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F. Langendörfer et al.: Personality and Performance Journal Anxiety of Individual Among Differences ©Professional 2006 Hogrefe 2006; Orchestra Vol. & Huber 27(3):162–171 Musicians Publishers

Personality and Performance Anxiety Among Professional Orchestra Musicians Franziska Langendörfer1, Volker Hodapp1, Gunter Kreutz2, and Stephan Bongard1 1

University of Frankfurt (am Main), Germany, 2Royal Northern College of Music, Manchester, UK

Abstract. The objective of the present study was to examine the influence of personality traits and coping strategies on performance anxiety among professional orchestra musicians. The sample consisted of 122 members of six German symphony and opera orchestras. The musicians were asked to complete questionnaires measuring various personality traits. In addition, shortly before a normal rehearsal and a public performance, they also gave details about their state-coping and their present level of performance anxiety. The latter was measured by four aspects: Lack of confidence, worry, emotionality, and physical symptoms. These aspects of performance anxiety have different patterns of predicting personality traits and the patterns also differ between the rehearsal and the performance situation. Musicians suffering from performance anxiety will try all manner of strategies before a rehearsal or performance to cope with the situation, even if not all of these strategies are appropriate for reducing performance anxiety. Keywords: performance anxiety, orchestra musicians, personality traits, coping

Performance anxiety is quite a common problem among musicians, even among professional orchestra musicians. Some musicians even abandon their careers because of intolerable levels of such anxiety (Wesner, Noyes, & Davis, 1990). According to Wilson (1997), between a quarter and half of the musicians in a professional orchestra suffer from performance anxiety, an “exaggerated and sometimes incapacitating fear of performing in public” (Wilson, 1997, p. 229). Like test anxiety, performance anxiety manifests itself on four levels (Sarason, 1984): The emotional (feelings of tension), the physiological (e.g., trembling), the behavioral (e.g., suboptimal performance), and the cognitive level. The latter may involve worrying about making mistakes and their potential consequences, which can result in a lapse of memory or concentration and even escalate to panic. This catastrophizing (Steptoe, 2001; Steptoe & Fidler, 1987) may be initiated by small mistakes and may be followed by even simpler mistakes (Wolfe, 1989). Compared to test anxiety, the physiological aspect of performance anxiety poses a special problem when playing an instrument. Physical symptoms like trembling, sweaty hands for string players, or a dry mouth for wind players have a great impact on the quality of performance. In previous studies on professional orchestra musicians, physical symptoms were not studied separately but as part of performance anxiety (e.g., Steptoe & Fidler, 1987). In the present study performance anxiety will be measured not only by an inventory that contains several dimensions of performance anxiety, but also by an extra list of physical symptoms. In addition, the performance-enhancing side of performance anxiety – such as feeling more awake or positive Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171 DOI 10.1027/1614-0001.27.3.162

tension – will be examined as a separate variable labeled pleasant anticipation. Certain personality traits may prevent or exacerbate performance anxiety: Trait anxiety is positively correlated with performance anxiety among music students (Cox & Kenardy, 1993; Schröder & Liebelt, 1999), as well among professional orchestra musicians (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987). Steptoe (1989) also found a strong correlation between performance anxiety and neuroticism as well as extraversion. Craske and Craig (1984) point out a connection between declining self-efficacy and rising performance anxiety, as do Schröder and Liebelt (1999) for self-efficacy and self-esteem in music students. Another factor influencing performance anxiety is perfectionism, which has a significant but as yet insufficiently researched bearing on performance anxiety. According to Mor, Day, Flett, and Hewitt (1995), who surveyed professional musicians and other performers, self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism correlate positively with performance anxiety. Self-oriented perfectionism is described as the severe judgment of one’s own performance and the prevention of mistakes, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism is the feeling that one has to meet the expectations of other important persons. Doubtless the nature of the performance itself has appreciable relevance to the area under examination. Hamann (1982) points out that a solo performance can contribute more to performance anxiety than group performances (see also Cox & Kenardy, 1993), a public situation more than a rehearsal situation (see also Craske & Craig, 1984), and the performance of a difficult or poorly prepared work more than the performance of an easy or familiar piece of music. © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

