Performance leadership and management in elite sport

European Sport Management Quarterly Vol. 12, No. 4, September 2012, 317
336

Performance leadership and management in elite sport: recommendations, advice and suggestions from national performance directors Rachel Arnolda*, David Fletchera and Lindsay Molyneuxb

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a

School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK; bThe English Institute of Sport, Bath, UK (Received 8 May 2012; accepted 8 May 2012) The purpose of this study was to elicit recommendations, advice and suggestions that can be used to enhance performance leadership and management in elite sport. To garner such information, 13 national performance directors were interviewed regarding the recommendations, advice and suggestions they had for leaders and managers of national sports teams and the sport organisations in which they operate. Five higher-order themes emerged for leaders and managers: establishing an approach, understanding roles within the team, developing contextual awareness, enhancing personal skills and strengthening relationships. There were also five higher-order themes for sport organisations: employing the most appropriate individual, creating the optimal environment, implementing systems and structures, developing an inclusive culture and providing appropriate support. As national governments place heightened importance on international sporting success, it is anticipated that the findings of this study will enable leaders, managers and sport organisations to more effectively address issues accompanying the leadership and management of Olympic programmes. Keywords: athletic; governance; Olympic; organisation; psychology

The evolution of the Olympic Games from its origin to the modern day has benefited many athletes and nations. For athletes, the Olympics are commonly regarded as the pinnacle of athletic achievement, offering them an arena to demonstrate their talent and skills on a global stage. This spectacle is also valued by nations, since it provides them with a unique opportunity to attract more widespread recognition (Xu, 2006), test their elite sport policies and gain a competitive advantage over other countries (De Bosscher, Shilbury, Theeboom, Van Hoecke, & De Knop, 2011). For the host city of an Olympic Games, the mega-event presents them with the chance to showcase themselves, their facilities and their planning capabilities to a global audience, as well as the prospect of making investments in infrastructure, generating income and employment opportunities, attracting tourists and increasing national pride (Gibson, Qi, & Zhang, 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Kasimati, 2003; Rose & Spiegel, 2011; Tien, Lo, & Lin, 2011). Notwithstanding these benefits, research has also found that a spectacle of this magnitude can, perhaps inevitably, create many

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] ISSN 1618-4742 print/ISSN 1746-031X online # 2012 European Association for Sport Management http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2012.693115 http://www.tandfonline.com

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318 R. Arnold et al. issues for those managing and leading Olympic venues, programmes and teams. These challenges include, but are not limited to: gigantism and over-commercialisation (Preuss, 2004), sponsorship (Brown, 2000), negative environmental impacts (Collins, Jones, & Munday, 2009), optimal human resource management (Chelladurai & Madella, 2006), political exploitation and boycotting (Cottrell & Nelson, 2012), the realisation of legacy (Girginov & Hills, 2008), security threats (Toohey & Taylor, 2008) and, ultimately, the management of any factors that can potentially influence athlete well-being and performance (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001). Despite these challenges, many governments and national sports organisations (NSOs) continue to invest heavily in supporting their participation in the Olympic Games. These investments typically focus on preparing a comprehensive bid to become a host nation and/or adopting a systematic, strategic approach to the development of elite athletes (De Bosscher, Bingham, Shibli, van Bottenburg & De Knop, 2008; Houlihan & Green, 2008). Sport management research can significantly inform the latter of these investments, since it has identified the factors deemed necessary for successful elite athlete development across a number of different countries (e.g. De Bosscher et al., 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan & Green, 2008; Oakley & Green, 2001; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). As part of a largescale project, De Bosscher and colleagues (De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg, & Shibli, 2006; De Bosscher et al., 2008, 2011) concluded that the sport policy factors leading to international sporting success can be classified under the following nine ‘pillars’: financial support, integrated approach to policy development, foundation and participation, talent identification and development system, athletic and post-career support, training facilities, coaching provision and coach development, national and international competition and scientific research. Notwithstanding the undoubted importance of these ‘pillars’, Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) argued that ‘these policy and strategic level developments alone will not guarantee international success; to attain and sustain successful outcomes such initiatives need to be inspirationally led, effectively managed and competently executed’ (p. 427). Hence, if nations wish to maximise the likelihood of success at the Olympic Games, they must not only design and develop effective elite sport policies, they must also have the right personnel in place to lead and manage their Olympic programmes, competently respond to and address issues, and create, optimise and maintain a high performance environment. In view of the importance of performance leadership and management in determining NSOs’ success in Olympic competition, it seems surprising that these concepts have remained largely unexplored at the managerial level in sport research (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009; Ratten, 2009; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). In contrast, other domains of academic inquiry have examined these areas in some detail with scholars proposing a number of theories, approaches and perspectives for performance leadership (for a discussion of these, see Northouse, 2010; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001) and performance management (for a discussion of these, see Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway, 2009; Thorpe & Holloway, 2008). Unfortunately space precludes an elaboration of all these areas; however, it is worth noting that performance leadership has been defined as ‘a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal’ (Northouse, 2010, p. 3) and the definition of performance management has proved more elusive in view of the amount of disparate research that has been conducted on the concept. That said,

