Journal of Integrated Pest Management (2017) 8 (1): 13; 1–7 doi: 10.1093/jipm/pmx008 Surveys and Needs Assessments
Pest Management Knowledge and Practices of Mango Farmers in Southeastern Ghana Clement Akotsen-Mensah,1,2 Isaac N. Ativor,3,4 Roger S. Anderson,1 Kwame Afreh-Nuamah,1,2 Collison F. Brentu,2 Dorcas Osei-Safo,5 Alfred Asuming Boakye,2 and Victor Avah6 1 African Regional Postgraduate Program in Insect Science, P.M.B L59, University of Ghana, Legon (
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected]), 2Forest and Horticultural Crops Research Center, School of Agriculture, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Kade, Ghana (
[email protected];
[email protected]), 3Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)-Oil Palm Research Institute, Coconut Research Program, P. O. Box 245, Sekondi, Ghana (
[email protected]), 4Corresponding author, e-mail:
[email protected], 5Department of Chemistry, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana (
[email protected]), and 6Department of Agriculture, Shai Osudoku District Assembly, Dodowa, Ghana (
[email protected])
The authors do not have any potential conflict of interest in this work. Mentioning of a product in this article does not mean an endorsement by the authors. This is purely an information for the reader and that anyone who intends to use any product mentioned in this article should seek further information. Subject Editor: Erin Hodgson Received 24 January 2017; Editorial decision 11 April 2017
Abstract Mango farmers in Ghana are confronted with many pest problems like fruit flies, Sternochetus mangiferae (F.), and mealy bugs. Different pest management options are available to mango farmers; however, the extent to which they apply the available pest management options is not well known. A survey was conducted among 60 farmers in southeastern Ghana, from October–December 2015 mango season, to find out the level of knowledge and practice of insect pest management used by mango farmers. The results showed that most farmers use conventional insecticides to control insect pests in mango. Majority of the farmers (30%) use a composite insecticide (Cydim super; 36 g cypermethrin þ 400 g dimethoate per liter), whereas 3.3% use Pyrinex (chlorpyrifos 480 g/liter). Majority of insecticides used belong to WHO category II. Ninety percent (90%) of the farmers use cultural practices and pheromone traps. Pheromone traps are, however, used for fruit flies but not for S. mangiferae. Over 80% of the respondents who used pesticides to control pests have also adopted GLOBALGAP standards for certification. The results are discussed based on the importance of adoption of IPM strategies in mango production and the possible reduction of fruit rejection during mango export in Ghana. Key words: Sternochetus mangiferae, integrated pest management (IPM), organophosphate
Mango, Mangifera indica L., is one of the important commercial fruit tree crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and subtropical climates, making it second to citrus in terms of production. India is the world’s leading producer of mango with estimated production of 15 million metric tons followed by China with 4.3 million metric tons (Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations [FAO] 2010). In the West Africa subregion, mango production and export to the European market was estimated to have increased from 15,000 to over 22,000 tons, indicating a rise of 45% in 2012 (ECOWAS-TEN Newsletter 2012). However, mangoes exported to some European countries were intercepted, confiscated, and destroyed because of the presence of insects considered as quarantine pests, thus leading to huge economic losses to the exporters and the
whole horticultural sector of most of the exporting countries including Ghana (ACP-EU, Newsletter 2013). For instance, there were over 90 interceptions of mango from the subregion, the highest was from Cote d’lvoire, which led with 34 interceptions followed by 28 interceptions from Ghana. The cost of this was valued at US$3.67 million at a rate of US$39,348 per interception in 2012 (ECOWASTEN Newsletter 2012). In light of the numerous fruit interceptions to the major markets, especially the European Union, there have been several attempts to understand whether the levels of interception are due to the presence of insect pests or their damage. Like most perennial fruit crops, mango production in Ghana and other countries is plagued with many insect pests. The most common ones are fruit flies (Ceratitis spp., Bactrocera spp.,
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2 Dacus spp. etc.) and Sternochetus mangiferae (F.). In many situations, efforts of pest management are concentrated on these two insects in Ghana. The S. mangiferae, for instance, is recognized as one of the key international quarantine pest, and their presence in the mango production system provides enough justification for rejection of fruits in the export market (Arthur et al. 2009, Braimah and Van Emden 2010). Their presence in mango fruit also requires that stringent management practices be applied, which eventually increases cost of production. The success of fruit flies and S. mangiferae as pests of mango has been attributed to the fact that although they have natural enemies, they are not capable of providing sufficient controls in both treated and untreated orchard, and no effective natural enemy has been recorded particularly, for the S. mangiferae (Pena et al. 1998, Peng and Christian 2007) in Ghana. Several insect pest control options are available to mango farmers in Ghana. Currently, methyl eugenol, a parapheromone mixed with recommended insecticides, is recommended for mango farmers to use for the control of fruit flies (Abdulahi et al. 2011). However, there are no such pheromones and attractants available for other equally important pests of mango and thus farmers resort to the use of conventional insecticides to control these insects. In most cases, the use of insecticides such as pyrethroids and organophosphates are for the control of fruit flies (Abdulahi et al. 2011) but also provide some protection against S. mangiferae and other insect pests. Although farmers use insecticides as major control option, the problem of pest interception is still relatively high in mangoes meant especially for European markets. The objective of this study was to investigate the level of pest management practices of mango farmer in Ghana and also assess farmers’ knowledge in the practice of pest management. The ultimate goal of the work is to identify the weak links in the farmers practice and suggest ways to enhance general pest management practice for mango farmers in Ghana.
