Phase II Archaeological Investigation of Site 1Ma1180 ...

Phase II Archaeological Investigation of Site 1Ma1180, a Wetland Margin Late Woodland Flint River Component on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama

Authored by: Ben Hoksbergen Garrison Redstone Arsenal Environmental Management Division Installation Archaeologist/Cultural Resource Manager

Submitted to: Department of the Army Garrison Redstone Environmental Management Division (IMSE-RED-PWE) 4488 Martin Road, Room A-332-West Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35898-5000 (256)876-0211; Fax (256)313-2201

August 2011

MANAGEMENT SUMMARY As a public outreach effort on the part of the Redstone Arsenal Environmental Management Division (EMD) cultural resources program, the Garrison Redstone EMD Staff Archaeologist, Ben Hoksbergen, directed Phase II level investigations at Site 1Ma1180 primarily as a field trip for members of the Alabama Archaeological Society (AAS). Initial investigations were begun by Ben Hoksbergen June 26 to June 27, 2007, continued July 2, and culminated in the AAS field trip on July 7, 2007. This investigation was motivated in part by the proposed Huntsville Southern Bypass or Patriot Parkway which was then projected to destroy Site 1Ma1180. Site 1Ma1180 was recorded by Ben Hoksbergen in March of 2001 as part of a Phase I survey conducted by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc. (AAC). Initially, AAC considered the site potentially eligible for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) because of the high artifact density, the presence of prehistoric ceramics, and the presence of intact deposits in a strip along the western half of the site. However, as a result of Alabama State Historic Preservation Office (ALSHPO) recommendations based on the extensive disturbance on the eastern part of the site, the Redstone EMD changed the NRHP status of the site to ineligible. Hoksbergen saw the need for further evaluation of the site, particularly in light of the looming potential for impacts caused by the Huntsville Southern Bypass. Site 1Ma1180 is a high density scatter of prehistoric artifacts with components ranging from the transitional Paleoindian period through the Late Woodland. The site is situated on a low alluvial terrace remnant located in the Byrd Spring wetland complex near the confluence of Huntsville Spring Branch and Byrd Spring Branch. Eleven 1m by 1m test units were excavated across the site. Intact cultural deposits were identified, but all but one investigated soil stains appeared to be non-cultural. A total of 2349 artifacts were recovered from Site 1Ma1180 including lithic debitage, firecracked rock, hafted bifaces, and prehistoric ceramics. The frequencies of ceramic types indicates an association with the Late Woodland Flint River culture which has been tentatively dated to between AD 500 and 1000 (Walthall 1980). Despite the presence of undisturbed prehistoric deposits and the relatively high density of artifacts, only one possible cultural feature was identified in the Phase II investigation. Nonetheless, significant information was gained by the investigation, and there is a potential for the tested portion of the site to yield additional important data relevant to the cultural periods represented. As a result, the portion of 1Ma1180 located on Redstone Arsenal is now considered eligible for NRHP nomination. For the eastern portion of the site that is not located on Army property, the extent and integrity of the cultural deposits are still unknown. Impacts to all of Site 1Ma1180 should be avoided pending further testing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report is the culmination of the combined efforts of many individuals dedicated to the preservation of cultural resources and the extension of our knowledge of prehistoric human culture in Alabama. This project would not have been possible without the assistance of the Alabama Archaeological Society (AAS) and the volunteers from the AAS and local community who participated in the field work. My gratitude goes to Richard Kilborn for broaching the idea to me and for helping to mobilize the AAS, and to Steven Meredith and Ashley Dumas for helping to organize the field trip. I also thank the Huntsville Times for the publicity. The field work was aided by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc. employees Brandon Key and Mike Brown. I’m grateful for their labor, and I thank Lawrence Alexander for donating their time. I also thank Garrison Redstone Environmental Management Division (EMD), Cultural and Natural Resources Branch Chief, Danny Dunn and Cultural Resource Manager, Carolene Wu as well as the entire staff of the Redstone EMD for their support. “Conservation is humanity caring for the future.” -Nancy Wynne Newhall (1908-1974)

Benjamin John Hoksbergen Garrison Redstone Cultural Resource Manager/Archaeologist

CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3 CHAPTER II: PALEOECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING ........................................ 6 CHAPTER III: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CONTEXT.......................................................... 13 Paleoindian .................................................................................................................... 13 Early Archaic ................................................................................................................. 24 Middle Archaic .............................................................................................................. 27 Late Archaic .................................................................................................................. 30 Gulf Formational ........................................................................................................... 33 Early Woodland ............................................................................................................. 36 Middle Woodland .......................................................................................................... 37 Late Woodland .............................................................................................................. 47 Early Mississippian ....................................................................................................... 52 Late Mississippian and Protohistoric............................................................................. 58 Early Historic................................................................................................................. 59 CHAPTER IV: PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ..................... 61 The National Historic Preservation Act and Project Specific Surveys (1978-1995) .... 62 Basewide Surveys and Phase II Testing (1995-2005) ................................................... 74 Creative Mitigation, Public Outreach, and Filling In the Gaps (2005-2011) ................ 82 Site 1Ma1180................................................................................................................. 93 CHAPTER V: METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS................................................................... 95 Test Unit N-0/W-25 ....................................................................................................... 97 Test Unit S-10/W-25 ................................................................................................... 101 Test Unit S-25/W-25 ................................................................................................... 104 Test Unit N-10/W-25 ................................................................................................... 109 Test Unit N-5/W-25 ..................................................................................................... 112 Test Unit S-5/W-25 ..................................................................................................... 115 Test Unit S-15/W-25 ................................................................................................... 117 Test Unit S-30/W-25 ................................................................................................... 119 Test Unit S-50/W-30 ................................................................................................... 121 Test Unit N-0/W-30 ..................................................................................................... 124 Test Unit N-0/W-35 ..................................................................................................... 126 CHAPTER VI: ARTIFACTS.............................................................................................. 129 1

Lithics .......................................................................................................................... 129 Fire-cracked rock (fcr) ............................................................................................ 129 Cores ....................................................................................................................... 129 Lithic Debitage........................................................................................................ 129 Unifacial Tools........................................................................................................ 129 Bifaces..................................................................................................................... 131 Lithics Discussion........................................................................................................ 137 Ceramics ...................................................................................................................... 138 Limestone-tempered ............................................................................................... 139 Clay-tempered ......................................................................................................... 142 Mixed-tempered ...................................................................................................... 143 Ceramics Discussion.................................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER VII: SIGNIFICANCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................. 145 Depositional Integrity .................................................................................................. 145 Archaeological Significance ........................................................................................ 148 Settlement Patterns.................................................................................................. 148 Intercultural Contact ............................................................................................... 152 Recommendation ......................................................................................................... 156 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 158 APPENDIX A: FIELD SPECIMEN LIST ............................................................................. 190

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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION As a public outreach effort on the part of the Redstone Arsenal Environmental Management Division (EMD) cultural resources program, the Garrison Redstone EMD Staff Archaeologist, Ben Hoksbergen, directed Phase II level investigations at Site 1Ma1180 primarily as a field trip for members of the Alabama Archaeological Society (AAS). Initial investigations were begun by Ben Hoksbergen June 26 to June 27, 2007, continued July 2, and culminated in the AAS field trip on July 7, 2007. Hoksbergen served as principal investigator for the project. Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc. (AAC) staff including Brandon Key, Nicole Bauer, and Mike Brown assisted in the field work. Most of the fieldwork was performed by volunteers from the AAS and the local community. AAS members Steven Meredith, Ashley Dumas, and Richard Kilborn helped to organize the field trip, and Steven Meredith and Matt Grunewald lent their professional experience to the dig. These investigations adhered to the requirements of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA). The work conducted was aimed at evaluating the archaeological resources and making recommendations for eligibility for listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) following the criteria established in 36CFR60.4 and 36CFR800 (64 FR 27044, May 18, 1999) and amendments of August 5, 2004. Cultural resource management decisions were based on the guidelines established in Section 106 of NHPA. Site 1Ma1180 can be accessed by a gravel trail leading south from Martin Road along the eastern boundary of Redstone Arsenal. At the time of the investigation, this area was proposed as a portion of the route for a highway bypass around the west and south sides of the city of Huntsville. The 1Ma1180 site area includes 1.07 acres (0.43 ha.) located on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. The site is situated on a linear terrace along the eastern boundary of Redstone Arsenal. There are indications that the site extends onto private land to the southeast, but the artifact scatter was not delineated beyond the Redstone Arsenal perimeter. The landform on which site 1Ma1180 is located appears to be a low terrace at the rim of the massive sink system that makes up the Byrd Spring wetland complex (Figure 1). Soil on the site is mapped as the Ketona-Chenneby complex (Clendenon 2003) along with the surrounding floodplain, although the soil profiles from the excavation compare more favorably with the Etowah series which represent soils on convex rises formed on alluvium. Etowah soils are well drained and are characterized by well-developed Bt horizon below an occasional E horizon and an A horizon with a hue of 10YR to 7.5YR, a value of 3 or 4, and a chroma of 2 to 4 (NRCS 2007). According to the official USDA-

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NRCS soil series description, the parent material for this soil is alluvium which is commonly underlain by limestone residuum below a meter.

Figure 1. Location of Site 1Ma1180 (USGS 7.5’ Huntsville Quad 1975).

Table 1. Legal Description of Site 1Ma490. Area

Township

Range

Section

USGS 7.5' Quad

1Ma1180

4 South

1 West

NW ¼ of the SW ¼ of the NE ¼ of 35

Huntsville (75NE)

The site is a prehistoric open habitation site with high artifact density representing components ranging from transitional Paleoindian through the Late Woodland. The ceramic component at the site seems to be restricted to the Late Woodland Flint River culture. Following the Phase I survey of the site area, AAC considered the site potentially eligible for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) due to the high artifact density, the presence of prehistoric ceramics, and the presence of intact deposits in a strip along the western half of the site. However, as a result of Alabama State Historic Preservation Office (ALSHPO) recommendations based on the extensive disturbance on the eastern part of the site, AAC and the Redstone EMD changed the NRHP status of the site to ineligible. Hoksbergen saw the need for further 4

evaluation of the site, particularly in light of the looming potential for impacts caused by the Huntsville Southern Bypass. The investigation and report generation were performed in accordance with the Policy for Archaeological Survey and Testing in Alabama (Alabama Historical Commission 2002).

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CHAPTER II: PALEOECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING (Parts Adapted from Redstone Arsenal Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan) Redstone Arsenal is located at the eastern edge of the Highland Rim physiographic region where the Highland Rim meets the Jackson County Mountains of the Cumberland Plateau. Madkin, Weeden, Bradford, and Hatton Mountains as well as Bell Bluff are composed of Mississippian carbonates and sandstone and represent outliers of the Cumberland Plateau. The remainder of the Installation is the lowland of the Tennessee Valley underlain by Mississippian age Tuscumbia Limestone and Fort Payne Chert. As such, Redstone Arsenal is located in somewhat of an ecotone, situated at the convergence of the highland communities of the Cumberland Plateau and the broad floodplains and rolling karstic uplands of the Tennessee Valley Highland Rim. This was likely a favorable location for prehistoric forager societies who could exploit the broader array of resources from the two different landscapes. By Woodland times, the ecotone seems to have acted as a cultural divide between groups with different cultural traits. Upriver groups seem to have been focused on the narrow valleys and steep uplands of the Guntersville and upper Wheeler Basins, while downriver groups were adapted to the broad valleys and karstic wetlands of the Highland Rim. The Mississippian rocks of the area supplied prehistoric groups with a variety of lithic resources. Chief among these was chert for chipped stone tools. At Redstone Arsenal, most documented prehistoric quarry sites focused on the homogeneous dark gray (N4) to bluish gray (5B 5/1, 5PB 5/1) nodular chert of the lower Monteagle Limestone (Raymond 2003), formerly known as the St. Genevieve Formation (Malmberg and Sanford 1963). Secondary chert sources included residuum and alluvial gravels formed of cherts from the Fort Payne and Tuscumbia Formations. Black chert from the upper Bangor Formation outcrops at higher elevations to the east, and chalcedony and chert from various Mississippian and Ordovician rocks upriver could also be acquired from Tennessee River gravel bars along with older quartzite, schist, and slate from the Appalachian Ridge and Valley province upriver. The area has long been a favorable location for wildlife as well. No Pleistocene fossils have been recorded on Redstone Arsenal to date, but specimens of American mastodon, Columbian mammoth, giant ground sloth, short-faced bears, tapirs, and beautiful armadillo (Dasypus bellus) have been found in the surrounding region. American mastodon remains recovered along Nonconnah Creek near Memphis from deposits dating to the last glacial maximum were accompanied by shells of freshwater snails including Valvata tricarninata and Fossaria reflexa which are both now known to occupy areas in cooler northern climes (Brister et al. 1981). Most of these animals seem to have gone extinct by around 11,000 years ago, although un-mineralized remains of Smilodon fatalis recovered in Nashville from a cave system discovered during construction of the First American Bank Complex in 1971 were radiocarbon dated to around 8700 cal BC suggesting that at least some Pleistocene fauna may have survived into the Early 6

Holocene (Dowd 2010). Smaller cold climate species such as porcupine and meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) seem to have survived in northern Alabama into the Early Holocene as well based on remains associated with Early Archaic deposits in Russell Cave (Griffin 1974) and Smith Bottom Cave (Snyder and Parmalee 1991). Extinct peccary (Mylohyus nasutus) remains were also recovered from Early Archaic deposits in Russell Cave (Griffin 1974). The most well-known evidence of human interaction with extinct terminal Pleistocene fauna in the Southeast comes from inundated contexts in Florida. Jenks and Simpson (1941), Gramly (1992) and others have described foreshafts which had been carved from fresh proboscidean ivory often associated with Clovis artifacts from rivers throughout Florida. Dunbar and Webb (1996) recorded numerous elements of American mastodon bones with apparent use-wear from rivers in the Florida panhandle and gulf coast. Archaeologists reported the recovery of a Bison antiquus skull with a projectile point embedded in its forehead from the Wacissa River (Webb et al. 1984). Waller (1983) reported a partially articulated Equus skeleton associated with Paleoindian Suwannee points in the Suwanee River. Also, a giant tortoise (Geochelone crassiscutata) skeleton was found in association with a wooden spear, dating to 12,668-11,469 BC on a submerged ledge in a spring in Sarasota County (Clausen et al. 1979). Two sites in Tennessee also have yielded evidence of human interaction with American mastodons. Several stone tools were found in association with the remains of a juvenile male mastodon at the Coates-Hines Site (Brietburg et al. 1996), and a modified section of mastodon tusk was recovered at the Trull Site in Perry County (Norton et al. 1998). To what degree humans contributed to the extinction of these species is still open to debate. Evidence suggests a variety of factors including loss of habitat due to climatic change, human predation, and possibly disease introduced by migrations from Asia were responsible for the widespread extinction of animal species by the end of the Pleistocene. These Pleistocene faunal communities thrived in much different ecosystems than what we see today in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Paleoecologists have documented these past environments in the surrounding area through analysis of plant macrofossils and pollen recovered from sediment cores in springs and bogs. Central Tennessee data recovered from Anderson Pond in White County and Mingo Pond in Franklin County by Delcourt (1979) and data from Bartow County in northwest Georgia (Watts 1970) document the paleoclimatic changes which are probably applicable to Redstone Arsenal. During the Farmdalian Interstadial, dated at Anderson Pond from around 26,000 to 20,000 BC, northern pines, spruce, oak, and additional deciduous forest trees were common indicating that the climate was cooler and more moist than that of today (Delcourt 1979). Following the Farmdalian Interstadial, the Late Wisconsin from around 20,000 to 14,300 BC was the last period of major glacial advance in North America. Forests dominated by jack pine, spruce, and fir covered the landscape at that time. Lateglacial climatic amelioration is indicated by replacement of jack pine-spruce-fir forest by deciduous forest between 14,300 and 10,500 BC, with ash, ironwood, hickory, birch, butternut, willow, and elm the dominant arboreal species followed by beech and sugar maple (Delcourt 1979).