F. Langendörfer et al.: Personality and Performance Anxiety Among Professional Orchestra Musicians

Up to now, professional orchestra musicians have been asked about the extent and forms of their performance anxiety only as regards performance situations, and not as regards rehearsals. Obviously it would be interesting to find out about possible differences between these two situations. Although the phenomenon of performance anxiety among professional orchestra musicians has been illuminated in various studies, all have focused on just a few personality traits and their bearing on performance anxiety. This situation has prompted the present study to examine the coherence between performance anxiety and a variety of personality traits in a broader context and for both rehearsal and performance situations. The personality traits of interest here are neuroticism, extraversion, perfectionism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, and in addition traitcoping strategies in everyday situations, as well as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. These last two factors have been overlooked as possible correlates of performance anxiety or pleasant anticipation of performing. In order to compare a public situation with a rehearsal situation, in this study orchestras were to be explored in a rehearsal and a public performance involving the same kind of music, which also should be rated as more or less demanding by the musicians themselves. It was conjectured that performance anxiety, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation are experienced more intensely during a performance situation than in rehearsals because of the greater importance placed on the performance. Another major aspect of performance anxiety is the use of coping strategies in or before the performance situation. Behavioral and cognitive coping strategies can be distinguished. Both can affect the physiological and emotional state of the performer in an effective or ineffective way. Effective coping – such as relaxation or using positive selfinstruction – produces a salutary physiological state and fewer negative feelings, while ineffective coping – such as feeling resigned or wallowing in self-pity – leads to an increase in negative emotions. Of the professional orchestra musicians who participated in Steptoe’s study (1989), 28% tried to distract themselves, 61% relaxed themselves, and 34% used sedatives or alcohol. Musicians with a moderate level of performance anxiety generally tried to make a realistic appraisal of the situation. Fishbein, Middlestadt, Ottati, Straus, and Ellis (1988) report that 40% of the professional musicians in their study found that performance anxiety was a serious problem and had already tried medication, which was experienced as helpful. Of these, 27% used β-blockers, mostly without prescription. By contrast, according to Abilgaard and Mathe (2003), only 2% of music students used β-blockers. An astonishing finding by Lehrer, Goldman, and Strommen (1990) is that more anxious musicians use more coping strategies. These strategies include not only ineffective but also effective strategies, such as meditation (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987) or distraction (Steptoe et al., 1995). Of key interest in the present study is which coping strategies are used by the musicians before a performance and © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

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a rehearsal. This is termed state-coping. It is assumed that the performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms are positively correlated with the state-coping strategies. It is further assumed that the performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms are correlated positively with neuroticism, ineffective trait-coping strategies, perfectionism, and demanding opus, and negatively correlated with selfefficacy and self-esteem. Additionally, pleasant anticipation should correlate positively with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and extraversion. Also to be explored is how the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation correlate with age, job experience, musculoskeletal problems such as shoulder or neck pain, and chronic somatic symptoms such as sleep disorders or cardiovascular disorders.

Method Sample and Procedure A total of 122 members of six German orchestras participated in this study. Gender was almost equally distributed, with 51% male and 49% female musicians. Participants’ ages ranged from 25 to 64 years with an average of 42.02 years (SD = 10.08). The managements of two German symphony orchestras and four opera orchestras in the highest category were asked to take part in the study. To ensure comparable levels of qualification between the orchestras, only orchestras of the same category were addressed. The project was introduced to the orchestras by the authors themselves, and questionnaires were handed to musicians willing to take part. The musicians completed the questionnaires at home and returned them at a particular rehearsal about 3 weeks later. Of the 305 questionnaires distributed, 122 were returned (40%). The rate of return ranges from 12% to 64% between orchestras. Shortly before the beginning of the appointed rehearsal, state questionnaires were to be filled out and immediately returned, and 73 of 78 questionnaires were returned (94%). The same state questionnaires were to be completed shortly before a concert or opera performance of the same opus that had been practiced at the rehearsal, and 82 of 83 questionnaires were returned (99%). Thus, N = 122 trait questionnaires, N = 73 rehearsal questionnaires, and N = 82 concert questionnaires could be included in the analysis. Because of missing data the number of subjects ranged from 119 to 122 for the trait questionnaires and from 77 to 82 for the state questionnaires in the various analyses.