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European Sport Management Quarterly 319 Thorpe and Holloway (2008) have outlined the general aims of performance management, which are ‘to share understanding about what is to be achieved, to develop the capacity of people and the organization to achieve it, and to provide the support and guidance individuals and teams need to improve their performance’ (p. 88). Although performance leadership and management research in these other domains has the potential to inform sport management practice, scholars should be cautious of blindly extracting findings and applying them to the elite sport domain, since their direct relevance may be questionable. Rather, it has been suggested that researchers should design and conduct studies that listen to the subjective voices of key stakeholders who lead and manage within elite sport (Kihl, Leberman, & Schull, 2010; Starkey & Madan, 2001). In an attempt to advance understanding in this area and enhance support to the leadership and management of international sports teams, Fletcher and Arnold (2011) interviewed national performance directors (NPDs) about their perceptions of best practice for leading and managing teams in preparation for Olympic competition. The findings highlighted the multifaceted nature of orchestrating elite performance, involving the development of a vision, the management of operations, the leadership of people and the creation of a culture. While it is beyond the scope of this study to discuss in detail the specific findings of this study, it is worth highlighting that the NPDs they interviewed ‘valued opportunities to learn from one another, share knowledge, and provide feedback to other stakeholders’ (p. 238). The purpose of this study, therefore, is to elicit recommendations, advice, and suggestions that can be used to enhance performance leadership and management in elite sport. Specifically, recommendations, advice and suggestions will be gleaned from NPDs of Olympic sports for leaders and managers of national sports teams and the sport organisations in which they operate. It is hoped that such evidence-based information, provided by active stakeholders, will enable leaders and managers in elite sport to respond to the issues and challenges that they encounter and, ultimately, better lead and manage their Olympic programmes.

Method Research design In line with the earlier observation that the concepts of performance leadership and management have been afforded limited attention at the managerial level in sport research (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009; Ratten, 2009; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009), it was considered that this study would be best suited to qualitative methods. Such methods enable researchers to examine participant knowledge and practices in an exploratory way, so that an innovative understanding of complex human experiences can be developed and portrayed (Flick, 2009; Silverman, 2006). In addition, the use of qualitative methods can address a limitation currently associated with performance management research from domains outside of sport. To elaborate, Thorpe and Beasley (2004) identified that a lack of real-world relevance in performance management research can be attributed to the emphasis placed on under-theorised, quantitative approaches. Therefore, by adopting qualitative methods, rich and informative data can be garnered from participants that actually operate within elite sport. Semi-structured interviews were deemed most appropriate to collect this data, since they encourage participants to contribute in-depth information relating to

320 R. Arnold et al. their experiences of performance leadership and management. Furthermore, as Edwards and Skinner (2009) have remarked, semi-structured interviews allow participants to seek further information where uncertainty exists, and enable researchers to probe interviewees for more detail if required.

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Participants A purposive sampling technique was used to recruit participants in this study, since it enables qualitative researchers to select a representative group of participants who have experience in the area being studied (Flick, 2009). The only criterion for selection was that individuals had to be a current NPD of an Olympic sport. There was no set criterion regarding the type of sport that the NPD had to be leading and managing, since we wanted to provide insights into performance leadership and management across different contexts and Olympic programmes. Therefore, following ethical approval for the study, all current NPDs working in Olympic sports were contacted by email. This message informed them of the purpose of the study, provided a description of what it would entail, and invited them to participate. NPDs who expressed an interest in participating were contacted to arrange a convenient time and location for the interview, and were provided with a copy of the interview guide. The sample comprised 13 current NPDs (11 male, 2 female) who ranged in age from 42 to 54 years (M48.88, SD4.52). The participants had been a NPD for between 0.5 and 13 years (M6.01 years, SD 3.76) and worked in elite sport for 4
35 years (M 20.21 years, SD11.02). Represented Olympic sports in the sample accumulated a total of 24 medals at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and accounted for £138 million of public investment (equivalent to approximately $260 million). With regards to the size of the sample, 13 NPDs were deemed an appropriate quantity, since similar vignettes were beginning to be recalled as the data collection phase progressed. As a result, there was an absence of new themes emerging and, in line with Bowen’s (2008) suggestions, it was considered that both theoretical and data saturation had occurred. Interview guide To investigate the purpose of this study, a five-section interview guide1 was developed. Section one of this guide provided participants with information about the study’s purpose and their right to remain anonymous and withdraw from the study at any time. In section two, the participants were offered an opportunity to ask any further questions and, subsequently, were invited to voluntarily provide informed consent and proceed with the interview. Section three consisted of a number of introductory questions (e.g. what is your background in [sport]?) in order to obtain an insight into the participant’s involvement in his or her sport and enable rapport to develop between the interviewer and interviewee. In section four, the questions focused on the recommendations, advice and suggestions that NPDs would provide; firstly, for other leaders and managers to help them oversee their Olympic programmes more effectively and, secondly, for sport organisations to support their leaders and managers in a more favourable and optimal way. Section five asked the participants to voice any further pertinent issues, followed by a short evaluation of the efficacy of the interview. Prior to the interviews with the NPDs, a pilot interview