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More cold-sensitive mesic deciduous forests may have continued to exist locally in protected south-facing gorges of the Cumberland Plateau at this time (Delcourt 1979). During the warming trend of the Late Wisconsin after 14,500 BC, the boreal tree species migrated northward and were replaced in the Tennessee Valley region by mixed conifers and deciduous forests (Delcourt 1979). The spruce and fir forests are located today in Northern Wisconsin and Canada. During the following Early Holocene, from 10,500 to 6,000 BC, the mixed mesophytic forest existed in a cool-temperate environment along the Middle Tennessee River, and for the most part, this is the extant species mix. The most dramatic climatic shift during the Holocene occurred from around 7500 to 2500 BC. This Middle Holocene period is referred to by paleoecologists as the Hypsithermal Interval. During this period, the world-wide climate underwent regionally variable changes in precipitation and temperature. This seems to have been locally manifested as cyclical episodes of increased temperature and dryness (Driese et al. 2008) along with a diminishing of the mixed mesophytic forest and a shift to a more xeric oak-hickory forest (Delcourt 1979). By 2500 BC, however, climatic conditions seemed to have returned to the situation seen today. By the time of the first Government Land Office (GLO) surveys of the northern part of the Mississippi Territory, the land that is now Redstone Arsenal was primarily “open woods” composed mainly of black oak, post oak, and hickory with lower areas dominated by willow oak, water oak, poplar, maples, elms, ash, and gum. The modern plant community of the RSA area is now characterized by mixed mesophytic forest dominated by oaks and hickory, with various pine species that have been integrated in the last 200 years. Paleobotanical studies along the eastern escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau in eastern Kentucky have suggested that humans began altering their environment through forest burns beginning already in the Early Holocene (Ison 2000). Initially, anthrogenic forest fires were probably initiated to drive game or to clear the understory for ease in hunting. By around 1000 BC, however, the frequency of large charcoal fragments and the percentage of fire-tolerant species in the floral assemblages suddenly spiked suggesting a dramatic increase in forest burning. This coincided with the initial appearance of incipient agriculture in eastern North America and suggests that prehistoric human populations in the area began practicing slash and burn agriculture to prepare upland garden plots which could be tended from nearby rockshelters and upland campsites (Ison 2000). It is likely that a similar pattern emerged in the Middle Tennessee Valley resulting in an overall increase in oaks, chestnuts, and pines and ruderal species such as ragweed that occupy forest openings. Such practices probably continued into historic times and may account for the islands of prairie noted on historic maps of the area. The 1837 LaTourette map shows two areas totaling roughly 80 acres of prairie on the upper terraces on the south side of Huntsville Spring Branch in Sections 15 and 16 of T5S R1W. The presence of this prairie complex is confirmed by the 1819 GLO surveyor’s field notes and plat map. Prehistoric vertebrate communities seem to have changed little in this area following the Pleistocene-Early Holocene transition with a few notable exceptions. Passenger pigeons whose remains are represented in Holocene faunal assemblages in northern Alabama are 8

now extinct. Ivory-billed woodpecker remains have also been found in north Alabama caves (Snyder and Parmalee 1991). Prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido) which were historically limited to the Great Plains and Midwest, no closer than the Ozarks of Missouri, seem to have occupied patches of grasslands or treed savannah above the Tennessee River bluffs throughout the Holocene. Their remains peaked, however, in the Middle Holocene deposits at Smith Bottom Cave (Snyder and Parmalee 1991) probably indicating a spread of grasslands at that time as a result of drier conditions. In Dust Cave, on the other hand, prairie chicken remains were most common in the Early Holocene levels (Grover 1994). Several significant predators were extirpated from the area in historic or later prehistoric times. Wolf (Canis sp.) and mountain lion (Felis concolor) remains were recovered at Smith Bottom Cave in Lauderdale County (Snyder and Parmalee 1991). Black bears also seem to have once been more common in the area. It has also been suggested that American bison (Bison bison) ranged into the Southeast during early historic times (Rostlund 1960). There are certainly early historic references in the Southeast to encounters with “buffalo” and “wild bulls” (Spanish cibola), but this could just as easily be references to feral cattle which had surely been introduced by the Spanish by the 17th century. Many early explorers also mention commodities made from bison products such as robes, bison hair yarn, horn utensils, and bison bone hoes, but most of these sightings were in the lower Mississippi River Valley and on the Gulf Coast where such items could have been introduced through exchange. Likewise, the very few well-documented archaeological specimens of Bison bison remains from Alabama, Georgia, and Florida were recovered from funerary contexts in mounds, suggesting they were high-status exchange goods. While Pleistocene bison species have been found in Florida inundated sites, no Holocene Bison bison material has been recovered to date from midden contexts in the Southeast. If the species had been present, surely it would have been desirable prey to prehistoric and early historic indigenous populations, and its remains would be present in village middens and trash pits. The diet of recent Bison bison is more focused on grasses, as opposed to Pleistocene bison species which seem to have had a more similar diet to modern browsers (Rivals et al. 2007), so once the Pleistocene species went extinct, large bovids were no longer a part of the Southeastern fauna. Elk (Cervus Canadensis) remains are also conspicuously rare in midden deposits in Alabama. There are several 18th century European references to the presence of elk on the Piedmont and Coastal Plains of South Carolina and Georgia (Rostlund 1960), and it is generally accepted that their historic range extended as far south as central Tennessee (Curren 1977). Elk remains are recovered sporadically from archaeological contexts throughout northern Tennessee (Peres 2010). There are only three incidents of elk remains being recovered from archaeological contexts in Alabama (Curren 1977), however, and such rare occurrences could easily have resulted from exchange. The state of Alabama currently has one of the richest faunal biodiversities in the United States (Mirarchi 2004). This is largely due to the state’s diverse ecosystems. Redstone Arsenal encompasses a variety of habitats within its 38,248 secured acres. It contains extensive wetland areas associated with the Tennessee River, numerous local springs, and karst ponds. There are also a variety of woodlands and fields. While no complete faunal inventory of RSA was attempted by the Alabama Natural Heritage Program (1995),

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sufficient specimens were collected or observed during the rare species surveys to provide preliminary information on the common species of Redstone Arsenal. It is estimated that 48 species of mammals inhabit Redstone Arsenal, which are likely evenly distributed across the installation’s various habitats. Common mammal species include beaver, coyote, raccoon, white-tailed deer, and opossums. Common bird species include northern bobwhite quail, wild turkey, mourning dove, mallard, wood duck, and eastern bluebird. Common reptile and amphibian species include eastern box turtle, cottonmouth, American toad, slimy salamander, and fence lizard. The varied habitats attract a large percentage (~290 species) of Alabama’s avifauna either as residents, migrants, or rare visitors (Porter 2001). The area’s variable water level in ponds, sinks, and cypress swamps (much of which is maintained by the Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge) attract many winter waterfowl, herons, egrets and shorebirds (Porter 2001). The Redstone Arsenal area also attracts many raptors and passerines of both woodland and field species. In terms of aquatic fauna, the absence of many mussels, snails, insects, and fish can be generally attributed to a lack of appropriate habitats on Redstone Arsenal and perhaps a decline in overall water quality. The influx of debris from Huntsville down McDonald Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch is undoubtedly a contributing factor to the general degradation of the stream systems of RSA. Also, historically, some species were simply never present on RSA due to impoundment of the Tennessee River, pollution, siltation and perhaps to the small nature of many of the installation’s streams. The relatively common occurrence of shell middens and shell-filled pits on prehistoric archaeological sites on the Tennessee River floodplain and sections of Huntsville Spring Branch and Indian Creek attests to an abundance and a wide biodiversity of freshwater invertebrates in the Pre-Columbian past. A detailed analysis of faunal material from the sites on Redstone Arsenal has not been conducted, but based on casual observation, silty hornsnails (Pleurocera canaliculata), Campeloma sp., Lithasia sp., and other gastropods are common in middens along both the river and the tributaries, and various mussels including spikes (Elliptio dilatata), pigtoe (Pluerobema cordatum), pimpleback (Quadrula sp.), and various Lampsilini are frequently observed eroding out of large Late Archaic through Woodland Period shell features along the Tennessee River. The Tennessee River shell middens are most abundant on site 1Ma285 and in stretch of riverbank that encompasses sites 1Ma26, 1Ma150, and 1Ma138. With the exception of 1Ma285, all of these sites are near places where the river cuts up against bedrock bluffs, and were probably the location of shoals and gravel bars prior to the raising of the water level by the construction of TVA dams. The botanic community has also been dramatically modified over the last 200 years by Euro-American settlement. By the 1930’s, nearly 80% of the original forest growth had been cleared. The remaining forests have been cut an average of every 50-75 years, and pine has been thoroughly integrated into the oak-hickory community which the original GLO surveyors encountered in the early 19th century. Around that time, settlers began 10

introducing invasive organisms to the native ecosystems. One of the most devastating was the chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) which was introduced from Asia in the first decade of the 20th century. Redstone Arsenal currently lists 16 invasive species of plants that pose a severe threat to native ecosystems and another 19 that pose a significant or lesser threat. Of these, five are actively controlled in eradication programs including Chinese privet, kudzu, bush honeysuckle, Canada thistle, and Bull thistle (Redstone Arsenal INRMP 2009). Several species of animals have also recently been introduced either as domesticated species, otherwise introduced species, or as wild species expanding their territories in response to ecological changes. Pigs, cows, sheep, goats, horses, and chickens as well as various breeds of dogs and cats were all common on historic farms in the area. Of these, dogs, cats, and domestic pigs are the most successful at establishing feral populations. House sparrows, European starlings, Norway rats, house mice, red foxes, various species of carp, and Asiatic clams were introduced either intentionally or accidently from Europe and Asia. Red fire ants were accidently introduced from South America. Coyotes made inroads into the area from the west in recent historic times as woodlands were cleared; although possible coyote bones from Early Archaic levels at Dust Cave suggest the possibility that this species extended into north Alabama during the late Pleistocene or early Holocene, too (Morey 1994). Nine-banded armadillos are a relatively recent addition to the local fauna, crossing into Texas from Mexico in the middle 19th century, and probably arriving in the Southeast via Florida where captive specimens were accidently released in the 1920’s (Avila 1999). Most recently, American alligators were released in the 1980’s into Wheeler Wildlife Refuge to control the beaver population. While there is no evidence that the population of alligators is growing, the original individuals are still present and thriving. Redstone Arsenal is currently located in a temperate climatic zone with hot summers and relatively mild winters. Climate information was recorded at the climate station at the airport weather service office in Huntsville, AL. The average high temperature ranges from 49 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) in January to 89°F in July. The average low temperature ranges from 31 °F in January to 69 °F in July. The first frost, on average, is 31 October, and the last frost, on average, is 5 April. The average annual total precipitation is about 57 inches (in). Of this, about 29.7 in, or 51 %, usually falls in April through October. The growing season for most crops falls within this period. On average, March is the wettest month with 6.70 in. of rainfall; August is the driest with 3.3 in. of rainfall. The wettest month recorded at Redstone Arsenal was March 1980 when 17 in of rain fell, and the driest was June 1988 with only 0.17 in. Thunderstorms occur on about 57 days each year, and most occur between May and August. The average seasonal snowfall is 2.6 in. The greatest snow depth at any one time during the period of record was 11 in recorded on January 1, 1964. On average, two days per year have at least 1 in. of snow on the ground. The heaviest 1-day snowfall on record was 15.7 in. recorded on December 31, 1963.

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The average relative humidity in mid-afternoon is about 55%. Humidity is higher at night, and the average at dawn is about 85%. The sun shines about 62% of the time possible in summer and about 45% in winter. The prevailing wind is from the south during most of the year. Average wind speed is 8 miles per hour and is highest, around 10 miles per hour, in February and March.

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CHAPTER III: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CONTEXT

Paleoindian The origins of humans in the Americas are still unclear. According to the orthodox model, Native American populations migrated from Siberia over the Beringian land bridge sometime before 12,450 BC 1 and then moved southward through an ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and the Cordilleran ice sheets around 9500 BC into what is now the Lower 48 where they spread out as the Clovis culture through a vast area from the Pacific to the Atlantic and from southern Canada into Mexico. This theory was brought into question beginning in the late 1970’s with the publishing of radiocarbon dates of around 14,000 BC from Meadowcroft Rockshelter in western Pennsylvania. Another blow to the orthodox “Clovis-first” model was dealt in the 1980’s when dates around 12,500 BC were announced for the Monte Verde site in south-central Chile. Since then, there has been a minor flurry of early dates from sites across North and South America including some from the Southeast including the Topper Site in Allendale County, South Carolina which yielded dates around 14,000 BC and the Cactus Hill Site in Virginia which yielded a date of 16,702-16,134 BC on white pine charcoal from a hearth-like feature (McAvoy and McAvoy 1997). All of these early dates are still considered controversial although they’ve generally managed to stand up to close scrutiny. All four of the above-mentioned sites have also yielded even earlier dates ranging as far back as 31,000 BC at Monte Verde, although these have taken the back burner until the more recent pre-Clovis dates are thoroughly examined. Recent interdisciplinary studies of paleoenvironments in Beringia and the “ice free corridor” have also brought the orthodox “Clovis-first” model into question. Both areas seem to have been fairly inhospitable landscapes in the late Pleistocene, and the very existence of an ice-free corridor between Alaska and the Lower 48 has been brought into question. All said, no other theory of human origins in the Americas has been accepted as a fully viable alternative to the Clovis-first model. Alternate theories including multiple early migrations, oversea and coastal routes, and even links to the Solutrean of the Upper Paleolithic of southwest Europe all have their share of problems too. Material culture of the alleged pre-Clovis deposits is fairly variable. A bifacial lithic technology was documented at Meadowcroft and Cactus Hill with the recovery of lanceolate-trianguloid hafted bifaces from the 16,000-14,000 BC levels. These sites also yielded blade technology in the pre-Clovis levels. Both technologies suggest a possible 1

Unless otherwise noted, all dates are presented in calibrated calendar years. All dates were calibrated at 2σ using INTCAL04 dataset (Reimer et al. 2004) with the program CALIB 5.0 except for certain calibrated dates which have been previously published elsewhere. 13

ancestral relationship to Clovis. Bipolar blade technology also seems to be present in the Topper Site pre-Clovis assemblage, but the dominant technology at Topper from around this time is characterized by “bend-break burins” created by fragmenting flakes (Jones 2002). Bifacial technology was conspicuously absent from the pre-Clovis levels at Topper. Unless identified in datable stratified contexts, distinguishing a purely “pre-Clovis” technology in the Middle Tennessee River Valley is not possible at this point. If cultural deposits pre-dating the early accepted Clovis date of 11,300 BC exist on Redstone Arsenal, they have not yet been distinguished from later materials. Clovis material has been well-documented in northern Alabama. In fact, based on a review of all documented Clovis finds, the Middle Tennessee Valley has one of the largest concentrations of Clovis material in North America (Anderson et al. 2005). Unfortunately, none of the Clovis finds in this area have been in an intact context, so there has not been as much academic interest in them as compared to the intensively studied kill sites and camps on the Great Plains and elsewhere. Despite the lack of datable contexts here, Clovis has been very well-dated elsewhere. Waters and Stafford (2007) recently reexamined existing Clovis dates from 24 sites across North America and ran new accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dates on some of the material in an effort to more carefully define the Clovis time span. Their results dramatically tightened the already narrow time span for Clovis. Using a tentative calibration curve based on European tree ring data, they estimated a maximum possible date range for Clovis at 11,300-10,850 BC (11,500-10,900 radiocarbon years BP). The most diagnostic artifact in the Clovis tool kit is of course the distinctive fluted lanceolate Clovis point. The remainder of the tool kit closely resembles Upper Paleolithic blade technology with retouched unifacial tools such as endscrapers and gravers made on blades struck from prepared blade cores. The previously-mentioned ivory foreshafts recovered from saturated contexts in Florida and dry contexts elsewhere also have corollaries among the European Upper Paleolithic. This and the fact that the greatest concentration of Clovis material is in eastern North America has led some researchers to postulate an Atlantic migration of Upper Paleolithic people from Europe (Stanford and Bradley 2002). The orthodox conception of Clovis subsistence was based on the association of Clovis points with Columbian mammoth remains on sites throughout the Great Plains and with American mastodon remains at sites like Kimmswick in eastern Missouri. The conception of Clovis subsistence as focused on big game hunting seems to be a somewhat selective look at the evidence, however. The Clovis levels at the Kimmswick site, for example, yielded as many deer, snake, rodent, and turtle remains as mastodon remains (Graham and Kay 1988). Clovis occupation on Redstone Arsenal is represented by only three Clovis points. Two of these, one from 1Ma359 and one from 1Ma361 were documented by former staff archaeologist Charles Hubbert from private artifact collections. The current whereabouts 14

of these points are unknown. The only Clovis point to have been recovered as part of a formal archaeological investigation was recovered from a shovel test on Site 1Ma840 which otherwise only yielded 19th century historic material. Hubbert also identifies two additional points from private collections as “unfluted Clovis” points on site forms, but he does not define what distinguishes them from later Dalton points. The Clovis settlement pattern in the Middle Tennessee Valley is bifurcated between upper terraces along the Tennessee River and major tributaries and around the rims of upland sinks. The most famous river terrace Clovis manifestation in the area is the Quad locale about 16 miles downriver from Redstone Arsenal. The Quad locale consists of concentrations of Paleoindian (and later) artifacts including over 200 fluted points (Gustafson and Pigott 1981) scattered about three and a half miles along a series of late Pleistocene river terraces on the north side of the Tennessee River. Wilmsen (1968), who examined much of the Quad Site material that had been collected by amateur archaeologists, concluded that the Paleoindian cultural deposits originated from repeated visits by small bands. Hubbert (1989) on the other hand, believes that at least parts of the Quad Site represent seasonal base camps occupied by multiple aggregated bands. There is little support for the latter interpretation, however, since no feature complexes or dense middens that one would associate with even a seasonal occupation by a large group have been documented at the Quad locale. Artifact density along the terraces there is admittedly dense, but it represents repeated occupations well into the Woodland Period. In fact, Archaic material accounts for a much greater percentage of the overall assemblage at the Quad Site than Paleoindian material (Futato 1996). Clovis sites on upland karst rims are represented by the Belle Mina Site (1Li92), a single-component Clovis occupation in nearby Limestone County (Ensor 1992) and “Heaven’s Half Acre”, a complex of sites with multiple early components in Colbert County. All four Clovis components on Redstone fit within this settlement pattern. Sites 1Ma359 and 1Ma361 are situated on upper terraces along Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch respectively. Site 1Ma840 is situated above a low karstic depression that stretches along the south side of Fowler Road. Many such upland karstic depressions may have been seasonal lakes during the terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene providing suitable locations for game ambushes and exploitation of lacustrine resources. The fourth Clovis component at 1Ma639 is on an upland divide between Indian Creek and a complex of karst ponds located in the vicinity of Gate 9 and the Redstone Links Golf Course. The Clovis horizon seems to have ended abruptly after 10,850 BC. There has recently been speculation that the demise of Clovis may have coincided with the impact or near impact of an extraterrestrial object on the retreating glacial ice sheet north of the Great Lakes which may have spurred the Younger Dryas climatic reversal (Goodyear 2007). Evidence for this impact is in the form of a “black mat” directly above the Clovis horizon at multiple Clovis sites around North America. This dark charred carbon-rich stratum has been found to contain metallic microspherules, nanodiamonds, and other geo-chemical evidence for impacts or atmospheric airbursts of a swarm of carbonaceous meteorites or comets (Kennett et al. 2009). Goodyear and others have hypothesized that this impact 15

