi-contact matches using handheld pads (9.5 6 1.8 mmol$L21). Nevertheless, Davis et al. (8) showed that BLC (11.8 6 1.6 mmol$L21) was higher in the elite amateur boxing bouts than the later 2 studies (2,7). This could be explained by the participants’ level, combat contests, and bouts duration differences. In addition, in Indian boxing, where athletes competed in 3 3 2-minute, the BLC was lower than the previous studies (especially in light and medium-weight categories) (18). The later study showed that BLC was significantly higher in medium heavy-weight category boxers during LAB graded exercise and during actual boxing round compared with light- and mediumweight category boxers. Furthermore, across rounds, BLC increased significantly from postround 1 compared with postround 3 (7). This highlights the incremental increase of fatigue across the 3 rounds and the higher BLC in medium heavy weight (55–64 kg) and intermediate (60–64 kg) categories boxers compared with other weight classes and in senior compared with junior boxers. Few research works have studied the physiological requirements (oxygen uptake (V_ O2) and HR) of various boxing exercises such as sparring (3 3 2-minute), pad work, and punching a punch bag. Arseneau et al. (2) measured the HR (expressed in %HRmax) at the LAB and GYM for three exercises; sparring, pad work, and punching a punch bag. However, comparing GYM and LAB conditions for the sparring bouts, they showed that %HRmax and BLC were higher (p # 0.05) in the natural GYM training environment (91.7 6 4.3% and 85.5 6 5.9% and 9.4 6 2.2 mmol$L21 and 6.1 6 2.3 mmol$L21, respectively). At the GYM, HR significantly increased across rounds for sparring and punching a punch bag. Whereas, at the LAB, HR significantly increased only from round 1 to round 2 for sparring and pad work (p # 0.05). The authors showed that V_ O2 values of LAB sparring, pad work, and punching bag at 180 b$min21 were similar (43.4 6 5.9, 41.1 6 5.1, and 38.3 6 6.5 ml$kg21$min21, respectively, p . 0.05). V_ O2 also increased with the punching frequency (24.7 6 6.1, 30.4 6 5.8, and 38.3 6 6.5 ml$kg21$min21 at 60, 120, and 180 b$min21, respectively, p # 0.05). In addition, Ghosh et al. (12) reported that the mean V_ O2 peak of Indian elite boxers in 4 3 2-minute simulated rounds were 56.1, 57.5, 57.7, and 59.3 ml$kg21$min21, respectively. The authors reported that elite Indian boxers exhibited a mean V_ O2max of 59.5 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2017 |
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Performance Aspects in Boxing Competition ml$kg21$min21, which was higher than values previously reported for other Indian boxers (54.5 ml$kg21$min21) (13), and Hungarian boxers (56.6 ml$kg21$min21) (16), but was close to Indian senior national boxers (61.7 6 9.0 ml$kg21$min21) reported by Khanna and Manna (18) and England senior boxers (63.8 6 4.8 ml$kg21$min21) as reported by Smith (25). Ghosh et al. (12) showed also that the HRmax was 192 b$min21 and were observed to be higher than previously studied Indian boxers (180 b$min21) (13). This difference could be explained by the combat duration differences between the 2 studies (3 3 3-minute vs. 3 3 6-minute). Recently, Nassib et al. (19) showed that the HRmax in Tunisian elite-level boxers was 186.69 b$min21 during simulated boxing matches (3 3 3-minute). De Lira et al. (9) studied the effect of a simulated Olympic boxing match (3 3 2-minute) on HR and V_ O2. They reported that the highest peak HR (expressed both absolute and relative to HRmax) were attained in round 3 and were 4.7 and 5.5% higher than those attained in round 1, respectively. The average HR in round 2 and percent of HRmax attained were both 4.5% higher than those reached in round 1. The average HR in round 3 and the respective percent of HRmax attained were 6.3 and 5.5% higher than those obtained in round 1, respectively. For the V_ O2, the authors showed higher V_ O2 in round 3 (54.6 6 6.2 ml$kg21$min21) compared with round 1 (50.8 6 5.6 ml$kg21$min21). These findings highlights that aerobic fitness is important physical quality of male boxers since it allows boxers to maintain their effort across subsequent boxing rounds.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS In summary, the present review shows the higher A:R ratio in male elite (18:1) compared with novice boxers (;9:1). A significant difference between rounds with regards to the activity rate (round 1 = 16:1, round 2 = 8:1, and round 3 = 6:1) was recorded, as well as, the higher stoppage-time and total stop-frequency in the third round compared with first and second rounds in amateur boxing. In addition, the present review highlights that triple-punch combinations, total combinations, block and counter punch combinations, total punches to the head, technical performance effectiveness, and defensive and offensive skills effectiveness could be the main contributing factors to victories over all 3 rounds regardless of boxer’s competitive level (i.e., novice and elitelevel). Other technical-tactical skills (e.g., number of landed punches to head, particularly straight, hook and uppercut, 2-punch or 4-or-more-punch combinations) may also contribute to success across rounds in novice and elite boxers. Furthermore, higher frequencies of technical movements were also reported in elite than in novice boxers. In addition, the data obtained in the present review highlight the incremental increase of fatigue across the rounds (higher BLC and %HRmax and V_ O2 in round 3 compared with rounds 2 and 1). This might explain the increase of stoppage-time and decrease of A:R ratio across rounds. BLC was also higher in
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medium heavy-weight (55–64 kg) and intermediate (60–64 kg) category boxers compared with other weight classes and in the senior rather than in junior boxers. This can be explained by the higher A:R ratio in middle-weight categories than in the other weight classes. In fact, one of the main practical applications of the present review is that fitness trainers and coaches should take into account the activity (A:R ratio and technical/ tactical) difference between boxers’ levels and weight categories when creating their training program during the precompetition period. They should also organize their technical-tactical and physical conditioning sessions to develop the appropriate techniques that may facilitate a winning advantage, with consideration of A:R ratio relevant to the boxers’ level. As coaches seek to train their boxers in stressful or close to competition conditions, repeated highintensity intermittent exercises and interval training are highly recommended. Repetition of sparing bouts or pad work will develop both aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways through the established A:R ratio. Finally, the challenge for future researchers would be to determine the activity profile and physiological responses of female boxers according to their level of practice (i.e., elite vs. novice), weight classes and match outcome.
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