Questionnaires The musicians were to fill out a trait questionnaire consisting of different scales to assess personality traits (required Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

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time about 90 min), and a state questionnaire with questions about the musicians’ presently occurring feelings, thoughts, coping strategies, and physical symptoms (required time about 4 min). So as to keep the questionnaires as short as possible, some of the scales were shortened by choosing those items with the highest item-total correlation. The scales used in this study are listed in the following overview: – Demographic information: Six items providing personal information on the musicians and their college and higher education. – Occupational information: 13 items concerning the different aspects of being a musician, such as instrumental group and position in the orchestra. – Motivation: Seven items measuring the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of working in any (or this particular) orchestra. – Musculoskeletal problems: The intensity of pain or disability in 12 different sectors of the body, e.g., at the cervical spine/neck or the forearm (Cronbach’s α = .79). – Chronic somatic symptoms: Nine items about how strongly the musicians are hampered by various ailments such as headaches, sleep disturbances, or metereosensitivity (Cronbach’s α = .75). – Using 60 of the original 120 items, the Coping Inventory (Stressverarbeitungsfragebogen, SVF 120) by Janke, Erdmann, Kallus, and Boucsein (1997) was used to measure the tendency to use different coping strategies under strain on the following 20 scales: minimization (α = .71), self-aggrandizement by making comparisons with others (α = .85), denial of guilt (α = .71), distraction (α = .75), substitute gratification (α = .81), search for self-affirmation (α = .85), relaxation (α = .84), situation control (α = .75), reaction control (α = .77), positive self-instruction (α = .79), need for social support (α = .90), avoidance (α = .88), escape (α = .84), social withdrawal (α = .88), rumination (α = .91), resignation (α = .84), self-pity (α = .83), self-blame (α = .83), aggression (α = .83), and intake of alcohol or medication (α = .65). – The scale Self-Esteem (α = .79) was taken from the TrierPersonality-Inventory – Trierer Persönlichkeitsfragebogen (TPF) – by Becker (1989), which measures mental health. The number of items in this scale was reduced from 12 to 6. – The scale General Self-Efficacy – Allgemeine Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung (SWE) – by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1999) contains 10 items (α = .88). – The Perfectionism Scales by Stöber (2002a,b): The scales self-oriented perfectionism (α = .92) and socially prescribed perfectionism (α = .82) with 18 items measure the tendency to set high standards for oneself and to worry about the judgment of others. – The scales neuroticism (α = .85) and extraversion (α = .80) with 12 items each were taken from the NEO-FiveFactors-Inventory – NEO-Fünf-Faktoren Inventar (NEO-FFI) – by Borkenau and Ostendorf (1993). Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

The state questionnaire consisted of the following scales: – A list of physical sensations (28 items; Brandner, 2001), which was divided into the scales physical symptoms (e.g., trembling, dry mouth) and pleasant anticipation (e.g., feeling more awake, positive tension). – Prüfungsängstlichkeitsinventar TAI-G (Test Anxiety Inventory – German) by Hodapp (1991). The TAI-G is a multidimensional inventory measuring test anxiety. The scales lack of confidence, emotionality, and worry consist of 24 items. A fourth scale, interference, was not included. The scales lack of confidence and worry cover the cognitive aspect of performance anxiety, and the scale emotionality covers the emotional and physiological aspect. The TAI-G was modified by Brandner (2001) for adolescent musicians and further modified by the authors for the purposes of this study. Unlike other performance anxiety inventories, the modified TAI-G measures state-performance anxiety. – In addition to the trait-version of the Stressverarbeitungsfragebogen by Janke et al. (1997) (see above), a state-version was employed after being shortened (28 items) and adapted by the authors for measuring state-coping strategies. The instruction was changed to “Please indicate how you deal with the present situation” and the response mode was altered from a 5-point scale to the dichotomous categories “I agree” and “I don’t agree.” – The musicians were also asked to rate the difficulty of the opus being played.