and the resulting fires and climate change contributed to the mass extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene and resulted in major population decline among Paleoindians in North America. In the Southeast, this may have manifested itself archaeologically as a technological change from Clovis points to the similar Redstone points which occur with much less frequency suggesting a brief population decline. Redstone points are named for Redstone Arsenal where they were first identified. They are characterized by deeply concave bases on a triangular blade that is widest at the base. They often have multiple fluting scars on both faces, and the flutes characteristically extend over halfway up the blade (Cambron and Hulse 1964, Goodyear 2007). Unfortunately, no Redstone points have yet been found in an intact datable context, so their actual date range can only be speculated. They have typically been grouped with Cumberland points and Simpson and Suwannee points from Florida into the “Middle Paleoindian” with a speculated date range between 10,850 and 8500 BC (10,800-10,500 radiocarbon years BP) (Anderson et al. 1996). Based on revised dates for the later Dalton horizon of the Late Paleoindian Period (see below), a more accurate end date for the Middle Paleoindian might be around 10,700 BC. Cumberland points are a well-defined type, but like Redstone points, they have not been securely dated. Some have even suggested that they pre-date Clovis (eg. Gramly 2009), although the consensus among most archaeologists is that they developed from Clovis technology. The Phil Stratton Site in western Kentucky is a rare glimpse at what seems to be a single-component Cumberland camp site. Excavations since 1996 by the American Society of Amateur Archaeology at the Phil Stratton Site (Gramly 2009) have yielded tools that seem to be intermediate between Clovis and later Dalton tool kits. Clovis and the Phil Stratton Cumberland tool kits both contain blades struck from specialized blade cores. Both toolkits have unifacial tools made on retouched blades including endscrapers and gravers. The recovery of a bifacial adze at the Phil Stratton Site, however, suggests continuity with adzes that are common in Dalton assemblages throughout the lower Midwest. Cumberland points recovered in northern Alabama and Tennessee also occasionally exhibit resharpening in the form of serrations, a technology common among Dalton and later Early Archaic points, but absent among Clovis points. Barnes points from the Great Lakes area which closely resemble Cumberland points also often exhibit resharpening in the form of alternate beveling of the blade (Gramly 2009), a technology commonly seen in Dalton/Meserve points from the eastern Great Plains as well as Early Archaic Plevna/St. Charles, Lost Lake, and Decatur points in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Redstone points are probably associated with a similar toolkit intermediate between Clovis and Dalton. According to the notes of Edward Mahan, the Redstone type specimen was found by collector Charles Brosemer at site 1Ma1330 which is situated on a terrace above Indian Creek. Numerous fluted points were supposedly found there, but if it is the correct location of Brosemer’s Redstone type site, the artifact density is so low, that cultural material could not be detected in a shovel test survey (Alexander et al. 2000). Hubbert listed another Redstone point among points collected by David Hulse at 1Ma359 as well. Cumberland points have been documented on five sites on Redstone Arsenal. Two of these (1Ma281 and 1Ma359) were reported by Hubbert based on private artifact 16

collections. Mahan also noted that Cumberlands were recovered from 1Ma1330, and the base of a Cumberland point was found mixed in with the midden below the Middle Woodland Walling Mound (Knight 1990). More well-documented than the postulated Middle Paleoindian Period, the Late Paleoindian Period is usually characterized by Beaver Lake, Quad, and Dalton points in the Middle Tennessee Valley (Anderson et al. 1996). Greenbrier points (Cambron and Hulse 1964) could also be ascribed to this period. All these types are generally lanceolate points with pronounced basal thinning instead of fluting. Settlement on upper stream terraces and upland karst rims continued in the Late Paleoindian Period. Beaver Lake points have been reported from six sites on Redstone Arsenal, all situated on upper stream terraces except 1Ma403 and 1Ma206 which are situated on the rims of upland sinks. Reported Dalton components are a little more abundant with eleven sites yielding Dalton points. Five of these sites are on upper stream terraces, and five are situated along upland karst rims. The other site represents a notable shift in the settlement pattern at this time. This component is located in Beartail Rockshelter (1Ma96), the only extensively investigated rockshelter on Redstone Arsenal. The increased use of rockshelters during the Late Paleoindian Period is well-documented throughout eastern North America. Walthall (1998) explores this phenomenon theorizing that it represents a shift in subsistence from a focus on migratory Pleistocene species to nonmigratory game such as whitetail deer which may have been exploited by small dispersed hunting groups during the late autumn and winter. The use of rockshelters and caves in the cold season is confirmed by the faunal assemblage in the Late Paleoindian levels of Dust Cave in Lauderdale County (Walker et al. 2001). A shift to this hunting pattern might have been a function of increased population density at this time which would result in a decrease in the size of the range of individual groups. This is supported by the trend towards a heavier reliance on local raw materials for making stone tools (Walthall 1998). All but one of the recorded Dalton points from Redstone Arsenal are manufactured from local Tuscumbia or Bangor Formation cherts while earlier fluted points from the area are almost all manufactured from high quality blue-gray Fort Payne chert from the Muscle Shoals area. Notably, all of the professionally-collected Beaver Lake points from Redstone Arsenal are also manufactured from blue-gray Fort Payne chert suggesting that the Beaver Lake type may be transitional between earlier fluted types like Cumberland points and later Dalton varieties. Even more noteworthy, all of the known Plevna points and about 25% of the Big Sandy points from Redstone Arsenal are also made from non-local blue-gray Fort Payne. These notched types are almost always considered later Early Archaic types (see below). In addition to whitetail deer which are common to nearly all Late Paleoindian faunal assemblages (Walthall 1980), a high percentage of avian fauna, mostly waterfowl, was documented in the Late Paleoindian levels at Dust Cave (Walker et al. 2001). A focus on aquatic species would be consistent with settlement along stream terraces and upland karst lakes. Dust Cave also yielded a well-preserved botanical assemblage from the Late Paleoindian levels. Hickory nuts dominated, followed by hackberry seeds, walnuts, and acorns in an analysis of carbonized remains from this level. Chenopod, hazelnut, 17

stargrass, and possibly grape, black gum, and pokeweed seeds were also represented (Walker et al. 2001). Hickory nuts, walnuts, and hackberry seeds have been recovered from Dalton deposits elsewhere including the Hester Site in northeast Mississippi (McGahey 1996). The chronological relationship between Dalton and early side-notched points has been debated in recent decades and has been a popular topic among many members of the Alabama Archaeological Society. The questions surrounding the possible contemporaneity between the two point types have never been satisfactorily resolved, and as with so much of prehistoric archaeology, the picture isn’t as tidy as we’d like it to be. Most of the debate in Alabama originates with the stratigraphic relationships between the Dalton and Big Sandy points in certain rockshelters in north Alabama, but the issue is complicated by difficulties in dating the Dalton horizon throughout eastern North America. Dalton points represented the oldest diagnostic artifacts recovered from Beartail Rockshelter on Redstone Arsenal. Two Dalton points were recovered from mixed midden contexts in the upper strata, but the basal levels of the excavation (Zone E) yielded only side-notched points that would fit comfortably into the Big Sandy type (Hubbert 1997). Radiocarbon dates associated with Zone E at Beartail calibrate to 7546(7340)7134 cal. BC (8320±90 BP) and 9412(9302)9192 cal. BC (9820±60 BP) (Hubbert 1997). The earlier date is consistent with Big Sandy dates (10,000-9000 BC) from Dust Cave in Lauderdale County where a Big Sandy zone was separated stratigraphically above transitional Paleoindian material (Sherwood et al. 2004). The underlying Dalton zone at Dust Cave which also contained Beaver Lake and Quad points yielded several calibrated dates ranging from 10,650 to 9400 BC (Sherwood et al. 2004). All five dates from Zone D (Dalton Zone) at the Stanfield-Worley rockshelter in nearby Colbert County (DeJarnette et al. 1962; Crane and Griffin 1965) had large standard deviations of 400 to 450 years and were taken on charcoal somewhat randomly plucked from throughout Zone D. Four of the dates (9213[8176]7139 cal. BC, 9894[8771]7647 cal. BC, 9825[8703]7581 cal. BC, and 9296[8290]7283 cal. BC) are comparable to some of the later dates for strata containing Dalton material at sites in Missouri. The remaining date, 10,450(9138)7826 cal. BC, was more comparable to the Dust Cave dates, although still a few hundred years later. Based on the artifact tables in DeJarnette et al. (1962), the Dalton Zone at Stanfield-Worley yielded, in addition to 32 Dalton points, a Beaver Lake point, two Hardaway Side-Notched points (which look more like heavily resharpened Big Sandy points based on the illustrations), three Greenbrier points, 50 Big Sandy points, five Benton Stemmed points, a Pickwick point, and 10 triangular points of various styles suggesting that some later carbon may have been mixed in with Zone D along with the later diagnostic points. The range of error for the earlier date from the Dalton horizon at Stanfield-Worley and the Dalton dates at Dust Cave, however, overlap closely around 10,450 and 9200 BC. This compares favorably with a range from 8500-7900 radiocarbon years BC (roughly 10,600-9400 cal. BC) for the Dalton horizon proposed by Goodyear (1982) based on a close examination of dated Dalton contexts throughout the Mid-South. O’Brien and Wood (1998) suggest pushing the start date of Dalton back another 300 years to around 10,900 BC (8950 radiocarbon years BC) to fill in the gap between the appearance of Dalton points and the end of Clovis, although these intervening centuries 18

would be a logical interval to place the manufacture and use of Redstone and Cumberland points in the Middle Tennessee Valley. The Big Sandy dates from Beartail and Dust Cave suggest a date range from 10,000 to 9000 BC for that type. This is corroborated by a date of 10,882(9541)8200 cal. BC from a hearth at the St. Albans site in West Virginia which had a side-notched point directly above it (Broyles 1971). These dates would indicate at least 600 years of overlap with the Dalton horizon and could account for the co-occurrence of Dalton points and sidenotched types like Big Sandy at several sites including Stanfield-Worley in Alabama, Graham Cave (Crane and Griffin 1956) and the Pigeon Roost Creek Site in Missouri (O’Brien 1985), and the Big Pine Tree Site in South Carolina where Dalton points were found in a level containing side-notched Taylor points (Goodyear 2005) which are the Atlantic Coast correlate of Big Sandy points. Stratigraphic mixing may also have been responsible for introducing later artifacts into the lower zones at these sites, but the overwhelming dominance of both Dalton and Big Sandy points in Zone D at StanfieldWorley which combined account for 75% of all points recovered in Zone D, suggests that they were closer to their point of primary deposition than the other types of points that were found in those levels. Goodyear (1982) points out stratigraphic problems not only with Stanfield-Worley, but with Graham Cave and Arnolds Research Cave which together form the triumvirate of sites which are most often mentioned as providing dates for the Dalton horizon. Stratigraphic mixing at all three sites may account for the late dates for the Dalton levels (10,736[9336]7936 cal. BC, 9273[7976]6678 cal. BC, and 9304[8490]7676 cal. BC at Graham Cave [Crane and Griffin 1956, 1968] and 9158(8377)7596 cal. BC, 822(7289)6355 cal. BC, and 9304(7141)6336 cal. BC at Arnolds Research Cave [Crane and Griffin 1968]) that have led many researchers to conclude that Dalton points were being made into the eighth millennium BC. Less problematic stratigraphically, are dates from the alluvial terrace in front of Rodgers Shelter in western Missouri. Two dates were obtained there from a single-component Dalton layer sealed beneath 2.4 m of nearly sterile alluvium. The dates were ran on carbon taken directly from hearth features associated with the Dalton material resulting in dates of 11,740(10,140)8539 cal. BC and 10,887(10,004)9121 cal. BC (Ahler 1976). The range of the means of these dates are much more in line with the dates from Dust Cave and together suggest a maximum date range for the Dalton horizon from around 10,650 to 9400 BC. Rodgers Shelter is not the only site to have a pure Dalton component. Goodyear (1982) points out that there are several well-documented sites in Arkansas with pure Dalton components, but pure Dalton components are much less common in Alabama. Almost all open-air Dalton sites in the Middle Tennessee Valley also yield a small number of earlier fluted points and a few presumably later notched types. Some, like the Red Hill Site (Waters 1959) are more dominated by Daltons than others, but side-notched points almost always represent a significant minority. Dust Cave represents one of the few sites in the Southeast where a Late Paleoindian Quad/Beaver Lake/Dalton zone was stratigraphically isolated below a relatively pure Big Sandy zone (Sherwood et al. 2004). Several open air single-component Big Sandy sites are also known, including the New Garden Site (Lenser 1959) in Limestone County. Artifact collectors have reported 19

several upland sites near sinks in Limestone and Lawrence Counties that yielded almost exclusively Big Sandy points in remarkably large quantities. One of the most welldocumented examples is an upland site collected by Richard Kilborn in eastern Limestone County which yielded hundreds of projectile points, nearly all of which were Big Sandy points (Richard Kilborn, personal communication 2009). The existence of single component Dalton and Big Sandy sites does not necessarily prove that the two represent distinct horizons, however. If there were 600 years of overlap between Dalton and Big Sandy, there were around 600 years prior that Dalton points were the exclusive hafted biface in use in the Southeast, and as many as 400 years after that Big Sandy points dominated. By this logic, pure Dalton components should date to between ca. 10,650 to 10,000 BC, while pure Big Sandy components should date to between 9400 and 9000 BC. Mixed components between the two should date to 10,000- 9400 BC. There seems to have been little behavioral difference between the users of Dalton and Big Sandy points. Both types regularly occur in lower levels of rockshelters in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Both occur on open air sites around the rims of upland sinks and on upper stream terraces. At Redstone Arsenal, 11 sites have yielded Dalton points. In addition to Beartail Rockshelter, these include six sites on upper stream terraces, mostly along tributaries of the Tennessee River, and four sites along the rims of upland karst ponds. Of these, five also yielded Big Sandy points which are almost twice as common at Redstone Arsenal. Twenty-three sites have yielded Big Sandy points. These include in addition to Beartail Rockshelter, 13 on upper stream terraces (again, almost 75% along tributaries), seven along upland sinks, and curiously, three sites on the first terrace of the Tennessee River where isolated Big Sandy points have been recovered from surface collections along the beach of Wheeler Lake. Almost all of these sites, whether Dalton, or Big Sandy, or both, generally have a relatively low artifact density but yield significant numbers of retouched unifacial tools. The unifacial tools often have a high degree of diversity presumably representing tools for a broad range of activities. All of this suggests that users of both Dalton and Big Sandy points moved about the landscape in small, highly mobile residential groups. Dust Cave represents a possible exception, however, to the apparent similarity between Big Sandy and Dalton culture. The Late Paleoindian levels there had ten times more unifacial and blade-based tools than the overlying Big Sandy horizon (Meeks 1994). There were also minor changes in subsistence with fish remains being three times more common in the Big Sandy horizon compared with the Late Paleoindian levels (Walker et al. 2001). The Big Sandy levels at Dust Cave also had a much heavier concentration of cultural material and features in general (Sherwood et al. 2004). This corresponds with the apparent increase in landscape use at Redstone Arsenal from Dalton to Big Sandy. Both instances may represent an overall increase in population density in the Middle Tennessee River Valley during the Early Holocene. It is certainly conceivable that side-notching was an innovation first developed by the manufacturers of Dalton points. Nearly all of the illustrated Daltons from sites along the Tennessee River including all that have been found on Redstone Arsenal have out-flaring auricles or ears on the base with a constriction in the blade directly above the base 20

resulting in recurved blade margins, a feature common to Cumberland and Beaver Lake types. DeJarnette et al. (1962) originally subdivided these recurved Daltons into three types based on how straight and parallel the lateral margins of the hafting element were. The most recurved Daltons with the most pronounced ears were classified as Greenbrier Daltons, while the points with the most parallel and straight-sided bases were classified as Colbert Daltons. Intermediates between the two were classified as Nuckolls Daltons. Based on the illustrations from Stanfield-Worley, however, there is considerable morphological overlap, and the distinctions among the three varieties probably do not have any temporal or cultural significance other than as slight modifications to fit specific hafts. Some of the points recovered from Redstone Arsenal that have been typed as Daltons more closely conform to the Hardaway Side-Notched type of the Carolina Piedmont (Coe 1964). This type is generally broader relative to the length and has pronounced out-flaring ears, above which the blade constricts to such a degree that shallow side-notches are formed. Coe admits some morphological overlap between his Hardaway Side-Notched and Hardaway Dalton types which closely resemble Greenbrier Daltons. Both Hardaway Daltons and Hardaway Side-Notched points were found in the same stratum at the Hardaway Site (Coe 1964). Could side-notching have developed among Dalton manufacturers in the Carolina Piedmont and spread into the Tennessee River Valley where it was eventually formalized in the Big Sandy type? Side-notching may also have developed out of Dalton in the lower Mississippi River valley and Gulf Coast. Points identified there as the San Patrice type are similar in form to Hardaway Daltons. As with the Hardaway Dalton-Hardaway Side-Notched continuity, many of the San Patrice points range from a pronounced blade constriction above the base to fully-developed well-defined side notches. A lower Mississippi Valley origin for side-notching is supported by unpublished work at the Hester Site in northeast Mississippi where side-notched points similar to San Patrice, St. Johns variety and Hardaway Side Notched were found alongside Dalton points in a stratum directly below the Big Sandy zone (Brookes 1979, Goodyear 2005, citing personal communication with Sam Brookes). There is also a morphological continuum between Tennessee Valley Daltons and the Greenbrier type. Greenbrier points (Cambron and Hulse 1964), not to be confused with Greenbrier Dalton points, were common at the Nuckolls Site near Jackson, Tennessee (Lewis and Kneburg 1958) where they occurred alongside Dalton points. The Nuckolls Site points singled out by Cambron and Hulse as belonging to the Greenbrier type are basically those Daltons with less concave bases in conjunction with a greater blade constriction above the base. Greenbrier points in turn overlap morphologically with Pine Tree points (not to be confused with Cambron and Hulse’s Pine Tree Corner Notched type which are basically Kirk Corner-Notched points that have been heavily resharpened through serration), although Pine Tree points were separated stratigraphically from layers containing Greenbrier points at the Hester Site (Brookes 1979, McGahey 1996), so their actual chronological relationship with Greenbrier points is up for debate. Two sites on Redstone Arsenal have yielded Greenbrier points – one on an upper stream terrace, and one on the rim of an upland sink (Jorgenson and Cassedy 2009).