Materials and Methods
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1 Osudoku district. The district capital of Yilo Krobo is Somanya (6 60 3600 N, 0 60 3600 W), Lower Manya Krobo is Odumase Krobo (6 320 N, 0 490 W), and Shai Osudoku is Dodowa (5 520 6000 N, 0 70 000 W). Three communities in these districts, namely, Somanya (Yilo Krobo), Kpong (Lower Manya Krobo), and Ayikuma (Shai Osudoku) were selected for this study (Fig. 1).About 60% of the inhabitants of these districts are involved in agriculture, mainly subsistence agriculture. The other major crops grown in the study locations, apart from mango, are maize, rice, and vegetables.
Subjects and Survey Twenty (20) mango farmers from each district were interviewed in a survey from October to December 2015. A semistructured questionnaire was administered to the respondents and they were allowed to give their opinions freely and uninterrupted in areas where they depart from the questionnaire. Where necessary, respondents were probed to give further information on some aspects of the questions which were not addressed by the questionnaire. The purpose of the study was explained to the respondents and their consent sought. Translation of the questionnaires to the common local languages (Twi and Ga Adangme) spoken in the area was done to assist farmers who could not speak and understand the English language. In such cases, a farmer who could speak the local language was solicited as an interpreter. The respondents were randomly selected by the Agricultural Extension Agents (AEA) assigned to each community by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) who were considered to have a good rapport with the respondents. This improved the hospitality and cooperation of the respondents. No more than five respondents were interviewed a day because of time constraint. Information on farm characteristics and the general challenges in mango production were asked. Farmers were asked to mention management tactics used against insect pests and diseases. If pesticides were mentioned, farmers were asked to name the pesticides or show the containers to the interviewer. The source of the pesticides, how they were used, and the motivation for the use of pesticides were asked.
Study Site
Data Analysis
The study was conducted in two districts in the Eastern Region, namely, Yilo and Manya Krobo Districts and Greater Accra; Shai
Data from the questionnaire were encoded, entered in Microsoft Excel (2007) spread sheet, and checked for any data inconsistencies
Fig. 1. Map of study location in southeastern Ghana.
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1
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prior to analysis. The data were tabulated and analyzed using frequency and percentages. Some farmers gave multiple responses to some of the questions, so percentages did not add up to 100.
3. Results Size and Age of Farms The age of mango orchards in the area ranged from 7–10 yr, meaning most of the farms in the study area were planted around 2005. The average age of mango orchard in the studied area is 9 yr. This period coincided with Government of Ghana’s policy to increase production of mango and other horticultural fruits. The average size of farms in Yilo Krobo (Somanya), Manya Krobo (Kpong), and Shai Osudoku (Ayikuma) areas were 5.79, 7.69, and 6.48 ha, respectively. The average size of mango orchards at all the three localities was 6.76 ha based on the sampled individuals.
Common Varieties Grown in Study Area The common varieties of mangoes grown in the studied area include Keitt, Kent, Palmer, and Haden. The results showed that 46.7% of the respondents planted a combination of Keitt and Kent, while 33.3% planted Keitt only. Additionally, 10.0% planted a combination of Keitt, Kent, and Palmer and 3.3% planted a mixture of Keitt, Kent, Palmer, and Haden. About 3.3% of the farmers also planted Kent only and 3.3% had a combination of Keitt, Kent, and Haden.