Statistical Methods A principal components analysis with oblimin rotation was conducted to reduce the number of coping strategies. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to ascertain the coherences between the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation on the one hand and various personality traits and state-coping strategies on the other. To find the best predictors for performance anxiety and pleasant anticipation, stepwise multiple regression analyses were calculated. Paired t-tests compared performance anxiety and pleasant anticipation between the performance and rehearsal situations.

Results Descriptive information of the study sample is displayed in Tables 1 and 2. The distribution of the instrumental groups was approximately the same as in any normal orchestra, with 60% strings and 40% woodwinds, brass players, and percussionists. Of the women 86% are string players and 14% woodwind and brass players, while 41% of the men are string players and 59% are woodwind and brass players. © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers


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Table 1. Descriptive information about the study sample (N = 119) M

SD

Min.

Max.

Age

42.02

10.08

25.00

64.00

Membership in present orchestra (years)

15.08

9.94

.40

39.00

Job experience (years)

18.08

10.71

1.60

45.00

Table 2. Frequencies and percentages of gender, instrumental group, and college degree Gender

Frequency

%

Female

60

49

Male

62

51

Instrumental group First violin

College degree

20

16

Second violin

21

17

Viola

12

10

Violoncello

14

12

Double-bass

6

5

Woodwind

21

17

Brass

23

19

Percussion

4

3

Harp

1

1

Soloist degree

38

32

Conservatory

61

51

Conservatory w/o degree

16

13

5

4

University

Performance Anxiety and Pleasant Anticipation Internal consistencies in the performance anxiety subscales of the TAI-G (Hodapp, 1991), physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation are listed for the performance (rehearsal) situation as follows. Cronbach’s α for performance anxiety lack of confidence is α = .84 (α = .90), for performance anxiety emotionality α = .91 (α = .83), for performance anxiety worry α = .87 (α = .83), for physical symptoms α = .84 (α = .74), and for pleasant anticipation α = .79 (α = .62). The means, standard deviations, and correlations of the performance anxiety subscales, pleasant anticipation, health complaints, age, and job experience are shown in Table 3. Between the rehearsal and the performance situation, the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation showed very high correlations, while the performance anxiety subscales were only moderately intercorrelated. The highest correlation was between the performance anxiety subscale emotionality and physical symptoms in the performance situation. The performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms scarcely correlated with either pleasant anticipation or musculoskeletal © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

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problems, which only correlated negatively with pleasant anticipation in the rehearsal situation. Chronic somatic symptoms correlated positively with physical symptoms and the performance anxiety subscales, with the exception of lack of confidence, while age and job experience correlated negatively in the performance situation with physical symptoms and the performance anxiety subscales, with the exception of lack of confidence. Paired t-tests tested the conjecture that performance anxiety, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation are experienced more intensely in the performance situation than in the rehearsal. No significant differences were found except in the performance anxiety subscale emotionality, t(61) = –2.86, p < .01. Emotionality was experienced more intensely in the performance than in the rehearsal situation.