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Dalton points in the Middle Tennessee Valley differ considerably from the “classic” Daltons of the Mississippi River Valley, particularly through Arkansas, Kentucky, and Missouri. Middle Tennessee Valley Daltons as a group are generally smaller than classic Daltons and almost always have the blade constriction above the base as opposed to the generally more straight-sided triangular-lanceolate faces of the classic Daltons. In addition to a general difference in size and shape, another difference between the Tennessee Valley Dalton and the Dalton of the Midwest and Middle Mississippi River Valley is the virtual absence of true formal Dalton adzes in the Tennessee Valley. These wood-working tools have been well-documented in northeast Arkansas (Morse and Goodyear 1973) and are known from Dalton sites from Arkansas into central Iowa. While bifacial flaked adzes with heavily-ground hafted ends do occasionally occur on sites in the Middle Tennessee River Valley, they are usually associated with later Early Archaic assemblages (Brookes 1979). Otherwise, the Dalton tool kit is fairly typical of late Paleoindian tool kits elsewhere with a blade technology using specialized blade cores, gravers, endscrapers, and other retouched unifaces. A number of bone tools were recovered from the Quad/Beaver Lake/Dalton levels of Dust Cave as well including bone awls, cut antler tines, and an eye needle (Sherwood et al. 2004). The classic Daltons may have been a product of another evolutionary trajectory, and their shape suggests a more direct development from Clovis without the Redstone/Cumberland/Beaver Lake intermediaries. On the Great Plains, the Plainview type (Krieger 1947) is probably synonymous with classic Dalton, and Meserve points (Bell 1976) represent Dalton points with distinctive resharpening in the form of unifacial beveling along typically the right side of each blade face. This resharpening technology is a distinctive innovation that is seen among points typed as Dalton as far east as the Yazoo Basin of Mississippi (McGahey 1996). Alternate beveling is also common among some side-notched points along the Gulf Coast where they are referred to as the Bolen Beveled type (Bullen 1975). A layer containing a Bolen point was dated to 9455(9101)8747 cal. BC at the Page-Ladson Site in northwest Florida (Dunbar et al.1989). In the Middle Tennessee Valley, Lost Lake, Decatur, and Plevna points (synonymous with the St. Charles type of the Midwest) also exhibit alternate beveling. Hardin stemmed points (Scully 1951) of the Midwest seem to have directly evolved out of the Dalton/Meserve tradition, and Lost Lake points seem closely related to Hardins. Two point proximal fragments possibly representing a St. Charles (Plevna) and a Thebes (another notched type from the Midwest that frequently exhibits alternate beveling) were recovered from the lowest two strata at Graham Cave alongside Dalton points (Logan 1952), and points similar to Lost Lake and St. Charles/Plevna points were recovered from the lower levels of the Icehouse Bottom Site along with Kirk Corner-Notched points (Chapman 1973). Lost Lake points were found alongside Pine Tree points at the Hester Site (Brookes 1979, McGahey 1996). While the alternately-beveled notched types are obviously early, they have yet to be securely dated, and their relationship with Dalton is so far unclear. Complicating the relationship is the fact that Meserve points and the occasional specimens of classic Daltons that exhibit beveling are mostly beveled along the right edge. On the other hand, most beveled notched points and most of the Tennessee Valley Daltons that exhibit beveling are beveled along the left edge.

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In all, Plevna, Lost Lake, and Decatur points have been recovered from 16 sites on Redstone Arsenal. The distribution is very similar to that of Dalton and Big Sandy sites with five sites around the rims of upland sinks, six sites along upper terraces along tributaries, three sites on the upper terrace of the Tennessee River, and two sites along the first terrace of the Tennessee River where two separate isolated Lost Lake points have been collected along the shoreline of Wheeler Lake. The biggest concentration of beveled notched points on Redstone Arsenal was at 1Ma709 where at least seven Plevna points were recovered including one that had been reworked into a hafted scraper and one that had been reworked into a drill. This upland sink rim site also yielded at least two Dalton points, at least one Decatur point, and a Lost Lake point (Alexander, Thomson, and Hoksbergen 2002). The variety of unifacial tools recovered at the site suggests that a number of activities were performed there, possibly in the context of a small residential camp. Regardless of the exact dates, it seems fairly certain that the period in which beveled notched points were in use includes the centuries after Daltons ceased to be manufactured. If the end of the Dalton horizon is around 9400 BC, the beveled notched points may date to the period between 9400 and 8000 BC, possibly overlapping with the Big Sandy horizon in the Tennessee Valley region. In addressing the relationship between Dalton and Big Sandy types, function must come into play. Morse (1994) correctly notes that impact fractures are rare on Dalton points. A casual review of illustrated Dalton points from the Middle Tennessee River Valley did not turn up a single definitive impact fracture. Ahler (1971) was the first to conduct functional analysis on Dalton points on a sample from Rodgers Shelter. He documented multiple functions for Dalton points including cutting tools and drills. Functional analysis based on use-wear patterns, edge angles, and breakage of Dalton points from the Brand Site in Arkansas indicated that many Dalton points served as butchering tools (Goodyear 1974). Yerkes and Gaertner (1997) echoed these findings in their micro-wear analysis of Dalton points from the Sloan Site. Impact fractures on Big Sandy points, on the other hand, appear to be fairly common. As a microcosmic example of this, at a recently-excavated site with Dalton and Big Sandy components on Redstone Arsenal, the two Dalton points available for analysis did not exhibit any fractures that would suggest a reason for their disposal. Two of the three Big Sandy points from the site, however, exhibited well-defined impact fractures (Hoksbergen, this volume). Could Tennessee Valley Daltons have served as knives while Big Sandy points were being used for projectile points? Could the notched beveled types have replaced Daltons as knives during the transition from the Big Sandy to Kirk Corner-Notched horizon? A technofunctional analysis of a large sample of Big Sandy points using the methodologies of Goodyear (1974) and Yerkes and Gaertner (1997) would be beneficial in scientifically exploring this possibility. The true typo-temporal relationship among these point types awaits more rigorous relative and absolute dating. Tentatively, however, there seems to be an evolutionary continuum from Clovis to Redstone/Cumberland to Beaver Lake/Quad/Dalton to an early side-notched tradition in the Middle Tennessee Valley. It is important to remember 23

however, that except in rare cases such as when a population is rapidly and cataclysmically replaced by another group, technological change is usually a gradual process. There was no specific moment when everyone in the Middle Tennessee Valley decided to unanimously stop using Dalton points and start using Big Sandy points. At well-stratified sites, the vertical distribution of artifact types is almost always shaped like a battleship when viewed from above, with counts of a specific type increasing gradually through time until they are the dominant type after which they taper off slowly until that type disappears from the stratigraphy altogether. The tapered ends of each vertical “battleship” almost always coincide with the tapered ends of another artifact type. Those “pure” Dalton or “pure” Big Sandy sites may represent nothing more than the time when the “battleship” for each of those types was at its widest point.

Early Archaic The next well-dated cultural horizon in the Southeast is universally considered to represent the Early Archaic stage. The Kirk Corner-Notched horizon is thought to represent the full shift toward a more generalized hunter-forager subsistence with a focus on a broader range of food sources which represent the modern array of native wild species. Settlement seems to have focused on progressively smaller home ranges, and a broader variety of landforms seem to have been utilized with a greater focus on stream terraces as opposed to sink rims. Kirk Corner-Notched points represent one of the most common hafted biface types on Redstone Arsenal suggesting a steady population increase from the preceding Dalton and Big Sandy horizons. Thirty-four sites have yielded Kirk Corner-Notched points to date as opposed to 21 sites where Big Sandy points have been recovered. Related corner-notched types such as Palmer and Lost Lake have been found on an additional five sites. The Kirk Corner-Notched horizon has been fairly well-dated in the Southeast and provides an acceptable terminus ante quem for the previous transitional Paleoindian horizons. Layers containing Kirk Corner-Notched points yielded dates of 8355(7979)7603 BC, 8811(7988)7165 BC, and 8746(7939)7132 BC at the St. Albans Site (Broyles 1971). Sites in eastern Tennessee yielded slightly earlier dates for Kirk Corner-Notched zones; 9228(8716)8203 BC at Bacon Farm (Chapman 1978), 9294(8617)7939 BC at Rose Island, 9459(8710)7961 BC at Icehouse Bottom, and 9460(8697)7933 at the Patrick Site (Chapman 1976). The Johnson Site in north-central Tennessee yielded dates of 8315(7943)7570 BC, 8219(7936)7653 BC, and 8313(8125)7936 BC from charcoal in three basin-shaped hearths in a stratum containing only Kirk Corner-Notched points (Barker and Broster 1996). Dates from northwest Tennessee include 7984(7525)7065 BC and 8327(7932)7536 BC at the Puckett Site (Norton and Broster 1993). Taken together, these dates suggest a range from around 8000 to 7500 BC for the type. Chronological relationships among Kirk Corner-Notched points and related notched types are much more tenuous. At the Hester Site, Pine Tree points and Lost Lake points were found stratigraphically above Decatur and Jude points (McGahey 1996). Coe 24

(1964) suggests that in North Carolina, Palmer points, which he distinguishes as being small with heavily-ground bases, predate Kirk Corner-Notched points, which he defines as being larger with unground bases. At the Icehouse Bottom Site, corner-notched points that more closely resembled Lost Lake and Plevna points were more common in the lower levels while a number of corner-notched styles variously typed as Kirk CornerNotched, Palmer, Pine Tree Corner-Notched, Autauga, Ecusta, and Cocke Serrated were predominant in the upper strata (Kimball 1996). Generally, it seems that large well-made corner-notched points with heavily-ground bases and resharpening through alternate beveling (eg. Decatur, Lost Lake, Plevna/St. Charles) predate both small corner-notched points with ground bases (eg. Palmer, Autauga) and the larger types typically classified as Kirk Corner-Notched. Following the Kirk Corner-Notched horizon, points with bifurcated bases typed variously as MacCorkle, St. Albans, and LeCroy came into use. As with side-notched and cornernotched points from the earlier horizons, most bifurcated points were resharpened using serration. Settlement patterns seem to have closely mirrored the earlier Kirk CornerNotched pattern in the Middle Tennessee Valley, although site distributions along the Little Tennessee River show a greater focus on lower stream terraces on bifurcate sites compared with Kirk Corner-Notched sites which are scattered over a more diverse range of landforms (Kimball 1996). Only four sites on Redstone Arsenal have yielded documented bifurcate points. Two of these are on upper terraces along Huntsville Spring Branch, one is on the Pleistocene terrace of the Tennessee River, and one is on the rim of an upland sink. Bifurcated base points are generally rare in the Middle Tennessee Valley which seems to represent the most southwestern extent of their distribution, but they have been fairly well-dated elsewhere. St. Albans levels at the St. Albans Site were dated 10,033(8193)6353 BC and 9262(7970)6677 BC. Although the wide standard deviations of these dates limit their usefulness, the mean dates center closely around 8000 BC. The LeCroy level at the St. Albans Site was dated at 7513(7288)7063 BC and overlaid the St. Albans and MacCorkle levels suggesting a trend toward more extreme bifurcation with more pointed lobes on the base (Broyles 1971). Charcoal from a hearth in a stratum containing only bifurcate points at the Johnson Site in north-central Tennessee yielded a date of 8324(8019)7713 BC (Barker and Broster 1996). True bifurcates seem to have been manufactured between 8200 and 7200 BC, a range that overlaps with the Kirk Corner-Notched dates by 800 years. This suggests that while bifurcated points replaced corner-notched points in the Mid-Atlantic bifurcate heartland, corner-notched points still dominated for quite some time in surrounding areas of the Southeast. The bifurcate tradition seems to have led to the weaker bifurcations on stems of Kanawha Stemmed and Stanley Stemmed types. Kanawha Stemmed points were dated between 7477 and 6908 BC at the St. Albans Site (Broyles 1971). Stanley Stemmed points were found alongside Kirk Stemmed points at the Doerschuk Site in North Carolina although all the Kirk Stemmed points from the Hardaway Site were found beneath the Stanley levels (Coe 1964). Kanawha Stemmed points were found in Kirk Stemmed levels at Dust Cave (Sherwood et al. 2004). Five dates from this level ranged from 7975 to 5870 BC 25

(although Sherwood et al. consider these dates too late for Kirk Stemmed points). Considering the date from the St. Albans Site, a range from 7500 to 5800 BC seems appropriate. These dates correspond with a slew of dates from the Windover Site, a unique saturated mortuary site in eastern Florida which yielded a Kirk Stemmed point along with two similar stemmed points classified as “Florida Archaic Stemmed” (Penders 2002). Dates directly on bone collagen from the burials and on carbonized wood and botanical artifacts associated with the burials resulted in a range from 7288 to 5726 BC. One of the most remarkable aspects of this site was the abundance of non-lithic artifacts that were preserved as a result of the burials and associated funerary offerings having been staked into the submerged sediment at the margins of a karst pond. Of hundreds of artifacts recovered, only seven were composed of stone (indicating how much is typically missing from the prehistoric archaeological record). Organic artifacts included a wooden pestle, a wooden bowl, deer antler pressure flakers, antler tine projectile points, barbed antler harpoons, a bone fish gorge, geometrically incised bird bone tubes, beads of shell, bone, and Sabal palm seeds, drilled shark teeth, bone awls and pins, and a rich sample of plant fiber textiles (Doran 2002). Some burials included some of the earliest examples of atlatls in North America. The atlatls were composed of hickory shafts with an antler hook composed of a cup with a small protruding spur. On the end of the shaft opposite the hook, a shuttle-shaped drilled and carved antler handle or weight was placed. Coe (1964) had recovered a similar semi-lunar ground stone atlatl weight from the Stanley level at the Hardaway Site, and an atlatl hook identical to the ones from Windover was excavated from a burial containing Morrow Mountain points at Stanfield-Worley (DeJarnette et al. 1962). Three of the same types of atlatl hooks were associated with tubular weights/handles in burials at the Eva Site, one of which also contained a Sykes/White Springs point (Lewis and Lewis 1961). Preliminary mtDNA analysis of the human remains from Windover suggests a strong frequency of haplogroup X which seems to have been absent from historic tribal groups in the Southeast. Haplogroups A and C which are the most common groups among all Muskogean-speaking and Cherokee groups are apparently absent in the Windover sample. In fact, the Windover haplogroup distribution is unlike that of any surviving Native American population suggesting that, at least in this part of Florida, users of Kirk Stemmed points represent an extinct Native American group (Smith et al. 2002). Windover also yielded some of the earliest evidence of interpersonal violence in the Southeast. One adult male from the site was apparently beheaded and had a socketed antler tine projectile point embedded in his hip (Dickel 2002) while another middle-aged male had an impact fracture to his right eye orbital and a parry fracture on his left forearm (Richardson 1997). Skull fractures resulting from blows were found on five other skulls, and parry fractures were noted on several more (Richardson 1997). The presence of formal cemeteries at this time suggests increasingly circumscribed territories for human groups in the Southeast. This was likely a result of increased population pressure which is also hinted at by the violent trauma in the skeletal sample.

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Decreasing mobility is also suggested by one of the earliest constructed shelters documented in the Southeast which was associated with a pure Kirk Stemmed component at the Vulcan Site in western Georgia. Edges of the shelter were defined by mounded soil and large stones which presumably anchored a tent-like covering. A hearth was situated alongside the structure, and a semi-circular concentration of lithic debitage was spread around what was interpreted as the doorway (Ledbetter et al. 1996). Subsistence was still focused exclusively on wild species. Faunal remains from the Kirk Stemmed layers at Dust Cave represented a fairly even distribution of mammals, birds, and fish with a general decrease in reliance on aquatic species compared to the earlier horizons (Walker 2000). These changes in settlement and subsistence may have been related to the onset of the Hypsithermal at this time. Cyclical periods of prolonged drought and the effects that had on plant and animal communities that the human hunter-gatherers were dependent on would have further stressed populations that were already dealing with diminishing home ranges. The onset of the Hypsithermal during the Middle Holocene is usually seen as the transition from the Early Archaic to the Middle Archaic Period.