Common Insecticides Used by Mango Farmers Twelve (12) different types of insecticides were found to be used by mango farmers in the study area. Thirty percent (30%) of the respondents used Cydim super, a composite insecticide made up of dimethoate 400 g and cypermethrin 36 g, whereas 3.3% used Pyrinex (chlorpyrifos 480 g/liter) as stand-alone. Also, 3.3% of the respondents used chlorpyrifos only, Akate suro (diazinon) only, cymethoate only, and Regent only for mango insect pest management (Fig. 2). The results also showed that farmers combine different insecticides for pest management. Combinations of Cydim super, Plan D, and Deltafos (3.3%); Cydim super and Cymethoate and K-optimal (3.3%); Rimon, Acestar, and Cydim super (3.3%); and Cydim super and Fernitrothion (3.3%). Table 1 shows the classification of some of the insecticides used by farmers. In recent times, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and organophosphates (OPs) were the classes of insecticides mostly used in the management of insect pests, and the insecticides fall under WHO Hazard Category II (moderately hazardous in WHO characterization). The pyrethroids identified in the study to be in use were deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and bifenthrin (WHO 2009).
Level of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Practiced by Farmers The data showed that majority of the respondents (86.7%) experienced the Level 1 of IPM practice which asked farmer whether they
Regent Cydim super, Fernithothion Cydim super, Plan D, Deltafos Cymethoate Cydim super, Cymethoate, K-optimal Rimon, Acestar, Cydim super Cydim super Akate suro Chlorpyrifos Pyrinex
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
% Respondents Fig. 2. Percentage of mango farmers using single and combinations of insecticide products in southeastern Ghana. Farmers who used different products do not tank mix but alternate the products.
Table 1. WHO classification of insecticides used by mango farmers in southeastern Ghana Insecticide trade name Acestar Akate suro Chlorpyriphos Cymethoate Fenitrothion Deltafos/Deltapaz Plan D Pyrinex Cydim super (composite) Rimon Star 65 EC Regent K-optimal
Active ingredient (a.i.)
Chemical group
Acephate Diazinon Chlorpyriphos Dimethoate Fenitrothion Deltamethrin Deltamethrin Chlorpyriphos Dimethoate þ Cypermethrin Novaluron þ Bifenthrin Fipronil Lambda cyhalothrin þ Acetamiprid
Organophosphate Organophosphate Organophosphate Organophosphate Organophosphate Pyrethroid Pyrethroid Organophosphate Organophosphate þ Pyrethroid Benzoylureas þ Pyrethroid Phenylpyrazole Pyrethroid þ Neonicotinoid
WHO class
Ghana EPA Recommendation
II II II II II II II II II II II II
Broad spectrum Cocoa mirids, BP Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum Broad spectrum
4 currently use conventional pest management and are still willing and interested in learning about other pest management practices for insects, weeds, and diseases (Fig. 3). Thirty percent (30%) of the respondents practiced Level 2, which states that “I have initiated some other pest management practices such as monitoring and scouting on a pilot basis, but I am at an early stage of implementation and could use if more training is provided.” Additionally, 13.3% of the farmers practiced Level 3 of the pest management transition (I utilize management practices such as scouting, pest identification, and knowledge of pest life cycles and monitoring of weather conditions to determine when and what tools to utilize in managing pests). And finally, 3.3% each of the respondents utilized Level 4, 5, and 0 in the management of pest (Level 4: I am fully implementing integrated pest management practices with primary reliance on bio-controls such as beneficial insects to manage pest populations when present at economically damaging levels. I utilize cultural practices to manage pest populations. I serve as a mentor to others interested in moving toward a whole systems approach; and Level 5: I have adopted a whole systems approach, such as Integrated Crop Management [ICM] that integrates pest, soil, water, and crop management practices; incorporates conservation planning; and focuses on sustainable agriculture). Level 0 of the pest management transition relied almost entirely on preventive methods of insect pest management (including weed and disease management as well as insects) applications with little effort to monitor pest populations through scouting or forecasting. Also, mango growers do not have a strong desire to change the current management practices (Fig. 3).
IPM Methods Employed by Mango Farmers The level of IPM practice varied among the farmers in the studied area. More than 80% of the farmers used pheromone traps, picking of dropped fruits, scouting, and other lures. The most common lures used by the farmers were methyl eugenol (ME)- and terpinyl acetate (TA)-baited traps for the management of Bactrocera species and Ceratitis species, respectively. About 66.7% respondent used conventional insecticides in the management of pest in their mango orchard. The use of natural products and insect growth regulators was very low (6.7% and 20%, respectively), among the farmers. Also, on-farm weather monitoring by the farmers was low (16.7%).
Fig. 3. Level of pest management practices used by farmers in the study area.