Intercorrelations of Personality Traits The means, standard deviations, and correlations between the personality traits and how demanding the opus is are displayed in Table 4. The mean personality trait scores of all orchestras ranged within one standard deviation of the population norm. There are a multitude of personality trait scales that intercorrelate, especially the habitual coping styles. To reduce the number of coping strategies, a principal components analysis with oblimin rotation was calculated. The screeplot suggested a three-factor solution. The first factor, coping resignation/escape, consists of the scales avoidance, escape, social withdrawal, rumination, resignation, self-pity, self-blame, and intake of medication; the second factor, coping situation/reaction control consists of the scales substitute gratification, relaxation, situation control, reaction control, positive self-instruction, and need for social support, while the third factor, coping minimization/denial of guilt consists of the scales minimization, self-aggrandizement by making comparisons with others, denial of guilt, and distraction. These three coping factors are shown in Table 4 instead of the individual coping scales. While the coping factor resignation/escape is intercorrelated with nearly all other scales – highest with Neuroticism –, the factor coping situation/reaction control is only positively correlated with extraversion and motivation. The factor coping minimization/denial of guilt is only correlated with self-efficacy. The three coping factors are not intercorrelated. While most of the other scales are intercorrelated, demanding opus correlates in no way with the other scales, and self-oriented perfectionism is only correlated with socially prescribed perfectionism.

Personality Traits, Performance Anxiety, and Pleasant Anticipation Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate whether the performance anxiety subscales and physJournal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

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Table 5. Pearson correlations between performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and personality traits for the performance and rehearsal (in italics) situation (N = 79) Lack of confidence

Emotionality

Worry

Physical symptoms

Neuroticism

.39** .52**

.20 .33**

.24* .37**

.26* .30*

Coping resignation/escape

.25* .49**

.26* .37**

.26* .42**

.33** .35**

Coping situation/reaction control

.00 .12

.14 .17

.27* .28*

.17 .19

Coping minimization/denial of guilt

–.24* –.12

.04 –.05

–.03 –.10

.00 .03

Self-oriented perfectionism

.13 –.15

.09 .06

.18 .19

.06 .08

.19 .26*

.00 .10

.00 .30*

.03 .14

Self-efficacy

–.51** –.64**

–.07 –.20

–.14 –.23

–.14 –.15

Self-esteem

–.42** –.51**

–.09 –.19

–.11 –.11

–.06 –.22

Demanding opus

–.04 .09

Socially prescribed perfectionism

.35** .36**

.23* .28*

.24* .35**

*p < .05, **p < .01 (two-tailed).

ical symptoms showed significant positive correlation with neuroticism, ineffective trait-coping strategies – represented here by the coping factor resignation/escape –, perfectionism, and demanding opus, as well as significant negative correlation with self-efficacy and self-esteem (see Table 5). On the whole, all positive correlations could be confirmed for the performance and/or rehearsal situation. Exceptions are demanding opus and perfectionism: Whereas socially prescribed perfectionism correlates significantly only with the cognitive performance anxiety subscales, lack of confidence, and worry in the rehearsal situation, self-oriented perfectionism does not correlate significantly with either the performance anxiety subscales or physical symptoms. Demanding opus correlates with the performance anxiety subscales emotionality and worry, as well as with physical symptoms, but not with the performance anxiety subscale lack of confidence. The assumed negative correlations with self-efficacy and self-esteem could only be found for the performance anxiety subscale lack of confidence. Additionally, the performance anxiety subscale worry correlates significantly positively with the coping factor situation/reaction control. It was conjectured that pleasant anticipation would correlate significantly positively with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and extraversion. All these correlations were found to be significant in both the performance and rehearsal situations, as can be seen in Table 6. Stepwise regression analyses were calculated in order to find out which variables are the best predictors of the performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms. All variables referring to the corresponding hypothesis were included in the analyses. The regression analyses show © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

Table 6. Pearson correlations between pleasant anticipation and personality traits for the performance and rehearsal situation (N = 77) Pleasant anticipation Rehearsal

Performance

Self-efficacy

.29*

.27*

Extraversion

.34**

.25*

Intrinsic motivation

.34**

.42**

Extrinsic motivation .37** *p < .05, **p < .01 (two-tailed).