European Sport Management Quarterly 321 was conducted with a recently retired NPD to help ensure that the interview guide addressed all the relevant areas. The pilot interview also enabled the interviewer to refine her interview skills and techniques. From this initial interview, it was decided that additional clarification and elaboration probes were required to attain a greater profundity of the participants’ subjective experiences (cf. Ritchie & Lewis, 2003).

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Data analysis All of the interviews were digitally recorded in their entirety. The duration of the interviews ranged from 30 to 74 minutes (M 57.31, SD 12.28) and interviews were transcribed verbatim. In view of the scant knowledge of performance leadership and management in sport research at the managerial level, a thematic interpretational content analysis was selected as the most appropriate method to analyse the data (Aronson, 1994; Gibbs, 2007). Krippendorff (2004) highlighted that a content analysis can provide new insights into a research area or particular phenomenon via the emergence and interpretation of themes from interview transcripts. To further generate knowledge and foster innovation in this area, an inductive approach was adopted (Cassell & Symon, 2004; Gibbs, 2007). More specifically, this approach involved the interviewer first immersing herself in the transcripts to extract raw data quotes that represented common themes. These initial themes were paraphrased as lower-order themes, before they were grouped according to similar content to form a number of higher-order themes. The higher-order themes were then combined into appropriate general dimensions, forming a comprehensive depiction of the participants’ collective experiences. When handling the data, manual analysis was used rather than computer analysis in view of a number of disadvantages that have been associated with the latter method (see Basit, 2003; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003). Finally, a frequency analysis was conducted to identify how often each theme was mentioned by the participants (Neuendorf, 2002). Rigor and trustworthiness Researchers have identified various criteria for evaluating the quality of qualitative research (Krefting, 1991; Sparkes & Smith, 2009). By employing such research criteria, scholars can generate both researcher and practitioner confidence in qualitative research findings (Porter, 2007). This study sought to employ the criteria that were most appropriate to the purpose of the research and the data that emerged. The first criterion that was adopted was authenticity, which was enhanced by acknowledging any biases of the researchers. More specifically, the processes of analyst triangulation and peer reviewing were implemented to review and challenge any assumptions held and interpretations made during the data analysis process (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Watt, 2007). In addition to these techniques, the themes and dimensions were sent to a random selection of participants to check if they were clear and accurate. Credibility and rigor were also addressed by interviewing NPDs who had first-hand knowledge and experience from a wide range of sports. To enable scholars to assess the findings’ degree of transferability to other settings (Tranfield, 2002), a thick description is provided of the characteristics of the sample. Furthermore, the results are presented using both hierarchical content trees and direct quotations, so that readers can appreciate the wide array of emergent themes

322 R. Arnold et al. together with their complexity, and evaluate the applicability of the findings to other settings and contexts.

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Results The results that emerged from the data analysis process represent the participants’ combined responses. From the interview data, 301 raw data quotes2 were extracted, which were grouped into 57 lower-order themes. These themes were grouped together into 10 higher-order themes and combined into the following two general dimensions: recommendations, advice and suggestions from NPDs for leaders and managers of national sports teams (see Figure 1), and for the sport organisations in which leaders and managers operate (see Figure 2).

Recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders and managers The recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders and managers dimension consisted of five higher-order themes: establishing an approach; understanding roles within the team; developing contextual awareness; enhancing personal skills and strengthening relationships (see Figure 1). With regards to establishing an approach, the NPDs described how their role was predominantly informed by previous experience. They advised other leaders and managers to make sense of their past experiences and use these to help them develop an early vision, set expectations, and identify what needs to be delivered. Following this, the NPDs suggested that any plans and policies should be implemented in a flexible way, whilst maintaining an underlying focus on success. To achieve this, leaders and managers should reflect on previous successes and challenges in order to recognise potential opportunities and barriers. Furthermore, leaders and managers must remain committed in their roles. The most frequently cited theme in this higher-order theme was being able to make tough decisions and accept that mistakes can be made in the process: You need to be able to take the tough decisions when they are in front of you . . . if you hide then you will be judged on the programme and I think then you’ll suffer. Sometimes you get it [the decisions] wrong . . . I know certainly in the context of some of the sports that I went into, I probably got a bit hasty with one or two people and got rid of them, but in hindsight I probably got 85% of the decisions right, so you’ve got to go with your gut feeling.

Leaders and managers operating in elite sport are advised to clearly understand both their own and others’ roles in the organisation. More specifically, they should be aware of role boundaries, including where one’s responsibilities end and another’s begin. This understanding is informed by a comprehensive knowledge of the organisation within which they are operating. Therefore, the NPDs encourage leaders and managers to spend time developing their familiarity with the ways in which their particular organisation typically functions. Regarding their own role, it was recommended that leaders and managers take responsibility for their decisions and corresponding actions, maintain a healthy work-life balance and endeavour to protect those individuals that are delivering elite sport. To elaborate on the latter

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Figure 1. Recommendations, advice, and suggestions from NPDs for leaders and managers of national sports teams.

point, the following quote provides advice on protecting coaches and athletes in elite sport from internal politics: One of the successes we’ve had in [sport] . . . is that in my time as a NPD we have not had internal political fighting. You must be aware that a lot of that still goes on

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Figure 2. Recommendations, advice, and suggestions from NPDs for the sport organisation in which leaders and managers operate.

elsewhere, sports with competing bodies within them. While it might be natural to some extent, it can just sap your energy . . . a NPD must take the politics away from the front line coaches and athletes, so that they can just focus and get on with their job.

When beginning a job as a leader or manager of an organisation, the NPDs advised individuals to develop contextual awareness. To achieve this, they recommended that leaders and managers assess and constantly evaluate and review their current situation. Some of the NPDs had encountered challenges with regards to the amount of time taken to witness an improvement in particular parts of their programme. In view of this, they advised that leaders and managers remain patient in developments and always be prepared for change so that they are ready to cope with and overcome new challenges and demands. It is also important for NPDs to be aware of and tailor advice to both the sporting and cultural

European Sport Management Quarterly 325 situation. The following quote illustrates how one NPD was aware of cultural differences:

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Often people don’t take the time to understand the culture of the country and the culture of the sport. They are making real errors from the beginning and I think luckily I was sensible about that when I came from [previous country] to [current country]. However, I had to learn quickly that [current country] has a culture all of its own . . . I found that there are a lot of people here that don’t like to be told straight, whereas in the country where I previously worked, they are very direct.

In line with the aforementioned theme, the NPDs recommended that leaders and managers should develop the skills and traits that are most suitable for the context in which they are leading or managing, rather than simply adopting a rigid approach. This is supported in the variety of personal skills that NPDs working in different contexts identified as essential for a leadership or managerial role in elite sport. These include exhibiting a high level of confidence, displaying integrity, possessing strategic and critical thinking skills and being organised and able to deal with conflict. Further personal characteristics that are deemed fundamental for the role of a NPD are passion and motivation, as the following quote indicates: I think it’s your passion and your commitment to excellence that are pretty crucial . . . If people don’t think that the person at the top really believes that you can, or is not realistic and focused on what’s important, or motivated in their job and passionate in achieving the outcomes, then you’ll lose the support from below.

Leaders and managers are often required to interact and build relationships with a number of stakeholders including other leaders, senior management, individuals in the National Governing Body (NGB), external partners, support personnel and the athletes. With these personnel, the NPDs emphasised the importance of communicating frequently and effectively. By enhancing communication and building these relationships with stakeholders, NPDs are able to integrate and engage all areas of the NGB. To strengthen relationships when leading and managing others, it was suggested that NPDs seek an appropriate balance in the level of control or influence that they have over others. In addition, they should not attempt to achieve everything by themselves, but instead recognise the importance of teamwork, as the following quote demonstrates: You cannot make improvements alone; it has to be as a team. The team members need to respect and listen to each other. I know that I can learn a lot from them [the rest of the team]. To do this [work as a team], I need to walk the shop floor and know the reality of the sport on the ground, see what’s actually happening on a daily basis with the athletes, coaches, and support staff.

Recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations The recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations consisted of five higher-order themes: employing the most appropriate individual, creating the optimal environment, implementing systems and structures, developing an inclusive culture and providing appropriate support (see Figure 2). When employing an individual for the role of leader or manager, the NPDs advised organisations to be

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clear regarding exactly what the job will involve on the job specification. This is deemed essential to ensure candidate understanding. It was also suggested that whilst the role of a NPD typically requires experience in a performance environment, previous experience as an athlete or a coach is not always necessary. Therefore, organisations are advised to incorporate this advice in to their recruitment process, perhaps by simply encouraging potential applicants to reflect on and apply what they have learnt from past experiences to the specific role being advertised. Moreover, it was recommended that organisations comprehensively assess each applicant’s personal, leadership and managerial skills to ensure an appropriate level of competency for the role. Finally, as the following quote highlights, the NPDs advised organisations to be clear on what they specifically require in a leader and/or manager: Organisations should first decide what kind of role they want. I’d say that’s the first question that any part of the organisation’s recruitment panel needs to ask itself. If you [the organisation] are a smaller sport it may be that you want a top-line coach to lead the performance program and deliver the goods as a NPD, because if you don’t have the luxury of having one person for each role, you may have to make a compromise . . . though if you’re a slightly bigger sport, it may be that you want somebody a little bit different to do each role.

To facilitate the work of a leader or manager, sport organisations should attempt to create the optimal environment for them and the rest of the organisation. This involves remaining ambitious and positive in the achievement of the organisation’s vision, and not only making decisions quickly, but also determining accountability for any choices made. In addition, the NPDs advised organisations to control the level of unnecessary interference by senior management preceding a major competition. The majority of NPDs suggested that organisations should give leaders and managers freedom to operate, as the following quote exemplifies: I think there is a thin line between the board wanting information and interfering because they feel they should make decisions. I sense that, from talking to other NPDs, that it [interference from the board] is not just happening in my sport, it is actually happening across sports. Leave them [leaders and managers] alone to run things . . . let them do their job.

National performance directors advised sport organisations to develop systems and structures that enable leaders and managers to fulfil their role. To elaborate, advice on this topic includes providing appropriate salaries and funding, developing sustainable policies which commence before and continue after each Olympic Games, establishing a coaching structure and minimising the amount of administration that NPDs are required to carry out. The most frequently cited theme within this higherorder theme was the importance of providing opportunities for NPDs to enhance their own knowledge. One way that sport organisations can develop individuals is by increasing their interaction with other leaders and managers, as the following quote indicates: If I were to go into a podium sport, I reckon I would come out with two or three nuggets that would make a difference. Now I am lucky enough to be on the performance director’s achievement group, and I have picked nuggets up from that, but that’s only

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once every quarter [of a year], and there are just eight of us. I think there is a lot of benefit to be gained by thinking outside the box and understanding how other people do it . . . so it’s this real isolation of the NPDs that could be hugely improved.

A further recommendation provided by the NPDs for sport organisations was to develop an inclusive culture. In view of the often disparate location of different personnel within an organisation, it was suggested that an inclusive culture should be developed in which all team members feel integrated and involved. The NPDs suggested that developing a team ethos, to which all members understand their affiliations, would help to create an inclusive culture. To achieve this integration and ethos, sport organisations are advised to clearly define roles and responsibilities of all divisions within the NGB, effectively listen and communicate to all involved in delivering elite performance, and value and demonstrate respect for all employees. The following quote concerns the need to formalise links between NPDs, which was suggested to be another method that could be used to develop an inclusive culture: There is no actual formalising of links within the NPD culture, which I think is absolutely stupid. I dropped a note to one of the [nation’s high performance sports agency] administrators, and I said, ‘‘Well, could you give me a list of the NPD contacts and telephone numbers?’’ They said ‘‘No, it’s confidential information’’. So I am a NPD, I am a member of a club, and I don’t know who all the fellow members are. It is absolutely essential that this information is made available if we are to build networks in elite sport.

In order to provide appropriate support to a NPD, it is important that sport organisations have a Chairman and/or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) whose understanding is aligned to that of the leader or manager. In addition, the NPDs recommended that organisations understand that it takes time to achieve success, provide the leader or manager with the opportunity to work with a mentor, be sensitive in understanding that sports of different sizes often encounter dissimilar demands and ensure that an optimal amount of support is provided by offering NPDs independence and avoiding unnecessary interference with their work. Furthermore, as the following quote illustrates, organisations should provide support for NPDs and their Olympic programmes not only before, but also after an Olympic Games: I do worry, particularly with the economic circumstances and everything that the funding of elite sport will fall off a cliff after [the] 2012 [Olympic Games]. I mean at the moment I think they [the government] want to win lots of medals, but I think after that the money will disappear very quickly . . . I just cannot see the government continuing to fund elite sports. So we [the sport organisation] need to look beyond the Olympics and put longer-term sustainable plans in place that will allow us to run elite sport on enough money.