Middle Archaic A horizon represented by Eva and Morrow Mountain points is the first well-accepted hallmark of the Middle Archaic in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Zones K, J, and E at Dust Cave contained a significant concentration of these types and yielded dates between 5900 and 4500 BC (Sherwood et al. 2004). This date range extends about a thousand years later than most of the dates for other Eva-Morrow Mountain components throughout Alabama and Tennessee including 6229(5990)5751 BC and 5218(5058)4897 BC at Sheeps Bluff Shelter (Hollingsworth 1991), 5632(5417)5201 BC at the Stucks Bluff Shelter (DeJarnette et al. 1975), 6399(6052)5704 BC at the Eva Site (Lewis and Lewis 1961), and 6366(5925)5484 BC at Icehouse Bottom (Chapman 1977). These broad-bladed, contracting stemmed, rounded based and basally-notched points have no obvious progenitor. There is some suggestion at the Eva Site and at Dust Cave that the basally-notched Eva type came into use earlier than the Morrow Mountain types, but it’s difficult to conceive of an earlier type that Eva could have developed out of. Eva points seem to be restricted to the Tennessee Valley while Morrow Mountain I points (which correspond with Cambron and Hulse’s Morrow Mountain Rounded Base type) in the Carolina Piedmont typically overlie Stanley levels without any sort of transitional type in between (Coe 1964). In the Eva phase at the Eva type site, 80% of the hafted bifaces in the component were of the Eva I type which Lewis and Lewis (1961) characterize as broad, well-thinned points with two basal notches perpendicular to the base, and squared-off barbs. The similar Eva II type which is smaller and narrower with straighter, more-heavily retouched blade margins and sharper barbs, was more common in the lower part of the overlying Three 27

Mile phase along with Morrow Mountain I points which overlapped with them morphologically. Other artifacts recovered from the Eva and Three Mile strata included cup-style atlatl hooks, stone and antler atlatl weights, antler handles, bone fish hooks, turkey bone calls, socketed antler projectile points, and a myriad of other stone and bone tools. Users of Morrow Mountain points seemed to prefer rock shelters and shallow caves for the burial of their dead. Five of the six burials at Russell Cave were associated with the Morrow Mountain occupation (Griffin 1974) as were at least three of the eleven burials at Stanfield-Worley (DeJarnette et al. 1962). The majority of the burials at Dust Cave also seem to be associated with the Eva-Morrow Mountain component (Sherwood et al. 2004). Shell mounds also contain Eva and Morrow Mountain burials. The Mulberry Creek Shell Mound included burials of at least three individuals with Morrow Mountain points embedded in the skeletons (Webb and DeJarnette 1942). These signs of interpersonal violence demonstrate a continuity of small scale conflict that first becomes evident in the preceding Kirk Stemmed horizon. Dog burials also show up at this time on several of the shell mound sites including Eva and Little Bear Creek. Although domesticated dogs probably came over to North America with the first Paleoindian migrations, this is the first direct evidence for the presence of domesticated dogs in the Southeast, and their formal burials indicate a special status afforded them beginning in the Middle Archaic, a trend that continued through the Late Archaic. Several examples of Eva and Morrow Mountain point types have been found on sites in a diverse array of settings throughout Redstone Arsenal. They are the earliest type to occur in any abundance on the modern Tennessee River bank suggesting that the modern river channel was fully established by this time. In fact, the Eva-Morrow Mountain horizon is frequently represented by the basal levels of many of the major shell mounds along Tennessee River indicating a shift in subsistence to a greater focus on shellfish. The shell mounds may represent warm season aggregation along the river with dispersal into the uplands in the autumn and winter to hunt and exploit mast. The latter part of this pattern is represented on Redstone Arsenal by Eva-Morrow Mountain sites on tributary stream terraces, on the rims of upland sinks, and on small sites along the lower slopes of Madkin Mountain. The appearance of this settlement pattern in the Middle Archaic represents the initiation of a tradition that continued with minor variations well into the Woodland Period. A few hundred years into the Eva-Morrow Mountain horizon, stemmed points known variously by the Sykes or White Springs types came into use. These points were manufactured by the removal of the basal corners from broad triangular bifaces. Features and strata containing Sykes/White Springs points have been fairly tightly dated throughout northern Alabama and Mississippi and central Tennessee to between 6000 and 4000 BC (Meeks 2000, Hollingsworth 1991, Bense 1987, Alexander 1983), overlapping with the Eva-Morrow Mountain horizon. Their co-occurrence with Morrow Mountain points has been demonstrated at Stanfield-Worley and Mulberry Creek Shell 28

Mound (Webb and DeJarnette 1942) where burials were found that contained Morrow Mountain and Sykes/White Springs points together. Sykes/White Springs points seem to have evolved directly into the Benton type which is generally more elongated with bifacial beveling around the stem and occasionally the blade edges. Benton points are well-dated with abundant concurring radiocarbon dates. Meeks (2000) presents a table summarizing published radiocarbon dates for Benton components throughout the “Benton heartland” in the Middle Tennessee River and upper Tombigbee river valleys into central Tennessee. It includes eight for northwest Alabama, 17 for northeast Mississippi, and two from central Tennessee. Of these, 17 have standard deviations below 100. The calibrated (2Σ) dates cluster neatly between 4500 and 3900 B.C. There is a well-established pattern of a preference for Fort Payne Chert in the manufacture of Benton points. Specifically, the blue-gray variety of Fort Payne Chert seems to have had special significance for the makers of Bentons. Alexander (1983) notes that Benton points from the Emmett O’Neal Site were frequently manufactured from blue-gray Fort Payne Chert and that specimens made of this material tended to be larger, thinner, and more well-made than specimens made from local raw materials. Futato (1983) observed a similar pattern in the Cedar Creek watershed in northwest Alabama. Of Meeks’ (2000) sample of 626 Benton points of all subtypes from throughout north Alabama, northeast Mississippi, and central Tennessee, 80% were made of material from the Fort Payne Formation, and this percentage remained constant even as distance from the source area for Fort Payne Chert increased. A unique function of certain Benton points was documented by Johnson and Brookes (1989) based on several caches of large bifaces found along the Tombigbee and Tennessee Rivers. All of these caches included Benton points (usually toward the upper end of the Benton size range) and very large bifaces with hafting elements identical to Benton points which the authors classified as “Oversized Bentons”. Also included were what appeared to be large stemless Benton preforms which they termed “Cache Blades” and “Oversized Cache Blades” and large Benton forms with side notches directly above the stem which Johnson and Brookes identified as “Double Notch Square Base” points. Single and double-notched Turkey Tail forms were also included. None of the cache bifaces exhibited use wear or evidence of rejuvenation, and the extraordinary length (between 135 and 249 mm) and thinness of the Oversized Bentons, Double Notches, Turkey Tails, and Oversized Cache Blades suggests that they were non-utilitarian ceremonial forms (Johnson and Brookes 1989). As with other Bentons, these cache blades were overwhelmingly composed of blue-gray Fort Payne Chert. Johnson and Brookes hypothesize that these caches of non-utilitarian bifaces functioned as sacred markers for the exchange of Fort Payne Chert throughout what they term the “Benton Interaction Sphere” which they defined as being centered on the upper Tombigbee drainage of northeast Mississippi and the Pickwick Basin of the Tennessee River. This locus of the Benton Interaction Sphere probably extends up the Tennessee River as far as Redstone Arsenal. In Morgan County, Alabama, Fundaburk and Forman (1957) illustrated a cache of two over-sized Benton points, a Benton preform, and eight 29

ceremonially “killed” bi-pointed cache blades, all of concentrically banded “blue-gray flint”. They also illustrated a second cache of four “nodular blue-gray chert” Turkey Tails and one bi-pointed cache blade recovered from a dwarf burial near a shell mound in Limestone County (Graig 1960). Local collectors have mentioned a cache of blades that may represent the farthest upstream extension of the Benton Interaction Sphere which were found eroding out of the riverbank near site 1Mg801 directly across the river from Redstone Arsenal (Van King, personal communication 5/12/09). On Redstone Arsenal, the distribution of both Sykes/White Springs and Benton points as well as the associated Buzzard Roost Creek and Elk River types reflects an apparent increased focus on stream terraces along the Tennessee River and its tributaries. While Eva and Morrow Mountain points are common in the uplands and on sites around the rims of upland sinks, Sykes/White Springs and Benton points are rarely found in those settings. Evidence of architecture in the form of circular prepared clay floors, some with post holes and hearths have been documented for the latter part of the Middle Archaic in middens on river terrace sites along the Tombigbee River (Rafferty et al. 1980, Ensor and Studer 1983) indicating a degree of sedentism, at least during periods of seasonal aggregation. Late Archaic By around 2500 BC, climatic conditions had become more in line with the situation today. The trend away from the dry conditions of the Hypsithermal began around 3000 BC. This climatic change coincides with a shift in hafted biface technology from Sykes/White Springs and Benton points to the Late Archaic Ledbetter and Pickwick types. Although less defined, Elora Mulberry Creek, and Maples points are similar in form and are probably related. Strata containing Pickwick and Ledbetter points have been dated to between 3600 and 1100 BC at several sites along the middle Duck River in central Tennessee (Hall et al. 1985). At the Sheeps Bluff Shelter, a Pickwick point was recovered directly below a level which yielded a date of 4340(3984)3627 BC (Hollingsworth 1991) suggesting that the Pickwick and Ledbetter horizon might extend back to the latter part of the Benton horizon. Few isolated Pickwick-Ledbetter components have been investigated, but the appearance of these types above Benton levels at shell mounds along the Middle Tennessee River suggests continuity with the subsistence and settlement patterns established during the Middle Archaic. The distribution of Pickwick and Ledbetter points at Redstone Arsenal is almost identical to that of Sykes/White Springs and Benton points with a focus on terraces along the Tennessee River and major tributaries, with a general absence on upland sites. Straight-stemmed Little Bear Creek points came into use in the Middle Tennessee Valley by around 3000 BC. Dates of 1433(1238)1043 BC and 2463(1997)1530 BC were returned from two features containing Little Bear Creek points at the Dam Axis Site in Franklin County (Oakley and Futato 1975). The Little Bear Creek stratum at the Spring Creek Site in Perry County, Tennessee yielded a date of 2032(1643)1253 BC (Peterson 30

1973), and two sites in Hardin County, Tennessee yielded dates of 1891(1502)1112 BC (Peterson 1980) and 1319(1115)910 BC (Dye 1980) for their Little Bear Creek components. A cluster of earlier dates were obtained in the upper Tombigbee River Valley for Little Bear Creek components. The Walnut Site yielded a date of 3769(3730)3691 BC, and the Beech Site yielded a date of 3498(3467)3436 BC (Bense 1987). Most archaeologists place the Little Bear Creek horizon between 2000 and 1200 BC, although the Tombigbee dates suggest that it extended back to the middle of the 4th millennium BC. True Little Bear Creek points generally seem to be more common downstream in the Pickwick Basin. Their dates overlap with Pickwick points which are more common on Redstone Arsenal which perhaps represents a rough territorial division between two different contemporary Late Archaic cultures. Sites with Little Bear Creek components on Redstone Arsenal continue a focus on terraces along the river and its tributaries. Subsistence probably differed little from the Pickwick-Ledbetter horizon. Futato (1975) discusses subsistence during the Perry Phase in the Pickwick Basin which is characterized by the presence of Little Bear Creek points. He notes that in addition to shellfish, whitetail deer played a major role in the Perry Phase diet. The extraction of marrow from crushed deer long bones through boiling may account for the pits filled with fire-cracked rock which are common features on Late Archaic sites in the area. Late Archaic strata along the Tennessee River on Redstone Arsenal are characterized by a nearly continuous layer of burned rocks. Nuts were also a primary food source. In most Late Archaic sites in the area, hickory nuts dominate, followed by acorns and walnuts. The high density of nut shells in a Late Archaic firecracked rock pit at Site 1Ms468 (Hoksbergen and Alexander 2006) suggests that rock boiling may also have been used to extract fats from crushed nuts. While the Late Archaic up to this point reflected a general continuity with subsistence and settlement patterns going back to the latter part of the Middle Archaic, cultural traits more commonly associated with the Woodland Period begin to appear. Incipient agriculture is indicated by the presence of domesticated plant seeds in Late Archaic strata. Small numbers of domesticated seeds of goosefoot, sumpweed, and sunflower have been recovered from Late Archaic deposits dated between 1200 and 1800 BC in rockshelters in the Cumberland Plateau of eastern Kentucky (Gremillion 1996). Earlier still, and closer to the Middle Tennessee Valley, domesticated sunflower seeds from the Hayes Site on the Duck River in central Tennessee were directly dated to between 3025 and 2835 BC (Crites 1993). The stratum the Hayes Site seeds were recovered from contained both Benton and Ledbetter points, but the date suggests an association with the Ledbetter horizon. The construction of artificial earthworks in the Middle Tennessee Valley also seems to have begun in the Late Archaic. Although elaborate earthworks were already being constructed during the Middle Archaic at sites like Watson Brake, Frenchman’s Bend, and Lower Jackson, this phenomenon was confined to the lower Mississippi River Valley. Late Archaic levels at the Whitesburg Bridge Site just upstream from Redstone Arsenal, however, included at least one low mound of artificially introduced dense red clay (Gage 2008). The idea for the construction of earthen mounds may have diffused 31

from the lower Mississippi River Valley. Contact between local Late Archaic groups and the Poverty Point culture of Louisiana is suggested by red jasper zoomorphic beads found with a burial on Seven Mile Island which are very similar to beads recovered from the Poverty Point Site (Webb 1971). Lithic raw material from the Middle Tennessee Valley has also been found at Poverty Point (Futato 1980). The final Woodland Period trait, pottery, came about during the next Late Archaic horizon. This horizon is characterized by square-stemmed, barbed Wade points and related types including the Cotaco Creek, Limestone, Motley, and McIntire types. Early dates for these types were obtained at several sites in the Normandy Reservoir in central Tennessee including 1640(1200)760 BC at the Nowlin II Site (Keel 1978) and 1455(1149)842 BC at the Banks III Site (McCollough and Faulkner 1976). The Westmoreland-Barber Site in the Nickajack Reservoir of the Tennessee River yielded dates of 1260(870)479 BC and 785(412)38 BC for Wade deposits (Faulkner and Graham 1966). The accepted date range for the Wade Phase is around 1200-400 BC. A date of 416 BC to AD 388 (14 BC) for a Wade burial on Site 1Ma126 on Redstone Arsenal was thrown out as being too late (Oakley and Driskell 1987), although it may indicate that Wade points were in use well into the last century BC. Wade horizon settlement patterns suggest a renewed focus on upland resources. Riverbank sites continue to have evidence for heavy exploitation at that time, and Wade burials are frequently located along the Tennessee River terraces. An example of these Wade burials is the one mentioned above which was excavated at site 1Ma126 on Redstone Arsenal. This fully flexed burial of a young adult male (USACE 1996) contained a flint-knapping kit consisting of a quartzite hammerstone, a drilled implement made from an antler base, an antler tine, a beaver incisor, six chert flakes, two preforms, and five Wade points (Oakley and Driskell 1987). Frequent logistical forays into the uplands are also indicated at Redstone Arsenal by the abundance of Wade and Cotaco Creek points found along the rims of upland sinks and isolated on small sites on upland crests and in the mouths of upland caves. Even more diagnostic than the hafted bifaces, bowls carved from steatite or sandstone are the true horizon markers of the terminal Archaic. At the Nowlin II Site, steatite vessel fragments were associated exclusively with Wade horizon points (Keel 1978). At Site 40Cf35, a steatite vessel was found inverted over a cache of Wade points, bifacial knives, and hematite abraders (Faulkner and McCollough 1974). The Middle Tennessee Valley is the focus of one of the largest concentrations of stone vessels in eastern North America. Neutron activation analysis of trace elements in three steatite sherds from the Bellefonte Site in Jackson County showed that two of the sherds had chemical signatures very similar to steatite from Soapstone Ridge in DeKalb County, Georgia (Futato 1977). A steatite sherd from 1Pi13 in the Gainesville Lake area was also traced to this source (Ensor 1981). The nearest known prehistoric steatite quarries to Redstone Arsenal are in Tallapoosa County, Alabama around 200 km to the southeast. Transportation of the steatite vessels therefore would require trips of 200 km or more across one or more major drainage divides. More likely steatite was obtained in the Middle Tennessee Valley through “down-the-line” exchange from adjacent group to adjacent group. Middle 32

Tennessee Valley groups also carved stone bowls from local sandstone to compensate for the long distance required for importing steatite bowls. Sandstone bowls are concentrated in the upper Wheeler Basin where two of every three stone vessels are locally produced (King 2007). Redstone Arsenal seems to mark the downstream edge of this locus of local sandstone bowl production although sandstone bowls have been found downstream in the Pickwick Basin and as far away as central Mississippi (Finn 2008). Steatite sherds overwhelmingly dominate at Redstone. The Redstone collection contains only nine sandstone bowl fragments as opposed to dozens of steatite bowl sherds. The weight of steatite and sandstone vessels probably limited their transportation to sites accessible by watercraft. Accordingly, almost all of the stone bowl sherds found on Redstone Arsenal were recovered from riverbank sites. Small numbers have been found along the lower reaches of Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch, but a substantial Wade component with numerous Wade points and multiple steatite sherds was also documented a full 23 km upstream from the Tennessee River on Huntsville Spring Branch at site 1Ma133.