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1 The farmers in the studied area never practiced biological control and microbial pesticide methods of pest management in their mango orchards. About 80% of the farmers indicated they have subscribed to the GLOBALGAP standards (Fig. 4). The GLOBALGAP standard is a partnership between agricultural producers and retailers to establish a set of widely accepted certification standards and procedures for good agricultural practices (GAP). Its scope currently covers fresh fruit and vegetables, propagation material, integrated farm assurance (livestock, dairy, pigs, poultry, combinable crops and grains), flowers and ornamentals, tea, coffee, and aquaculture (www.globalgap.org). The GLOBALG.A.P. Fruit & Vegetables Standard covers all stages of production, from preharvest activities such as soil management and plant protection product application to postharvest produce handling, packing, and storing (www.global gap.org).
Frequency of Insecticide Application About 23.5% of the farmers applied synthetic insecticides on monthly basis and 23.3% applied as and when necessary. Additionally, 20% of the respondents (farmers) applied the insecticides eight times in a year (Fig. 5). While 16.6% of the farmers applied the chemical six times in a year, 10% and 6.6% of them applied the insecticides seven times per year and four times per year, respectively (Fig. 5).
Discussion Data from the study showed varied levels of IPM knowledge and practices among mango farmers in southeastern Ghana. The research was built around six levels of IPM practice of mango growers in southern Ghana. The IPM transitional levels were based on farmers’ knowledge of available tools used to control mango weevils. Our results show that “Keitt” is the most common mango cultivar (80% or 24,000 tons), followed by Kent (10% or about 3,000 tons; Okorley et al. 2014) and the other cultivars (Palmer, Tommy Atkins, Zill, etc.), which have low volumes in terms of total production (Zakari 2012, Anonymous 2016). The reason for farmer’s choice for Keitt may be due to its good characteristics such as good disease resistance, and typically ripens from August to December,
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GLOBAGAP Certified On-farm weather monitoring Use of Natural products Conventional insecticides Insect growth regulators Microbial Pesticides Biological Control Use of Pheromone Traps Use of Traps and Lures Picking of dropped fruits Scouting
Yes
0
No
20
40
60
80
100
20
25
% Respondents Fig. 4. IPM methods used by farmers in the study area.
Application Frequency
As and when necessary 7 times/year 8 times/year 6 times/year 4 times/year Monthly 0
5
10
15
% Respondents Fig. 5. Frequency of insecticide applications made by farmers in a year in the study area.
which is when mangoes are in high demand in Ghana and other importing countries. In the current studies, 12 different trade names of insecticides belonging to five different chemical groups were found to be commonly used by mango farmers. About 30% of the farmers used Cydim Super, a composite organophosphate insecticide and broad spectrum, as the most common insecticide in the management of mango pests especially fruit flies. Among the groups, OPs were the most extensively used insecticides. The present survey confirmed an earlier study which found organophosphate as the most commonly used insecticide by mango farmers in India (Srivastava et al. 2014). Ansaa (2012) also concluded that mango farmers in the Dangme West District of Ghana used several insecticides, and residues
detected in mango fruits from the area were all below the recommended European Union Maximum Residue Levels (EU MRLs). The results that most farmers use insecticides to control pests are in agreement with reports of the growing dependence on synthetic insecticides for the control of crop pests (Orr and Ritchie 2004, Obopile et al. 2008, Grzywacz et al. 2010). For example, Orr and Ritchie (2004) reported up to 19 applications on tomato and 14 applications on cabbage per year in the wetlands of Southern Malawi. Most of the pesticides applied are potent toxins and their intensive use poses potential hazards to humans, livestock, and the environment (Chambers et al. 2001, Ngowi et al. 2007). The frequency of insecticide application in mango agroecosystem is in tandem with global standards where over 20% of the farmers applied insecticides
6 on monthly and as and when needed. This confirmed earlier literature from India where farmers are advised to use calendar and spot spray program for control of mango pests (Anonymous 2012). The high usage of organophosphates in mango pest management might be due to its low persistence and high bio-efficiency (Sharma et al. 2010, Srivastava et al. 2014). The intensive use of nonselective insecticides to deal with pest outbreaks may have direct consequences for pest control through the occurrence of insecticide resistant strains, pest resurgence, and secondary pest outbreaks (McKinney and Schoch 2003, Tiwari et al. 2011). The insecticides recommended by the Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate (PPRSD) of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture for use against mango weevil include Fastrack 10 SC, Fendona 5 SC (alpha cypermethrin: pyrethroid), Golan 20 SP (acetamiprid: neonicotinoid), and Hockli Combi 40 EC (fenitrothion þ fenvalerate: organophosphate þ pyrethroid; Aboagye et al. 2014). This shows that the farmers in the studied area were using insecticides whose active ingredients and chemical classes are similar to those recommended by PPRSD/MoFA. In the light of mango farmer’s knowledge and level of IPM practice in