.29**

comparable results for male and female musicians when computed separately for both groups. Therefore, results are presented for the entire sample. The results are shown for both the performance and the rehearsal situations in Table 7. Beta-coeffectives and squared multiple correlation coeffectives are reported for the last step of the regression. The results of the rehearsal situation are given in brackets after those of the performance situation. For the performance anxiety subscale lack of confidence as the dependent variable, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-oriented perfectionism are significant predictors (self-efficacy). For the performance anxiety subscale emotionality, demanding opus and the coping factor resignation/escape are significant predictors (demanding opus). Significant predictors for the performance anxiety subscale worry are the coping factors situation/reaction control and resignation/escape, as well as demanding opus (socially prescribed perfectionism and the coping factors situation/reaction control and minimization/denial of guilt). For physical symptoms as the dependent variable, the coping factor resignation/escape and Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

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Table 7. Last step of the stepwise regression analyses for the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation as dependent variables and personality traits as predictors Rehearsal

Performance

β

β

Lack of confidence Self-efficacy

R² .41

–.64**

–.27*

Self-oriented perfectionism

.21*

Emotionality Demanding opus

.12 .35**

.25* .32

Socially prescribed perfectionism

.47**


.42**

Coping minimization/denial of guilt

.18

.23 .31**

–.24*


.26*

Demanding opus

.26*

Physical symptoms

.22


.31*

Demanding opus

.31*

Pleasant anticipation

.17 .33** .27*

.21

Extrinsic motivation

.31**

Extraversion

.26*

Physical symptoms

Coping resignation/escape .28*

.60**

.38**

.58**


.21

.58**

.60**

.55**

Coping minimization/ .08 denial of guilt *p < .05, **p < .01 (two-tailed).

.29**

.29**

.34**

.37**

Coping resignation/escape Worry

Lack of Emotion- Worry ality confidence

R² .32

–.35**

Self-esteem

Table 8. Pearson correlations between performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and state-coping factors in the performance situation (N = 82)

.21

Intrinsic motivation

.35**

Self-efficacy *p < .05, **p < .01.

.24*

ignation/escape coping strategies in 36% of all cases, situation/reaction control strategies in 74% of all cases, and coping strategies of guilt denial and minimizing the situation in 72% of all cases. In addition, 68% reported mainly using positive self-instruction, 54% relaxation techniques, 50% consciously try to control their reactions, and 45% try to minimize the situation. Only 8% of the musicians reported the use of drugs like β-blockers. As hypothesized, the assumed positive correlations between the performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms, on the one hand, and the state-coping strategies on the other could be found for all scales except the subscale lack of confidence in its correlations with the coping factors situation/reaction control and minimization/denial of guilt (see Table 8).

Discussion demanding opus (coping factor resignation/escape and demanding opus), and for pleasant anticipation as the dependent variable, intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy are significant predictors (extrinsic motivation and extraversion). It becomes apparent that the predictors differ not only between the dependent variables but also between the rehearsal and the performance situation. All regression analyses were also done with age controlled. However, some of the results change in a way that makes interpretation more difficult. A few variables that constituted homogeneous patterns of predictors became insignificant while other predictors emerged. This leads to inhomogeneous and confusing results, which will, therefore, not be reported.

State-Coping Strategies Since coping strategies were used to a similar extent in the rehearsal and performance situation, only the percentages of the performance situation will be reported. The yes-answers on a yes/no scale were related to the no-answers for each coping strategy and the percentages for the yes-answers were determined. The musicians reported using resJournal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

The main concern of the present study was to examine the influence of personality traits and state-coping strategies on professional orchestra musicians’ performance anxiety in a rehearsal and a performance situation. The central finding is that there are strong correlations between the rehearsal and the performance situation for the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation, but that the predictors of these scales differ between the two situations. Another essential finding is that musicians suffering from high performance anxiety are using many state-coping strategies before rehearsals and performances that are not all suited to reducing performance anxiety. The performance anxiety subscales lack of confidence, emotionality, and worry intercorrelate only moderately, while emotionality correlates very strongly with physical symptoms. The three subscales represent separate aspects of performance anxiety, whereas emotionality covers the emotional and physiological aspect of performance anxiety and is, therefore, closely related to physical symptoms. Pleasant anticipation seems to be independent of performance anxiety since it has scarcely any significant correlation with the performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms. © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers


While musicians’ musculoskeletal problems are independent of performance anxiety, chronic somatic symptoms like sleep disorders or cardiovascular disorders correlate positively with performance anxiety, especially with physical symptoms. The question of cause and effect arises at this juncture: Chronic somatic symptoms could not only be a predictor for performance anxiety, but also a consequence of manifested performance anxiety. The musicians’ age and job experience correlate negatively with physical symptoms and the performance anxiety subscales, with the exception of lack of confidence, but only in the performance situation. Lack of confidence seems to be independent of the musicians’ age or job experience, while worry and the emotional and physiological aspects of performance anxiety decrease with age and experience. The latter was also found by Steptoe and Fidler (1987), while Middlestadt and Fishbein (1988) detected a curvilinear relationship. In the present study, the reported coherences were only found in the performance situation, which indicates further differences between the rehearsal and the performance situation. Although the performance anxiety subscales, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation show very high correlations between the rehearsal and the performance situation, and although emotionality is the only aspect of performance anxiety that is experienced more intensely in the performance than in the rehearsal situation, the predictors of all these scales differ between the two situations. The high correlations between the rehearsal and the performance situation initially suggest that performance anxiety, physical symptoms, and pleasant anticipation are fairly stable phenomena and that rehearsals and performances are similar situations in terms of appraisal. However, the results of regression analyses show that there are different predictors for both situations for some of the scales: While pleasant anticipation in the rehearsal situation is predicted by extrinsic motivation and extraversion, in the performance situation it is predicted by intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. For musicians who look forward to doing their work, the social aspect of rehearsals is very important – such as meeting colleagues – while in the performance situation the motivation is aimed more at the music itself and the feeling of being on top of the situation is more important. According to Langelaan, Bakker, van Doornen, and Schaufeli (2006), high extraversion is also associated with engagement in one’s work. One predictor for worry in the performance situation is the tendency to feel resigned, as if the time for preparation were up, while in the rehearsal situation the strategy of minimizing the situation is effective for reducing rehearsal worries. For both situations the habitual coping style of controlling the situation or one’s reactions is ineffective for reducing worries about a rehearsal or performance. Once again, the cause/effect direction is unclear. The tendency to control things may lead to worrying about something like a rehearsal or a performance. On the other hand, worrying about one’s performance may lead to a tendency to control one’s reactions or outside situations. © 2006 Hogrefe & Huber Publishers

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Socially prescribed perfectionism is the best predictor of worrying before a rehearsal, which means that rehearsals are also social situations of appraisal for the musicians when they perform in presence of their colleagues. In contrast to that, self-oriented perfectionism is a predictor for lack of confidence in the performance situation, together with low self-efficacy and self-esteem. Mor et al. (1995) found that both self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism correlated positively with performance anxiety. This can be seen in the present study where socially prescribed perfectionism plays a role in predicting performance anxiety in a rehearsal, while self-oriented perfectionism – as the fear of not satisfying one’s own pretensions – is more important for predicting performance anxiety before a performance, where the music itself and giving the best possible performance oneself are in the foreground. Demanding opus and a tendency to be resigned are predictors for both emotionality and physical symptoms in both situations. This shows that the difficulty and arduousness of the work being played and a general negative mental attitude toward solving problems – which includes resignation and wallowing in self-pity – are important for explaining the emotional and physical symptoms of performance anxiety. These results correspond with the findings of Spiegler, Morris, and Liebert (1968) that emotional components of test anxiety are dependent on situational variables, while cognitive components are fairly unchanging. A most astonishing finding is that in the regression analyses, neuroticism is not a significant predictor for performance anxiety, even though it is significantly correlated with all performance anxiety subscales and physical symptoms. This is in line with the findings of Steptoe (1989) and Steptoe and Fidler (1987). In the present study the effect of neuroticism is superposed by the influence of the other variables. The finding by Lehrer et al. (1990) that anxious musicians use not only ineffective but also effective coping strategies before a performance could be corroborated in this study. Ineffective strategies of coping with the situation shortly before a performance, such as feeling resigned, rumination, or wallowing in self-pity, are clearly associated with performance anxiety. However, more effective coping strategies such as controlling the situation or one’s reactions and minimizing the situation are also associated with performance anxiety. Musicians who suffer greatly from performance anxiety will obviously try any strategies to cope with the situation. Steptoe (2001) discusses two possible explanations for this: Anxious musicians may use coping strategies that they think will diminish their anxieties, but that actually do not. Or the coping strategies are useful but not sufficient to reduce performance anxiety. It was not possible in the present study to measure the effect that the state-coping strategies had on performance anxiety because both were measured at the same time. Lack of confidence is the only scale that was correlated with the state-coping strategy resignation/escape, and not Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