Gulf Formational It was probably through the exchange of stone bowls that ceramic technology first diffused into the Tennessee Valley. The earliest date for ceramics in North America is 3370(3138)2905 BC for fiber-tempered ceramics at the Rabbit Mount Site on the lower Savannah River (Stoltman 1966). Subsequent dating has confirmed the appearance of fiber-tempered pottery on the south Georgia and north Florida Atlantic coast by the latter half of the fourth millennium BC (Sassaman 2004). The Wheeler series fiber-tempered pottery centered on the Middle Tennessee and Upper Tombigbee River valleys was likely inspired by these early coastal ceramic traditions. The idea for fiber-tempered ceramic vessels may have been imported from the east along the same routes as steatite from the Appalachian plateau, although the conspicuous absence of fiber-tempered pottery in the Appalachian highlands of central Georgia and northeast Alabama has led some to propose a Gulf coastal origin for Wheeler ceramics (Walthall 1980, Finn 2008). According to that model, Wheeler ceramics would have arrived via the Florida Gulf Coast which in turn probably received the idea from the Orange culture of the Florida Atlantic Coast. The term Gulf Formational was introduced by Walthall and Jenkins (1976) to describe these early ceramic traditions in the Southeast, distinguishing them from the later Early Woodland ceramic traditions that originated in the lower Midwest or Mid-Atlantic states. The appearance of the Wheeler Series in the Middle Tennessee and Upper Tombigbee River valleys has been estimated to have occurred sometime around 1200 BC and marks the initiation of the Middle Gulf Formational Period which coincides with the spread of fiber-tempered ceramics westward along the Gulf Coast (Walthall and Jenkins 1976). Unfortunately, however, absolute dates have been elusive for the Wheeler Complex.

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The undecorated Wheeler Plain is the most common Wheeler Series type, but puncatated, simple-stamped, dentate–stamped, and rarely, incised surface treatments also occur. Based on stratigraphic associations at the Bluff Creek Site in the Pickwick Basin, Walthall (1980) suggested that the plain and punctated types predated the simple-stamped and dentate-stamped types. Wheeler vessels typically resembled flower pots in shape with flat bottoms and straight sides with simple rounded lips. The use of stone bowls seems to have overlapped to a degree with the use of ceramics throughout the Southeast. Both steatite vessels and Wheeler ceramics were an early part of the Poverty Point exchange network. The two container types likely had a similar function, permitting cooking through direct heat as opposed to stone boiling. An AMS date of 810(680)550 BC on carbonized deposits on the interior of a steatite sherd at the Blackburn Fork Site in Blount County, Alabama (Finn 2008) indicates that stone bowl use persisted nearly into the Woodland Period. This late date is corroborated by similar dates on other steatite sherds from Blount County and from Johns Island, Florida (Finn 2008). Walthall (1973) also reported steatite and sandstone vessels among an Early Woodland Colbert II assemblage at the MacDonald Village Site in the uplands along Guntersville Lake. Cotaco Creek points also continued to be used into the Middle Gulf Formational. They have been associated with Wheeler Ceramics at several sites throughout north Alabama and the Middle Tennessee Valley (Benthall 1965). Wheeler settlement patterns were modeled by Jenkins (1974) based on the distribution and character of Wheeler components in the Pickwick Basin. From May through October, the users of Wheeler ceramics appear to have congregated at shoals along the Tennessee River to collect shellfish. The resmainder of the year, they seem to have dispersed into the uplands to subsist primarily on nut foods, returning to the shoals in May after the high waters subsided. A Wheeler component at Redstone Arsenal was represented by 13 Wheeler Plain sherds, a steatite fragment, and two Wade/Cotaco Creek points recovered from Level 17 of Test Unit 5 at 1Ma285 (Oakley and Driskell 1985). Widely scattered Wheeler ceramics have been recovered from an additional eight sites, all along the first terrace of the Tennessee River with the exception of Beartail Rockshelter where only two fiber-tempered sherds were recovered (Meyer 1997). Sometime around 900 BC, fiber-tempered ceramics began to be replaced by the sandtempered Alexander Series in the Middle Tennessee and Upper Tombigbee valleys. It is generally thought that Alexander ware developed out of Wheeler ceramic technology. This is supported by the fact that Wheeler sherds and Alexander sherds are almost always found together, though in varying percentages. Alexander potters developed a much broader repertoire of surface treatments. Incising appears to have been initially adopted by Wheeler potters, but was brought to new heights by Alexander potters. Although rare, incised Wheeler ceramics have been found including a fiber-tempered sherd from Beartail Rockshelter with incising indistinguishable from that found on Alexander 34

Incised ceramics (Meyer 1997). Presumably later Alexander surface treatments include pinching and fingernail punctuation (O’Hear 1990). Many Alexander vessels also have a row of nodes or bosses below the rim. Occasionally, incised Wheeler sherds also exhibit these bosses supporting the notion that Alexander ceramics developed out of the Wheeler Series (Futato 1998). Alexander ceramics include vessel shapes that are similar to Wheeler ceramics, but with generally more out-flaring rims and the addition of podal supports. Wheeler ceramics often contain a percentage of sand intermixed with the fiber temper, so it would not be a major technological leap to switch to pure sand tempering. Finn (2008) summarizes the dates for Alexander components throughout north Alabama and northeast Mississippi. If the two outliers from the Sanders Site are thrown out, all the Alexander dates seem to cluster between around 1200 and 150 BC. Widely scattered Wheeler ceramics have been recovered along the modern Tennessee River bank at nine different sites on Redstone Arsenal, a distribution similar to that for steatite sherds. Alexander ceramics, on the other hand, have only been recovered in numbers sufficient to be considered true components at two locales. One Alexander component is along the stretch of shoreline encompassed by sites 1Ma26 and 1Ma27. These two adjacent sites (which might be more properly considered a single large site) also represent the largest concentration of Wheeler sherds on the installation. Alexander Incised and O’Neal Plain dominate on these sites, but Alexander Pinched also occurs. Wheeler ceramics are about a third as common as Alexander ware and are represented by Wheeler Plain and Wheeler Dentate Stamped. Interestingly, crushed quartz and sandtempered ceramics with cord marking or fabric marking are also present at these sites in quantities similar to the Wheeler ceramics. The crushed quartz-tempered sherds are strikingly similar to Watts Bar ceramics from east Tennessee. The only other site where Watts Bar ceramics were recovered was Beartail Rockshelter where 16 Watts Bar sherds were found in the jumbled midden of the upper part of the stratigraphy. Eight Alexander and two Wheeler sherds were also recovered from this context (Meyer 1997). The isolated occurrence of Watts Bar ceramics at both of the only sites on the Arsenal with concentrations of Alexander ceramics suggests contemporaneity. The dominance of incised over pinched Alexander sherds at both sites and the high percentage of Wheeler ceramics (around 20% of all Gulf Formational ceramics at both sites) with late decorative motifs suggests that both Alexander components date to fairly early in the Late Gulf Formational Period. Although the ceramics have only been recovered in an eroded surface context at 1Ma26/1Ma27 and in a disturbed upper stratum at Beartail, the presence of Early Woodland Watts Bar ceramics is noteworthy and suggests contact between Wheeler Basin Alexander groups and groups much farther upriver. Watts Bar components center between Chattanooga and Knoxville on the Tennessee River and its major tributaries and have been dated to between 600 and 400 BC (Lafferty 1981). Alexander groups farther afield seem to have also been a part of this exchange. A single Watts Bar sherd was also found alongside Gulf Formational ceramics at 22Ts706 in the divide-cut section of the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway (O’Hear et al. 1985), and some thirty Watts Bar sherds were found in association with an Alexander component at the Blackburn Fork Site (Finn 2008).

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Stemmed Flint Creek points are the type most commonly associated with Alexander components. The distinctive fine serrations on resharpened specimens of Flint Creek points and frequently asymmetrical blades suggest that they were used as knives, although some of these specimens do exhibit impact fractures indicating that these were used as projectile points. At least 27 sites along the terraces of the Tennessee River and its tributaries on Redstone Arsenal have yielded one or more Flint Creek points. This suggests that settlement during the Late Gulf Formational Period focused on riverine resources with large camps along the river and scattered small logistical camps on the upper terraces and up the tributaries.

Early Woodland Sometime after around 500 BC, Gulf Formational ceramics in the Middle Tennessee Valley began to be replaced by limestone-tempered wares diffusing downriver from east Tennessee, marking the beginning of the Woodland Period in the area. This initial Woodland manifestation in north Alabama has been termed the Colbert Culture (Walthall 1980). Knight (1990) divided Colbert into two phases, Colbert I and Colbert II, and placed Colbert I in the Early Woodland period estimating it to date between 600 and 300 BC. Colbert I was defined by assemblages dominated by cord-wrapped stick and fabric impressed limestone-tempered ware known as Long Branch Fabric Marked. Alexander and/or Watts Bar ceramics occasionally occur as minority types in Colbert I assemblages as does the undecorated limestone-tempered Mulberry Creek Plain. Stamped ceramics are a later introduction, and their presence distinguishes Middle Woodland Colbert II assemblages from Colbert I along with the absence of Alexander ceramics in Colbert II. Limestone-tempered Wright Check Stamped became a prominent minority type in Colbert II assemblages which are still dominated by Long Branch Fabric Marked followed by Mulberry Creek Plain. Futato (1998) distinguished the two phases by the projectile point technology, associating Upper Valley and Ebenezer cluster points with Colbert I and Greenville (McFarland) cluster points with Colbert II. Knight (1990) placed Colbert II between 300 and 100 BC. Early Colbert ceramic technology may have developed from crushed quartzite-tempered ceramics in the upper reaches of the Tennessee River Valley around 600 BC (Lafferty 1981). The thin-walled, sparse crushed quartzite-tempered Swannanoa ceramics with their cord-marked and fabric-impressed surface treatments may have made their way into the upper Tennessee Valley by around 1200 BC and were probably ancestral to the Watts Bar series in the section of river between Knoxville and Chattanooga (Lafferty 1981). Both Watts Bar and limestone-tempered wares seem to have made their way down the river to north Alabama during the later part of the Gulf Formational. Limestonetempered ceramics had made it as far as the Guntersville Basin by the sixth century BC where they were found at the Bellefonte Site in a burial pit dated to 789(578)367 BC (Futato 1977). By the end of the first century AD, the Colbert culture extended all the way into the Pickwick Basin and up the tributaries there where Oakley and Futato (1975) got a date of 165 BC (134 AD) AD 433 for a feature containing Long Branch Fabric Marked, Mulberry Creek Plain, and O’Neal Plain sherds at the Little Bear Creek Site. 36

Both Watts Bar and Long Branch Fabric Marked sherds are occasionally found alongside Alexander sherds in north Alabama (Finn 2008). Ebenezer and Upper Valley hafted biface technology is not well-defined for the Middle Tennessee River Valley. The Ebenezer type has been subdivided into several sub-types based on stem morphology in the Upper Tennessee River Valley (Lafferty 1981). The various subtypes are all basically ovate bifaces with either tapered bases forming rudimentary stems, flat based contracting stems, or pointed contracting stems. In Alabama, specimens with contracting or tapered pointed stems are often typed as Gary points. The Upper Valley cluster is based on the Upper Valley Side Notched type defined by Kneberg (1956). These include somewhat roughly-made triangular bifaces with shallow side notches or short expanding stems. Related types in north Alabama might include the Sublet Ferry, Coosa, and Coosa Notched types. Settlement patterns during Colbert I included an apparent expansion of exploitation of upland resources. Russell Cave (Griffin 1974) and several rockshelters on Sand Mountain (Clayton 1965) had substantial Colbert components. Warm season aggregation along the Tennessee River is indicated by large middens at sites like Whitesburg Bridge (Webb and DeJarnette 1948) and Bellefonte (Futato 1978). Early Colbert culture is not well represented at Redstone Arsenal and generally becomes even less common farther downriver. A number of Upper Valley cluster points have been recovered from the riverbank along sites 1Ma26 and 1Ma27. A fair amount of Long Branch Fabric Marked pottery has also been recovered there. The northern part of the beach along site 1Ma1141 just upriver from these sites has yielded a ceramic assemblage almost exclusively composed of Long Branch Fabric Marked. A single Alexander Incised sherd was also recovered there that was relatively thin with broad rectilinear incising, a motif distinct from the Alexander sherds at 1Ma26/1Ma27. Limited Phase II investigations at 1Ma1141 did not identify any substantial components, but a single Long Branch Fabric Marked sherd and two sand-tempered sherds were recovered from the 7080 cm level (Alexander, Hoksbergen, and Wolke 2006). Long Branch Fabric Marked sherds have only been recovered from sites along the Tennessee River terraces with the exception of three sites including Beartail Rockshelter which may represent another Colbert I assemblage (Meyer 1997), 1Ma120 in the uplands along the lower reaches of Huntsville Spring Branch which yielded Long Branch Fabric Marked and plain sandtempered ceramics (Alexander 1979), and Fishin’ Hole Cave (1Ma148) which yielded a single Long Branch Fabric Marked sherd (Alexander 1979). The distribution of Ebenezer, Gary, and Coosa points is similar with most points found on riverbank sites with the exception of Beartail Rockshelter and isolated occurrences on five sites on tributary terraces.

Middle Woodland Long Branch Fabric Marked gradually fell out of use over time, being replaced by Mulberry Creek Plain and various stamped limestone tempered wares. Middle Woodland 37

Colbert II assemblages are still dominated by Long Branch Fabric Marked, but Mulberry Creek Plain increases with time, and Wright Check Stamped represents a significant minority type (Knight 1990, Futato 1998). Knight (1990) proposed that by around 100 BC, Mulberry Creek Plain eclipsed Long Branch Fabric Marked as the majority type, and Wright Check Stamped became the most common decorated type followed by Long Branch Fabric Marked and other carved paddle-stamped limestone-tempered ceramics including Bluff Creek Simple Stamped and Pickwick Complicated Stamped as well as Flint River Cord Marked. Knight referred to this phase as the Green Mountain Phase based on the assemblage on lower Zone B at the Flint River Site. He provisionally dated the Green Mountain Phase from 100 BC to AD 100. Triangular McFarland or Greenville Cluster projectile points probably became the dominant hafted biface technology by late Colbert times. This cluster includes the Camp Creek, Greenville, and Nolichucky types (Lafferty 1981) as well as Benjamin, Candy Creek, Copena, and Copena Triangular points. There was some continuity with Colbert I in the settlement and subsistence patterns at this time. Large shell midden sites like Whitesburg Bridge and Flint River continued to be used. On Redstone Arsenal, shell middens and pits at 1Ma285 yielded artifact assemblages identical to Knight’s proposed Green Mountain Phase. A radiocarbon date of 673(508)342 BC from one of the shell pits (Oakley and Driskell 1987) is about 400 years too early according to Knight’s model. Use of upland settings dramatically increased during the early Middle Woodland. At Redstone Arsenal, 17 sites on terraces adjacent to the Tennessee River have yielded McFarland/Greenville Cluster points, but at least 18 sites in the uplands have yielded those points, too. A change in subsistence seems to be the cause for this shift. At upland site 1Ma709, a basin-shaped pit feature (Feature 8) was excavated that yielded a Copena Triangular point and limestone-tempered ceramics including 79% Mulberry Creek Plain and 21% Bluff Creek Simple Stamped. A date of 4 BC (AD 119) AD 242 was returned on wood charcoal from this feature (Alexander, Thomson, and Hoksbergen 2002), placing it at the transition between Knight’s Green Mountain Phase and his succeeding Walling Phase. Abundant charred organic material in this feature was dominated by hickory nut shells. Hickory wood charcoal, nine persimmon seeds, two acorn fragments, and one sassafras seed were also recovered. A similar pit feature (Feature 7) yielded a similar botanical sample dominated by charred hickory nut shell and wood charcoal (Raymer 2002). The function of these pits is difficult to discern, but both contained an appreciable amount of charred organics and ash, and burned earth was concentrated around the edges of the pits indicating that fires were burned within them. The nutshells may have represented nuts gathered and processed on site, and they may have been added to the fire pits to create smoke for preparing animal hides. Regardless of the function, Site 1Ma709 represents specialized subsistence activity on a relatively small scale suggesting it was a logistical camp for specific resource extraction. The following Middle Woodland Phase which Knight (1990) terms the Walling Phase dates from AD 100-350 based on dates from the Walling Mound which straddles the 38