Discussion To generate more favourable results in elite sport, policy-makers need to better understand how their structures and programmes may enable or hinder positive outcomes (De Bosscher et al., 2011). One factor which can help to explain this link between process and outcome is the way in which programmes are led and managed.

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328 R. Arnold et al. The data reported here contributes to research on performance leadership and management in elite sport by outlining a wide array of recommendations, advice and suggestions that leaders, managers and sport organisations should consider if they wish to maximise their success in elite sport. More specifically, the findings advise leaders and managers to focus on establishing an approach, understanding roles, developing contextual awareness, enhancing personal skills and strengthening relationships. With regards to the recommendations provided for sport organisations, these include employing the most appropriate individual, creating the optimal environment, implementing systems and structures, developing an inclusive culture and providing appropriate support. It is hoped that the findings of this study will help enhance leaders’, managers’ and sport organisations’ awareness and knowledge of the factors that need to be addressed in their pursuit of success. Taking first the recommendations, advice and suggestions provided for leaders and managers, the results revealed five higher-order themes which need to be taken into consideration. The first of these is establishing an approach and the data suggests that although leaders and managers might draw on previous experience to develop an approach (Canella & Rowe, 1995; Hannah, Woolfolk, & Lord, 2009), they should also recognise potential barriers and opportunities in the current situation that may help or hinder with the execution of this approach. This finding is in line with the principles of situational leadership (cf. Hersey, 1986), which encourages leaders to consider the situation in which they are operating, including any barriers or opportunities such as subordinates’ levels of maturity and readiness for self-direction. To assess this, instruments have been developed in the workplace to measure the degree to which a leader or manager uses his or her situational judgement to determine the best course of action based on any barriers and opportunities that they identify (cf. Salter & Highouse, 2009; Stemler & Sternberg, 2006). The second higher-order theme in this dimension refers to understanding the roles within the team. The findings reported in this higher-order theme go beyond sport management research, which has identified the roles of the board in sport organisations (cf. Inglis, 1997; Kihl et al., 2010; Shilbury, 2001), to outline the specific roles that leaders or managers of Olympic programmes are advised to uphold. These roles include protecting those that deliver at the forefront of elite sport, enhancing knowledge of the NGB and maintaining a work-life balance. This higher-order theme forms an important part of performance leadership and management, since clearly defined roles, responsibilities and boundaries in elite sport can help to enhance team atmosphere, functioning, productivity and reduce social loafing (Chelladurai, 2006; Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004). If roles are not effectively led and managed, individuals can experience role stress, tension, frustration, dissatisfaction and communication and interpersonal relationship difficulties (Mullins, 2004). Thirdly, since performance leadership and management are dependent on the context in which leaders and managers operate, the NPDs suggest that leaders and managers develop contextual awareness. This involves assessing the initial situation, tailoring advice to the sport or culture that they are working within, displaying patience in developments, exerting a readiness for change and constantly evaluating and reviewing the circumstances. This higher-order theme is in accordance with sport management research at governmental level (cf. Oakley & Green, 2001), which has

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European Sport Management Quarterly 329 identified that despite the growing trend towards similarity in national elite development strategies, there remains a need for policy-makers to display contextual awareness and develop programmes to suit the specific environment and circumstances of each respective country and sport. In addition to establishing an approach, understanding roles and developing contextual awareness, the NPDs also recommend that leaders and managers enhance their own personal skills. More specifically, and in line with previous research (cf. Depree, 1992; Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, & Marks, 2000; Zaccaro, 2007), it is suggested that leaders and managers should develop a constellation of traits and skills. Indeed, by having a toolbox of personal skills and qualities from which to draw, leaders can select and display certain traits dependant on the situations or circumstances that they find themselves in or the requirements of the individuals that they are leading or managing (Judge & LePine, 2007; Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka, 2009). For leaders and managers in elite sport, the suggested personal skills and qualities include passion, motivation, integrity, confidence, organisation, conflict management and strategic and critical thinking. The final higher-order theme of recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders and managers in elite sport relates to strengthening relationships with a number of personnel who are both internal and external to the sport organisation. While sport psychology research has established the components of effective coach
athlete relationships (cf. Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007), and sport management research has examined the relations between members of a board (cf. Taylor & O’Sullivan, 2009), the findings of this study extend understanding in this area by providing advice for those leading and managing Olympic sports on how to build and strengthen optimal relationships with a variety of personnel. These personnel include individuals across all areas of the NGB, athletes and their support personnel and external partners. Within these relationships, the results emphasise the importance of teamwork, communication and finding an optimal balance in the level of control or influence that leaders and managers have over others. It is fundamental that these relationships with various stakeholders are built and strengthened, since this can have an influence on the operation of Olympic programmes (Ferrand & McCarthy, 2009; Sotiriadou, 2009) and success of person-organisation dynamics (cf. Wagstaff, Fletcher, & Hanton, 2012). Turning to the recommendations, advice and suggestions for sport organisations, the results revealed five higher-order themes that they should consider when working with leaders and managers in elite sport. The first of these relates to recruiting and, ultimately, employing the most appropriate individual for the leader or manager role. To achieve this, NPDs suggest that organisations remain clear on the full extent of the role and what they specifically require in a leader or manager. This is in line with occupational and organisational psychology research (Hough & Oswald, 2000; Robertson & Smith, 2001), which highlights that organisations should adopt a taskoriented job analysis to clearly identify what skills are required for each job, and a worker-oriented analysis to elicit the competencies that candidates will need. In addition, with specific reference to employing a leader or manager in elite sport, the NPDs advised that organisations encourage candidates to reflect on their past experiences and then assess them on a range of personal, leadership and managerial skills, rather than simply on their sporting background.