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with situation/reaction control and minimization/denial of guilt. This may indicate that lack of confidence is conditioned by self-oriented traits like self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-oriented perfectionism, and not by coping strategies. A lack of confidence cannot be reduced by controlling or minimizing a situation, but only by increasing one’s selfefficacy. The spectrum of state-coping strategies measured in this study is larger than in previous surveys. In the present study the musicians not only used relaxation techniques to a similar degree as the professional musicians in Steptoe’s study (1989), but also gave themselves positive self-instruction or tried to control their reactions, both to a great extent. The number of musicians in the present study who used βblockers is small in comparison to the studies by Steptoe (1989) and Fishbein et al. (1988), and with 7% was equal the level found by Pfalzer (2004). The response rate of 40% is relatively low but lies well within the range of previous studies, i.e., between 21% (Niemann, Pratt, & Maughan, 1993) and 53% (Cox & Kenardy, 1993). Steptoe (1989) alone had an exceptionally high response rate of 87%. It may be conjectured that those musicians who did not partake in the study show either low or high levels of performance anxiety. Musicians with low performance anxiety may have no interest in this research, whereas musicians with a high level of performance anxiety may not want to confront themselves. Another reason for not participating, and one which was reported by many musicians in informal conversations, is that the trait questionnaire was too lengthy to complete within a reasonable time. The reason for the lower number of state questionnaires in comparison to trait questionnaires is that musicians rotate between rehearsals and performances, especially in opera orchestras. Almost every musician in an orchestra is involved in a production, but we found that only about half of the musicians who attended a performance were also present at two rehearsals. The relatively small number of musicians who filled out all questionnaires reduces the overall validity. Furthermore, the results should be viewed with caution because of the high intercorrelations of both the trait and state variables. This research emphasizes the importance of personality traits for the prevalence of performance anxiety among professional orchestra musicians. This is the first time to our knowledge that performance anxiety among professional orchestra musicians has been examined separately in a rehearsal and a performance. This proved to be highly illuminating because these settings represent two different kinds of appraisal situation. In a rehearsal the social gathering with colleagues and the appraisal they give is important, but in a performance situation the music itself and self-concentration is foremost. The large number of personality traits applied in this study allows us to reveal different patterns of traits that predict the different aspects of performance anxiety in both situations, rehearsal and performance. Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the management and members of all participating orchestras for their cooperation. We also would like to thank Susanne Koberstein-Frey for her great dedication to this research, and Prof. Dr. Hans Günther Bastian for his active support. This study was supported by a grant from the German Research Council (HO 874/8–1).

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Franziska Langendörfer Institut für Psychologie Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität Kettenhofweg 128 D-60487 Frankfurt am Main Germany E-mail [email protected]

Journal of Individual Differences 2006; Vol. 27(3):162–171