Arsenal boundary in the southeast corner of the Installation. The Walling Phase ceramic assemblage is dominated by Mulberry Creek Plain, followed by Flint River Cord Marked, then Bluff Creek Simple Stamped, followed by other carved paddle-stamped wares. Ceramic diversity in the area reached new heights with minority appearances of imported ceramics such as clay-tempered McKelvey Plain and Marksville Stamped showing influence from the Lower Mississippi River Marksville culture. The limestone-tempered Harris Rocker Stamped type also shows up as a minority and suggests influence from the Ohio River Valley where rocker stamping is a common trait among classic Hopewellian assemblages (Knight 1990). Projectile point technology continued to include the McFarland/Greenville cluster, but Walling flint-knappers began to include shallow constrictions above the point bases resulting in expanding stems in what Knight termed the Lanceolate Expanded Stem cluster. This cluster includes the types Bakers Creek, Mud Creek, and Swan Lake. Small bladelets struck from polyhedral cores of high quality, sometimes exotic raw material are also part of the Walling lithic repertoire. The construction of artificial earthworks seems to have reached its golden age during the time of the Walling Phase. Burial mounds began to be constructed in the area as early as 500 BC, but during the Walling Phase, Middle Woodland groups began constructing ceremonial platform mounds in the Southeast in addition to their burial mounds. Unlike the burial mounds, the platform mounds were usually located at habitation sites. Some of the most well-known examples include Kolomoki Mounds in southwest Georgia, Marksville Mounds in central Louisiana, and Pinson Mounds in western Tennessee. In the Middle Tennessee Valley, these types of sites typically include a single flat-topped mound in association with a habitation site and one or more smaller burial mounds which were located some distance from the village area. Examples include the Florence Mound in Lauderdale County and Oakville Mounds in Lawrence County. The Walling Mound is the closest example. The mound straddles the eastern boundary of the Arsenal, and the half of this mound not on Arsenal land was thoroughly investigated by The University of Alabama in 1986 in preparation for a Huntsville City sewerline that was slated to run along the Arsenal boundary. Based on this excavation and unpublished work done on the mound by the WPA in 1941, Knight (1990) concluded that the mound was the venue for ritualistic feasting and exchange of exotic goods. An unusually high number of artifacts of exotic raw material and an abundance of deer bones from high utility parts of the animals in the midden beneath the mound suggest that this location was the site of ritualistic activity already before the mound was built. The mound was composed of alternating layers of multi-colored fill. Randomly scattered post molds of different sizes including some that held large posts a full meter in diameter occured at some levels, but did not seem to represent coherent structure patterns. Cooking hearths were also common on these surfaces. Conspicuously absent were human remains except for a few later intrusive Mississippian burials. Radiocarbon dates for the various layers of mound fill clustered tightly between AD 200 and AD 375 (Knight 1990). Settlement and subsistence patterns during the Walling Phase were probably similar to the preceding Middle Woodland phases with large riverside aggregations such as that at 39

Walling and the Flint River Site and small logistical camps scattered up the tributaries and into the uplands. The presence of fruit seeds and seeds from edible greens at the Walling Mound suggest an early to mid-summer season of occupation, although the ceremonial nature of the mound might not necessarily reflect the season of occupation at the adjacent village site. The botanical sample from the Walling Mound also included sunflower, chenopod/amaranth, maygrass, little barley, and knotweed seeds that all had characteristics suggestive of domestication (Scarry 1990). It is hard to ascertain how this early plant husbandry fit into the Walling settlement pattern. All of these potential domesticates produce seeds and grains that are relatively easy to store and transport, so their presence on a river terrace site does not necessarily indicate that Walling garden plots were located in the river bottom. A summer season occupation at the Walling Site, however would make it likely that the garden plots were nearby so that they could be easily tended throughout the summer months. Definitive Walling ceramic assemblages are unknown up the tributaries and in the uplands, so it is feasible that the riverbank sites represent year-round occupations from which logistical forays were staged throughout the year to probe the areas away from the river to procure upland resources. Smaller residential camps seem to have been scattered up and down the riverbank at some distance away from the larger sites such as Walling and Flint River. The western end of 1Ma285 may represent one such site. A hearth containing two Flint River Cord Marked and one Mulberry Creek Plain sherds was identified there in a level containing a light scatter of other Mulberry Creek Plain sherds (Oakley and Futato 1987). Another representative of this type of site may be 1Ma269 which was excavated on Redstone Arsenal in the summer of 2010. This site is located in the bluffs above the Tennessee River and is for the most part a single-component Middle Woodland site. Fourteen prehistoric features were identified including five post molds and several pits, at least 10 of which represented the Middle Woodland. All of the feature fill was saved for flotation, and analysis of the resulting botanical assemblage identified several Eastern Complex cultigens including chenopod, maygrass, little barley, and erect knotweed, as well as a Cucurbita pepo seed. Charcoal from two of the pits returned AMS dates of AD 90(130)220 and AD 140(230)250 suggesting affiliation with the Walling Phase. The ceramic assemblage included 67% Long Branch Fabric Marked, 27% Mulberry Creek Plain, 3% Wright Check Stamped, and 3% Bluff Creek Simple Stamped suggesting a Colbert II association (Alexander and Jones 2011) although all of the Long Branch Fabric Marked sherds were recovered from a single pit feature. The points recovered included Copena and Copena Triangular types. Like the Walling Site, 1Ma269 probably represents a warm season residential base camp. The following Middle Woodland phase was the Bell Hill Phase which was first defined by Jim Knight (1990) based on the assemblage recovered at 1MA210 during a survey along the eastern boundary of Redstone Arsenal in 1980 (Thomas 1980). Site 1MA210 was recorded during the survey and was delineated with shovel tests and controlled surface collection. This was followed by the excavation of two 1 m square test units and the mechanical removal of the plowzone in a 6 m by 6 m block near the area of heaviest surface artifact concentration. Four truncated pit features and 33 post molds were identified beneath the plowzone in the 6 m by 6 m block. Feature 1 was a 95 cm 40

diameter basin-shaped pit. The feature fill contained a ceramic assemblage made up of 95% Mulberry Creek Plain and 5% decorated limestone-tempered types including Flint River Cord Marked, Bluff Creek Simple Stamped, and Sauty Incised. Feature 2 was a 1 m diameter, 88 cm deep conical pit which contained 97% Mulberry Creek Plain and 3% Flint River Cord Marked ceramics as well as five Bradley Spike points. Feature 3 was a 95 cm diameter bowl-shaped pit which contained a very high density of ceramics composed of 98% Mulberry Creek Plain (smooth), 1% Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton, and 1% decorated types including Pickwick Complicated Stamped, Flint River Brushed, Flint River Cord Marked, and Bluff Creek Simple Stamped. In addition, a Wade point, five Bradley Spike points, and a New Market point were recovered from the feature fill. Feature 4 was a smaller pit or post mold intrusive into Feature 1. The post molds formed no obvious patterns beyond the possible association between a small number of the post molds and the pit features. Four post molds were located immediately around Feature 3, while Features 1/4 and 2 were both flanked by two post molds each. Although no absolute dates were obtained from any of the material from 1Ma210, Knight (1990) proposed a range of AD 350-500 for the Bell Hill Phase. All four features also yielded preserved organic remains including bones from whitetail deer, turkey, raccoon, gar and various shell fragments. Flotation of the feature fill also permitted the recovery of botanical remains representing chenopod, sunflower, squash, bottle gourd, American persimmon, American pokeweed, common purslane, Fabaceae, Galium, hawthorn, honey locust, sumac, Rhubus, blackhaw, and grape. The seed morphology of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) specimens suggested that they had been domesticated (Thomas 1980). Later analysis of bone recovered from the shovel tests revealed that human skeletal material from at least one adult had been recovered from one of the tests (USACE 1996). Based on the seeds recovered from the flotation, 1MA210 was occupied in the summer and autumn months. The presence of cultigens also suggest that the site may have been occupied in the spring months as well if the crops were planted and harvested nearby. Unfortunately, the site was destroyed in the mid-1990's during construction of additions to the English Village subdivision, so more data for shedding light on site function and seasonality can never be collected. A similar site to 1MA210 was investigated in 1988 on a terrace above Bradford Creek to the west of the Arsenal about 7.5 river miles (12.1 km) north of the Tennessee River. The site, 1MA327, was investigated by the University of Alabama Office of Archaeological Research (OAR) prior to the construction of a proposed industrial park at the location. Like 1MA210, this site was investigated with a combination of controlled surface collection and mechanical stripping of the plowzone. Unlike 1MA210, a large sample of the site was investigated with a full 55% of the plowzone removed. The plowzone stripping uncovered seven features associated with a late Middle Woodland component on the site. Feature 1/2 was a midden remnant identified in two different strip trenches. It yielded smooth Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics and a single Bradley Spike point as well as a few bone fragments. Feature 3 was an oblong basin-shaped pit averaging 83 cm in diameter. It contained 83% smooth Mulberry Creek Plain sherds, 41

13% roughened Mulberry Creek Plain sherds (var, Hamilton), and 4% Flint River Cord Marked sherds as well as one Swan Lake type projectile point. Feature 4 was a 75 cm diameter cylindrical pit which yielded only Mulberry Creek Plain (smooth) ceramics. Feature 5 was a small 30 cm diameter cylindrical pit with fire-baked walls that yielded only a single eroded limestone-tempered sherd. Feature 6 was almost identical to Feature 5. It was a 26 cm diameter cylindrical pit with fired walls and contained a single smooth Mulberry Creek Plain sherd and two eroded limestone-tempered sherds. Feature 7 was the largest pit feature with a diameter of around 82 cm and a depth of 45 cm below the plowzone. The pit was roughly cylindrical and contained the highest density of artifacts with 401 typeable ceramic sherds including 91% smooth Mulberry Creek Plain, 9% Mulberry Creek Plain var, Hamilton, and a single Bluff Creek Simple Stamped sherd. Feature 7 also contained two Bradley Spike points and the largest sample of organic remains including charcoal, carbonized hickory nuts, and bone fragments. A radiocarbon assay on one of the charcoal fragments from Feature 7 returned a radiocarbon date of 1770±70 BP (Atchison 1988) which intercepted the calibration curve at AD 85(97)109 and AD 117(265)413 both earlier than Knight’s estimate. Only three post molds were identified at the site, but all three were considered historic in age. The site has since been destroyed by the construction of the Madison County Jetplex Industrial Park. The artifact assemblages from 1MA210 and 1MA327 are almost identical. Smooth Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics dominate at between 80 and 90% followed by rough Mulberry Creek Plain sherds (Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton) at less than 10%, with less than 5% minority types including in order of frequency, Flint River Cord Marked, Bluff Creek Simple Stamped, Flint River Brushed, Pickwick Complicated Stamped, and Sauty Incised. The projectile point assemblages are dominated by Bradley Spike points followed by similar narrow, relatively crudely-made points including the New Market and Swan Lake types. Another site with a similar artifact assemblage was excavated in 1996 prior to the placement of a waterline across the site by the City of Huntsville. The University of Alabama, Office of Archaeological Services (OAS) investigated the proposed right of way for the waterline with a single plowzone removal trench across site 1MA308 which was located on the upper terrace above the Tennessee River. Eight pit features were identified near the center of the trench. Feature 1 was a 63 cm diameter basin-shaped pit which yielded 31 sherds of Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics. Feature 2 was an oblong cylindrical pit averaging 69 cm in diameter which yielded 99% Mulberry Creek Plain and 1% Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton as well as two Bradley Spikes, a Flint River Spike, and a Camp Creek point. Organic material including charcoal, bone fragments, and shell was also recovered from Feature 7. A radiocarbon date of AD 653(787)881 was obtained from charcoal found in the feature. Feature 3 was a 94 cm diameter basin shaped pit which yielded three Mulberry Creek plain sherds. Feature 4 was an oblong cylindrical pit averaging 70 cm in diameter which yielded 95% Mulberry Creek Plain and 3% Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton with 1% each of Flint River Cord Marked and limestone-tempered punctuated ceramics as well as four projectile points including a Flint River Spike, a Little Bear Creek, an Ebenezer, and a Crawford Creek. Organic material including bone fragments, shell, and charcoal were also recovered from Feature 42

4, and a radiocarbon assay on carbon fragments returned a date of AD 561(636)710. Feature 5 was a cylindrical pit averaging 123 cm in diameter. It did not yield any diagnostic artifacts and may have represented an earlier component on the site. Feature 6 was a basin-shaped pit averaging 57 cm in diameter. It yielded 15 Mulberry Creek plain sherds. Feature 7 was a large cylindrical pit averaging 102 cm in diameter with a high density of artifacts including 99% Mulberry Creek Plain and single sherds of Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton and limestone-tempered incised ceramics and a single Bradley Spike. Feature 8 was a large 170 cm diameter bell-shaped pit which yielded 95% Mulberry Creek Plain, 4% Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton, and less than 1% limestone-tempered incised sherds along with four Bradley Spikes. Faunal material from Features 2, 4, 7, and 8 included whitetail deer, gray squirrel, and various species of turtle, toads, and fish as well as freshwater pelecypods and gastropods. Another Bell Hill Phase component was investigated in 2006 on Redstone Arsenal as part of a series of Phase II investigations performed ahead of BRAC-related infrastructure improvements. This site, 1Ma1167, is a large site situated on the terraces and floodplain on the east side of Indian Creek about 12.4 km upstream from its confluence with the Tennessee River. A dense late Middle Woodland midden was identified over most of the site with a possible semi-subterranean house basin located near the edge of the lower terrace. The ceramic assemblage was made up of 98% Mulberry Creek Plain with 1% Bluff Creek Simple Stamped and a single sherd of sand-tempered complicated Stamped ware. A radiocarbon date of AD 210(305)400 was ran on charcoal from the possible house basin (Wolke and Alexander 2006). Recently, another type of Bell Hill component was investigated far in the uplands on a small terrace/alluvial fan at the confluence of an unnamed tributary of Indian Creek and a first order drainage flowing from the southwest side of Weeden Mountain. This singlecomponent site, 1Ma698, yielded a ceramic assemblage consisting exclusively of plain limestone-tempered ware (Joseph et al. 2011). All three points collected from the site could be typed as Swan Lakes (Alexander et al. 1998, Joseph et al. 2011). Three prehistoric pits were identified in the Phase II investigation. All three pits were amorphous and contained an abundance of charred hickory nut shells. An AMS date on some of the charred material from Feature 13 returned a calibrated date of AD 540(595)650 (Joseph et al. 2011), a late date more consistent with that from 1Ma308. The site appears to have been a small late autumn logistical camp focused on the procurement of hickory nuts. The pits may have served as basins for propping up ceramic vessels for boiling crushed nutmeats for the fatty oils. Dense lithic debitage across the site suggests that its occupants were also exploiting the Monteagle chert residuum that can be procured from the drainages around the base of the mountain. All five investigated Bell Hill assemblages include over 90% Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics. The most common minority types are Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton or Flint River Cord Marked. Less represented minority types include Bluff Creek Simple Stamped, Pickwick Complicated Stamped, Flint River Brushed, and various incised or punctuated limestone-tempered types. Features on the sites along the Tennessee River and major tributaries are similar. With the exception of 1MA1167, all the sites have pit 43

features that are around a meter in diameter with inferred uses including both cooking and storage. Two of the sites, 1MA308 and 1MA1167 had midden remnants. With the exception of 1MA308, all are located some distance away from the Tennessee River. Sites 1MA327 and 1MA1167 are both located on upper terraces of major tributaries while 1MA210 is located along a long linear wetland complex which prior to being drained by the Army in the 1940's was a continuous chain of small karst ponds which may at one time have drained naturally into the Tennessee River. 1MA210 is 4.1 km from the right bank of the river, and if the wetland originally did drain into the Tennessee River, the site would have been roughly 3.4 river miles (5.5 km) away from the river. All three sites had midden remnants which contained Bell Hill Phase artifact assemblages and organic refuse. There are some marked differences among the sites, however. The feature density at 1MA210 was much greater than at the other sites. This may be a result of longer occupation at 1MA210 since the jumbled nature of the post molds and the presence of a pit intrusive into an earlier pit suggests repeated occupation at the site. The implied presence of human burials at 1MA210 is also a difference, but again, this may be a result of longer occupation as opposed to differences in site function. In all likelihood, all four sites probably functioned as semi-permanent villages which were occupied minimally from late spring to autumn. Site 1MA308 does not fit the pattern of distance from the Tennessee River, although it seemed to have served a similar function to the other sites. Its later dates may suggest that over time, the Bell Hill Phase summer and autumn camps were moved closer to the Tennessee River, although a larger sample of sites and dates is needed before this is conclusive. At least two more possible Bell Hill Phase components have been identified at Redstone Arsenal. Site 1Ma131 is located on a small alluvial fan roughly 8 km farther up Indian Creek from 1Ma1167. Shovel test delineation of this site identified an intact midden below the plowzone which contained Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics and Bradley Spike points (Alexander and Redwine 2008). Previous surface collections of the site yielded several Bradley Spike, Flint River Spike, and Swan Lake points (Alexander 1979). Slightly more ambiguous is site 1Ma22 which stretches along a terrace between McDonald Creek and a flooded karst complex. During shovel test delineation of the site, a concentration of Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics was identified on the north end of the site along with a single Swan Lake point (Alexander et al. 2002). Two more Swan Lake points were recovered in the area from the surface of a firebreak in recent years. In addition to these two components which seem to represent late Middle Woodland habitation areas, several sites throughout the uplands and along stream terraces have yielded spike cluster points represented by Bradley Spike, Mountain Fork, Flint River Spike, New Market, and Swan Lake types which are diagnostic of the late Middle Woodland. Like 1Ma698, these sites probably represent small logistical camps used for specific procurement activities during the Bell Hill Phase. The Bell Hill people were probably still involved in Copena mortuary ceremonialism. The two first published dates on material from Copena burial mounds (Walthall 1972) when calibrated, both cluster at the middle of the fifth century AD, and a series of dates from burial mounds at the Murphy Hill Site in the Guntersville Basin range as late as AD 581 (Cole 1981) suggesting that the Bell Hill Phase represents the height of Copena 44