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330 R. Arnold et al. Once a leader or manager has been employed, the NPDs encourage organisations to create an optimal environment for these individuals to function effectively. Similar to minimising any distractions from various personnel for individual athletes (cf. Gee, 2010; Martens, 2004), the NPDs recommend that organisations reduce any interference from senior management that might hinder their performance. In addition, the NPDs advise organisations to make quick decisions, determine accountability when decisions are made and remain positive and ambitious. In line with this latter point, research on personnel selection (e.g. Robertson & Smith, 2001) has identified that the appearance of an ambitious organisation can attract individuals to apply for a role. Therefore, in order to attract a number of candidates to apply for jobs in elite sport, organisations should remain ambitious and positive in their image so that they can, subsequently, select the most appropriate individual for the role. Turning to the third higher-order theme, NPDs advise organisations to implement systems and structures that are congruent with what leaders and managers are trying to accomplish. In accordance with sport management research on elite sport development systems, the findings of this study illustrate that an organisation’s systems and structures should involve effective coach provision, appropriate funding and salaries and a simplicity of administration (De Bosscher et al., 2006, 2008, 2011; Oakley & Green, 2001). In addition, the NPDs also advise organisations to implement sustainable policies and provide development opportunities for leaders and managers. It is crucial that sport organisations heed this advice from NPDs, since many sporting organisations operate within continually changing socio-economic conditions and an effective elite sport structure and system of governance can help to safeguard against any misappropriation of funds and ensure the long term viability of a sport (Scissons, 2002; Taylor & O’Sullivan, 2009). Alongside implementing these systems and structures, organisations should also consider the fourth higher-order theme which involves developing an inclusive culture. While previous research in sport has elicited athletes’ (e.g. Hardy & Crace, 1997; Yukelson, 1997) and coaches’ (Bloom, Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003; Newin, Bloom, & Loughead, 2008) perceptions of building a team and culture, this study provides additional knowledge in this area by establishing advice from NPDs for sport organisations. More specifically, the findings reveal that creating a culture involves generating a team ethos, integrating a team, formalising links, developing role awareness, effectively listening and communicating and demonstrating respect for employees to ensure that they feel valued. In terms of providing appropriate support to leaders and managers, which was the fifth higher-order theme in this dimension, the NPDs suggest that in addition to providing leaders and managers with support before an Olympic Games and a sustainable legacy after it (cf. Gold & Gold, 2009), and offering them a mentor (cf. Chun, Sosik, & Yun, 2012; Oliver, Church, Lewis, & Desrosiers, 2009; Raso, 2011), sport organisations should also be sensitive, understand the temporal nature of success, offer NPDs an optimal balance of support and ensure that the CEO and Chairman have an aligned understanding with the NPD. Regarding the practical applications of this study, it is anticipated that the findings can maximise the likelihood of success in elite sport in two main ways. Firstly, by providing recommendations, advice and suggestions to leaders and managers, this study can help them to recognise and address the daily challenges inherent in preparation for an Olympic Games. Secondly, the recommendations,