southeastern Ghana, majority of the farmers (86.7%) adopted Level 1 of pest management transition. This high level of farmers responding in the affirmative to this question corroborate earlier findings by Nagenthirarajah and Thiruchelvam (2008), which revealed that most farmers depend on chemical pesticides for the management of insect pests and diseases and that farmers use moderately toxic pesticides but at a very high frequency and dosage. Additionally, very few of the respondents (3.3%) practiced levels 0, 4, and 5 of the IPM transition gradient in their orchards. This shows that these farmers had no experience and knowledge for instance about biological and nonchemical methods to control pests especially weevils, for sustainable mango production. It is also in agreement with earlier work by Karamidehkordi and Hashemi (2010), Singh et al. (2014), and Materu et al. (2016) that farmers hardly used nonchemical pest control methods (e.g. mechanical and biological techniques) in pest management and their awareness of using these methods is very low. In evaluating farmers’ knowledge and awareness of IPM in Uganda, Erbaugh et al. (2001, 2007) argued that there is the need to develop a discovery and experiential learning-based IPM training module to reach the broader audience. Heh (2014) also concluded in his research on knowledge levels of farmers and use of integrated pest management practices in Hohoe municipality of Ghana that training in IPM has significant influence on its use by farmers for sustainable pest management. The farmers in the studied area adopted different IPM methods and had knowledge on insecticide use. This shows that insecticides were used to manage other insects including the S. mangiferae. Thus, the use of pesticides (insecticides) as the main pest management strategy to guarantee the world’s food supply cannot be overemphasized (Pasiani et al. 2012, Ghimire and Kafle 2014). Less than 20% of the farmers also used natural products, insect growth regulators and on-farm weather monitoring in the management of mango pests. Nyirenda et al. (2011) advocated for the use of natural products in pest management for sustainable environmental protection. It is on this basis that Dent (1995) argued that increasing farmer participation in the development and implementation of IPM programs has emerged as a strategy for increasing the application of IPM, particularly among small-scale farmers. GLOBALGAP, a private standard set by major European retail chains, is the minimum requirement for mango growers and exporters in supplying large retail chains to Europe, and eighty percent (80%) of the farmers in the
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1 studied area have subscribed to the GLOBALGAP standards. This confirms reports that fruits from Ghana in the recent years have followed the GLOBALGAP standards (Zakari 2012, Anonymous 2016, GlobalGAP 2016). The sustainable and profitable production of mangoes in Ghana depends on the ability of farmers to meet stringent consumer demands of unblemished quality fruit with no pesticide residues or quarantine pests. Even the local consumers are increasingly aware of the health and environmental risks associated with using pesticides in food crop production (Diedhiou et al. 2007, Braimah and Van Emden 2010). In conclusion, this study revealed that there were varied levels of knowledge and pest management practice among mango farmers especially against the S. mangiferae. Mango IPM practice could generate substantial economic benefits when adopted successfully because it can help reduce the magnitude of fruit rejection, cost of insecticides, and net income from mango production. It is also evident that most of the farmers adopted GLOBALGAP standards for certification which provides a sustained production process, thereby generating enormous economic benefits to the farmers in the studied regions. Majority of the respondents (86.7%) experienced the Level 1 of IPM practice; the implication is that there is still room for mango farmers to improve on their management practice. Although relating the farmers practice and knowledge in IPM to fruit rejections during export was beyond the scope of this study, it is plausible to suggest that farmers’ knowledge in IPM could translate to fewer rejections since mango weevil and insect pests could be properly managed. This, however, requires further studies. Because most farmers were willing to learn and adopt new management strategies, there’s the need to introduce newer integrated production and pest management (IPPM) strategies via appropriate extension methods such as Farmer’s Field School. On the basis of this study, IPM technique for mango weevil should be encouraged among the farmers practicing IPM levels 0, 1, 2, and 3 to cover the entire mango-growing areas in Ghana. In this regard, there is the need for IPM to be better integrated into national programs for mango production. Future research needs to be carried out to correlate the economic benefit of the various IPM levels and mango fruit rejection.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to the mango farmers and the agricultural extension officers in the areas visited for assisting in sampling and the provision of information for the study. We thank the staff of the Entomology Department of Forest and Horticultural Crops Research Centre, Kade, School of Agriculture, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, for logistical support. Fund for this research was provided by University of Ghana Office of Research, Innovation and Development (ORID) grant URF/7/ILG-036/20132014 given to C.A.M.
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