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European Sport Management Quarterly 331 advice and suggestions provided to sport organisations can assist them in creating, optimising and maintaining a supportive environment that enables leaders and managers to flourish in their roles. To disseminate these findings to leaders, managers and sport organisations, a manual could be developed to outline and explain the performance leadership and management recommendations, advice and suggestions that have emerged in this study. In addition, based on the findings of this study, a competency framework could be established that outlines the specific leadership and managerial qualities and skills that individuals should seek to develop (e.g. Dalakoura, 2010; Hannah et al., 2009). Since the appropriateness of leadership and management approaches are somewhat contingent on the surrounding context, the domains of the competency frameworks will likely be shaped by particular configurations of the parameters of practice (cf. Rodolfa et al., 2005). For NPDs, such parameters might include the sport, context and system in which the NPD operates, the individuals with whom they work and the challenges that they encounter. For sport organisations, a number of sport management frameworks have been developed to identify the systems and structures that influence elite athlete development at a governance level (e.g. De Bosscher et al., 2011; Houlihan & Green, 2008; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). However, these frameworks could be expanded to both incorporate the findings that have emerged from this managerial level study and illustrate the competencies that leaders and managers require in elite sport. With regards to the best context in which to disseminate the findings, UK Sport (the high performance sports agency in the UK), has emphasised that its quarterly NPD forum is well positioned to share good practice (National Audit Office, 2005). Indeed, a leadership and management development initiative or programme could be developed to disseminate the findings of this study at such forums (e.g. Amagoh, 2009). Alternatively, individuals that act in an advisory capacity to either sport organisations (e.g. organisational consultants) or leaders and managers (e.g. sport psychologists) could deliver the findings via an individually tailored intervention. Since there are likely to be differences in a NPD’s role dependant on the context and sport in which they operate, such bespoke provisions are particularly encouraged. When implementing the intervention, these advisory individuals should draw lessons and techniques from executive coaches since there appears to be considerable overlap in the remit of these roles (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011). More specifically, executive coaches are often employed to improve individuals’ relationships with others and help them to manage their daily challenges and demands (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kilburg, 2000; Miller & Hart, 2001), both of which are evident in the findings of the present study. This study has methodological strengths and limitations that must be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. The strength of this research is the participants that were sampled. More specifically, by occupying senior leadership and managerial positions in elite sport, the participants were able to provide insightful and extensive information for leaders, managers and sport organisations. The semi-structured format of the interview was a further strength of the research, since the set-up and flexibility enabled the NPDs to be open, honest and comfortable in their dialogues, which resulted in a broad array of stakeholder-driven recommendations, advice and suggestions. A common concern in investigations utilising qualitative methods and purposive sampling is the issue of generalisability (cf. Gobo, 2007). Indeed, while the present study can offer analytic generalisation (cf. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007), where its findings can contribute conceptually and theoretically to research and

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332 R. Arnold et al. theory on performance leadership and management, the relatively small sample size constrains the more statistical generalisation that is commonly associated with more quantitative methods. Regarding the composition of the sample, participants in the present study were recruited from a range of sports and were of varying age and experience; however, logistical and financial constraints precluded more extensive sampling of participants working in other nations. While this restricted focus may be considered a limitation of this research, Oakley and Green (2001) have suggested that there is a growing trend towards similarity in national elite development strategies. Nonetheless, future research is required to further explore the presence and extent of cultural differences in the performance leadership and management recommendations, advice and suggestions provided by NPDs from a range of nations. In addition to the aforementioned suggestions, further research in this area could seek information from personnel other than NPDs. Indeed, while sampling NPDs was appropriate for the purpose of this study, it is important to acknowledge that the recommendations, advice and suggestions provided are the views and opinions of one group of stakeholders within elite sport. Therefore, it would be beneficial to involve other stakeholders in future research so that a more holistic view of performance leadership and management can be developed. For example, gathering data from other members of the organisation in addition to NPDs, including the board, team managers, athletes and support and administrative staff will have a methodological advantage over the present study, since individuals’ perspectives can be triangulated (Solansky, 2010). To collect this triangulation data, a 360 degree study could be conducted (Fletcher, 2001). In addition to providing an array of perspectives of performance leadership and management within a sport organisation, a 360 degree study can offer valuable feedback to the leaders and managers themselves, identify areas for performance development and evaluate the effectiveness of the individually tailored interventions previously discussed (Bailey & Austin, 2006; Conger & Toegel, 2003). To conclude, this study has provided performance leadership and management recommendations, advice and suggestions for leaders, managers and sport organisations. It is anticipated that this information will enable issues, challenges and debates that accompany the leadership and management of Olympic programmes to be more effectively recognised and addressed. Furthermore, as governments place heightened importance on international success in the sporting arena, this study provides a timely resource for sport management scholars and consultants. Indeed, it is hoped that as a result of this research, Olympic programmes will begin to be more successfully led, managed and supported to, ultimately, produce more positive performance outcomes in elite sport. Acknowledgement This research was supported in part by funding from Lane4 Management Group Ltd.

Notes 1. Due to space restrictions, the interview guide is not reproduced in full here. For a copy of the guide, please contact the corresponding author. 2. Due to space restrictions, only a selection of the raw data quotes is presented in this study. For a complete copy of this data, please contact the corresponding author.

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