ceremonialism. If the remains recovered at 1Ma210 were affiliated with the Bell Hill component, however, this single sample suggests that interments also took place at habitation sites. This may reflect status differences with elite individuals interred in mounds and lower status individuals interred within the village. If Copena cave burials also date to this time, we may be looking at a complex social hierarchy, each level of which had unique funerary rites. Unfortunately, no other burials have been definitively attributed to the Bell Hill Phase, and even the remains from 1Ma210 are from a somewhat ambiguous provenience. The Bell Hill Phase seems closely related to the Owl Hollow Phase of central Tennessee with its dominance of plain limestone-tempered pottery (Faulkner 1978). Distinctive Owl Hollow semi-subterranean structures consisting of circular arrangements of post molds around a basin containing two deep hearths or earth ovens have been documented in the Normandy Reservoir on the upper Duck River. The possible house basin at 1Ma1167 may represent a local correlate of this type of architecture. Also like the Bell Hill Phase, Owl Hollow people practiced small-scale agriculture supplemented with wild plant foods. Domesticated sunflower seeds have been recovered from several Owl Hollow components as well as squash and some of the earliest examples of maize in the Southeast (Crites 1978). Participation in the Hopewell Interaction Sphere among multiple distinct population groups along the Middle Tennessee Valley is indicated by the exotic goods frequently found in Middle Woodland mortuary contexts. Low conical mounds containing both primary and secondary interments began to dot the landscape and included exotic grave goods such as earspools, celts, and reel-shaped gorgets of copper from Lake Superior, cubes of galena from the Upper Mississippi River Valley, cups and beads of marine shell from the Gulf Coast, elbow pipes of steatite, and celts and digging implements of greenstone from the Appalachian Plateau. This local manifestation of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere has been termed the Copena mortuary complex (Walthall 1973). Based on a series of dates from multiple Middle Woodland contexts in the Middle Tennessee Valley and surrounding region, the height of Copena burial mound construction lasted from roughly 50 BC to AD 500 (Cole 1981), locally spanning the late Colbert through the Bell Hill Phase. A few burial mounds have been excavated near Redstone Arsenal. Clarence B. Moore (1915) excavated two conical mounds at Slaughter Landing directly across the Tennessee River. Mound A (1Mg43) measured around 2m high by 15.2m in diameter and contained a central burial pit at its base containing badly decayed bone, a copper celt, and a copper reel-shaped gorget. Two possible burials higher in the mound each contained several nuggets of galena and a copper celt, but any associated skeletal remains had completely decayed. Mound B (1Mg44) was about the same height, but was only 10.7 m in diameter. It also contained a central burial chamber beneath the mound which appeared to contain a single individual with copper ear spools and two copper reel-shaped gorgets. Another Copena mound just 700m east of the southeastern corner of the Arsenal was excavated in 1941 by TVA under the direction of H. Summerfield Day (Knight 1990). This mound (1Ma49) contained 49 individual burial pits, 48 of which originated from the 45

base of the mound. These contained various associated artifacts including a pair of copper ear spools, a copper baculum effigy, 15 galena fragments, several greenstone celts and digging implements, and a cache of kyanite crystals (Knight 1990). At least one site on Redstone Arsenal includes what appears to be a classic Copena burial mound. Site 1Ma104 is a large site situated on a peninsula of uplands that extends into a complex of wetlands at the confluence of Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch. The mound is located at the highest point of the landform and is approximately 15 m in diameter and between 1 and 2 m in height (Alexander 1979). Its original height has been obscured by an Army access road which was constructed right through the center of the mound. During construction of the road, a well-made greenstone celt was recovered from the vicinity of the mound. An apparent village midden is situated around 170 m northeast of the mound where shovel testing has yielded McFarland/Greenville cluster points and limestone-tempered ceramics. Another site on Redstone might consist of a group of at least four conical mounds situated on a low level area on the rim of a large sink. Four mounds have been recorded on Site 147. The mounds are arranged in a diamond shape, and all are between 1 and 1.75 m high and somewhat eliptical with dimensions ranging from 9 to 12 m across (Alexander 1979). No excavation was done on the site, so the actual cultural affiliation of the mounds is uncertain. McFarland/Greenville cluster points have been recovered around 250 m southwest of the mounds, however, on site 1Ma149. In addition to mound interments, people that participated in the Copena burial complex regularly placed their dead in caves. Scores of caves containing human remains have been documented throughout north Alabama. Many of these burials contain the same types of artifacts as are found in the Copena mounds (Walthall and DeJarnette 1974). Human remains have been documented in six caves at Redstone Arsenal. The caves and their associated remains are tabulated below (Table 2). Table 2. Burial Caves at Redstone Arsenal. Cave Site # Remains 1Ma15 “one skeleton” no name Ed’s Cam 1Ma165 Jam Pit

no name no name

1Ma547 1Ma1185

Bobcat Cave

1Ma1475

Catacombs

1Ma1499

Associated artifacts “some 10 clay vessels and shell artifacts” Secondary interments of at 1 “stemmed point” least 9 individuals with evidence of cremation and defleshing Human femur on floor None observed Human molar eroding out of 1 Mississippi Plain sherd, floor 1 turtle shell fragment, animal bone fragments, lithic debitage Human radius, ulna, and None observed humerus at base of talus Possible radius and tibia 1 crude bifacial preform 46

Cave

fragments on floor at back of cave

None of these Redstone Arsenal burial caves have yielded artifacts diagnostic of the Copena burial complex, but the burials at Ed’s Cam Jam Pit in particular fit the Copena pattern of secondary interments in a cave in the uplands above the Tennessee River. A noteworthy aspect of the remains in Ed’s Cam Jam Pit is a distal fragment of a left humerus with a puncture wound healed around a chert biface tip (USACE 1996). This is the only sign of interpersonal violence in any of the human remains from Redstone Arsenal. Ceramics are rare in Copena burials, and when they occur, they are usually limited to broken sherds that are incidental inclusions in the mound fill (Walthall 1973, 1980), so the burial at 1Ma15 is more likely associated with the later Mississippian Period when ceramic vessels were commonly included as grave goods. The shell-tempered sherd at 1Ma1185 also suggests a Mississippian association. Both of these latter caves are located directly above the Tennessee River and possibly represent a later Mississippian cave burial complex which focused on small caves along the river. Unlike the Ohio Hopewell, the Copena burial complex seems to have been the product of a fairly egalitarian society (Walthall 1980). Most burial mounds are relatively small, and grave goods are not abundant. The most artifacts buried with a single individual in the Copena burial complex is eight (Walthall 1980) contrasted with some Ohio Hopewell burials which contain over a hundred objects.

Late Woodland The use of limestone-tempered ceramics continued into the Late Woodland Period in the upper Wheeler and Guntersville basins. The Woodland Period in this area is marked by a continuum of dominant ceramic surface treatments from paddle-stamped to plain to roughened/brushed. In the Late Woodland, the dominance of Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics gave way to scraped, burnished, and brushed surface treatments represented by Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton and Flint River Brushed types. Minority types including Flint River Cord Marked, Flint River Incised, Sauty Incised, Cox Punctated, and small amounts of clay-tempered McKelvey Plain are also represented in assemblages from this time. This ceramic phase has been defined as the Flint River culture by Walthall (1980). It seems to have been related to the Hamilton culture in the upper Tennessee River valley of east Tennessee which was also still dominated by limestonetempered ceramics, although cord marked ware dominated among Hamilton assemblages at the expense of brushed, scraped, and burnished wares. Like the Hamilton culture, Flint River people were some of the first inhabitants of the Tennessee Valley to utilize bow and arrow technology, as evinced by small, thin triangular Hamilton Incurvate points.

47

Unlike the Hamilton culture, however, Flint River people were no longer constructing funerary mounds. Only a few Flint River burials have been excavated. Three burials were attributed to the Flint River culture at the Ditto Landing Site two miles upriver from Redstone Arsenal (Betterton 1994). Two of the burials were relatively shallow extended burials, one containing a single adult female, and one containing three adult females. The third burial was a flexed interment of a child placed in the bottom of a shell-filled pit. A similar burial was recently excavated at site 1Ma1177 at Redstone Arsenal in a large shell-filled pit that was exposed in the Tennessee River bank by flooding during the spring of 2009. The large pit measured 98 cm deep and was oval and roughly cylindrical at 173 cm by roughly 114 cm at the top, tapering to 105 cm by 65 cm at its flat base. The shape and size suggest that pit may have originally functioned as a storage pit. A flexed adult individual had been placed on his or her left side in the base of the pit which had then been backfilled with shells and small amounts of midden material which was slightly mounded over the top of the pit. Like the burials at the Ditto Landing Site, no funerary offerings were placed with the remains, but sherds included in the pit fill were composed exclusively of Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton and small amounts of smooth Mulberry Creek Plain. The partial remains of a medium-sized dog as well as bones representing whitetail deer, box turtle, and fish were also included in the fill. Charcoal from the pit fill was radiocarbon dated at AD 960(1010)1040. This is later than the date of AD 535(756)977 on Flint River material at the Westmoreland-Barber Site (Faulkner and Graham 1966), but still close to Walthall’s (1980) estimate of AD 5001000 for the Flint River culture. Curiously, no other Late Woodland features were documented at the Ditto Landing Site, and Flint River ceramics and Hamilton Incurvate points were limited to the three Flint River burials. This suggests that the site was used primarily for burial during the Late Woodland, and that habitation took place elsewhere. This does not seem to be the case at 1Ma1177. A midden containing a light density Flint River assemblage overlay the burial pit, and at least four more Flint River shell features have been noted in the cut bank in a 270m long strip extending from the burial downstream into the eastern part of site 1Ma285 adjacent to 1Ma1177 (the boundary between the two sites appears to be largely arbitrary). If the Ditto Landing Site was specially designated as a burial ground, however, it is an indication that Flint River groups remained to some extent geographically circumscribed, even though the relative scarcity of thick Flint River village middens on Redstone Arsenal suggests some population decline following the late Middle Woodland. The Flint River settlement pattern seems to have consisted of small summer settlements along the Tennessee River with small winter camps in the upper stretches of the tributaries. Some shell midden sites like the Sublet Ferry Site (1Ms102) and the Cartright Site (1Ms109) may have been the loci of large summer aggregations, while most riverbank Flint River components on Redstone Arsenal seem to represent fairly small groups who exploited shellfish and lowland resources. Site 1Ma1177 and the upper part of 1Ma285 represent one example of this site type, and a similar component has been documented on site 1Ma150 where as many as six Flint River shell pits have been documented in recent years as the riverbank erodes away. Flint River shell middens were 48

also documented at Site 1Ma135 and possibly at 1Ma1216 and 1Ma750 (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2009). Flint River Brushed and Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherds and Hamilton Incurvate points frequently occur in small quantities across most sites along the shoreline of Wheeler Reservoir. A possible Flint River winter camp is represented by 1Ma1180 on a low terrace remnant in the Byrd Spring wetland complex about 22 km up Huntsville Spring Branch (current report). A volunteer excavation sponsored by Redstone Arsenal and the Alabama Archaeological Society sampled this site in 2007 and documented a small Flint River camp represented by a scatter of Flint River ceramics, Hamilton Incurvate points, and a microlith. Roughened limestone-tempered sherds have also been recovered at 1Ma133 near 1Ma1180 and on 1Ma164 on Indian Creek. A large post hole containing Flint River Brushed and Mulberry Creek Plain sherds at 1Ma164 suggests that at least one Flint River structure stood on that site although no Flint River material was found elsewhere in the excavation (Alexander and Thomson 1998). Caves and rockshelters may have also served as cold season camps for Flint River people. Several of these types of components have been investigated in Guntersville Basin (Walthall 1980), and Beartail Rockshelter represents an example of on Redstone Arsenal. Hamilton Incurvate points were the most common type of hafted biface at Beartail, and Mulberry Creek Plain var.Hamilton represents the second most common ceramic type (Meyer 1997). Isolated Hamilton Incurvate points are also occasionally found on sites in the uplands, probably representing the camps of small hunting groups on logistical forays to procure deer and other game. Preliminary information from a data recovery at the Spirit Hill Site (1Ja642) along the Tennessee River in the extreme northeast corner of the state suggests that at least some Flint River people had settled in communities with permanent houses already by AD 600. Four structures were excavated that have been attributed to the Flint River culture based on single radiocarbon dates. The structures include two rectangular wall trench structures with open corners, a square structure with single-set posts and interior partitions, and a circular wall trench structure (Stanyard 2009). The structures were radiocarbon dated with single samples for each structure to between AD 600 and 880. In addition, a palisade had been constructed around the habitation area, and one of the posts yielded a date of AD 590 possibly suggesting that it was first constructed during the Flint River occupation of the site (Stanyard 2009). The faunal assemblage from the Flint River component suggested that the site was heavily occupied on a year-round basis (Wettstead and Windham 2009). The Flint River culture seems to have been focused on the stretch of the Tennessee River that passes through the highlands of the Cumberland Plateau. As such, Redstone Arsenal marks the downriver terminus of this archaeological manifestation. In fact, according to TVA survey reports (Webb 1939, Shaw 2000) and the Alabama State Site Files, only six sites with possible Flint River components have been found downriver from Redstone Arsenal, and of those, only two are located downriver from the Madison-Limestone County line. The Late Woodland Period in the lower Wheeler Basin and Pickwick Basin which are situated in the broad level Middle Tennessee Valley of the Highland Rim is 49

represented by what has been termed the McKelvey Phase, a local manifestation of the Baytown culture. The distinct geographical division between these two late Woodland cultures corresponds roughly to the preceding division between eastern and western Copena as discussed by Knight (1990). The Flint River culture seems to have developed directly out of the late Middle Woodland Bell Hill Phase, while the McKelvey phase may be the result of the late Colbert culture of the Pickwick Basin adopting clay and grog tempered ceramic technology from the lower Mississippi River Baytown culture, possibly via the Tombigbee Basin (Walthall 1980, Jenkins 2003). As one would expect, McKelvey sites inter-finger with Flint River sites at the contact between the two cultural zones. The farthest upriver Baytown component is at 1Ma4 on Hobbs Island (Webb 1939, Walthall 1980). Scattered clay-tempered ceramics frequently occur on sites along the Tennessee River on Redstone Arsenal. In a 100% collection of prehistoric ceramics conducted by Ben Hoksbergen in the winter of 2005 along the south boundary of the Arsenal on the exposed beach of Wheeler Lake, around 27% of the sherds were clay or clay/grit tempered ware usually associated with the Baytown culture. Only around 13% were Flint River Brushed or Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton. This is in contrast with the Guntersville Basin upstream where only 0.13% of the ceramics were clay/grit tempered and 13% were Flint River Brushed or roughened Mulberry Creek Plain (Heimlich 1952). Occasional clay-tempered sherds have also been recovered at various sites up Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch. No sites on Redstone Arsenal have yielded substantial features or middens associated with McKelvey ceramic assemblages. Walthall (1980) divides the Pickwick and lower Wheeler Baytown manifestation into two phases which he terms McKelvey I and McKelvey II. According to this model, McKelvey I is marked by the appearance of clay and grog-tempered ceramics dominated by plain (McKelvey or Baytown Plain) and check-stamped (Wheeler Check-Stamped) wares. During the McKelvey II phase, check-stamping gave way to cord-marking (Mulberry Creek Cord Marked) as the second most-common surface treatment after plainware. Based on illustrations in Webb (1939) and Webb and DeJarnette (1942) small triangular arrow points have been recovered from McKelvey middens. Some of these points could be classified as the Hamilton Incurvate type, but generally, they appear to be more straight-sided and thick. A possible isolated McKelvey component was identified at Site 1Ma1082 based on an artifact scatter along the shoreline of Wheeler Lake (the Tennessee River). Two separate surface collections of all exposed prehistoric ceramics and diagnostic lithics at this site yielded a total of seven McKelvey/Baytown Plain sherds along with two Mulberry Creek Plain sherds. Two Jacks Reef Pentagonal points were also recovered, and all lithic material observed on the site was the same alluvial pebble chert as the points were manufactured from, suggesting that the Jacks Reef types may be affiliated with at least one phase of the Baytown culture in the Middle Tennessee Valley.

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Wheeler Check Stamped sherds are vastly more common (~34 to 1) along Redstone Arsenal than Mulberry Creek Cord Marked sherds. If Walthall’s model is correct, this suggests that McKelvey I spread farther upriver than McKelvey II. There is not an abundance of dates on Tennessee Valley Baytown components. A McKelvey II component at the Champion Site along Bear Creek yielded a date of AD 685(1006)1327 (Oakley and Futato 1975). Walthall (1980) estimates McKelvey I to date roughly from AD 500-700 and McKelvey II from AD 700-1000. Large floodplain villages represented by sites like 1Ma4 and the McKelvey type site in Hardin County, Tennessee were one aspect of the McKelvey settlement pattern. No seasonality data has been examined for these sites, although Walthall (1980) theorizes that they represented farming villages implying at least a spring to autumn occupation. The large amounts of mussel shell indicate that they were occupied during the warm season. The dense middens and high density of cultural debris, however, suggests that they could have been occupied year-round. The presence of some form of structures is indicated by prepared clay floors with clay-lined fire basins. The other aspect of the settlement pattern is small upland camps primarily represented by light density components in rockshelters. From McKelvey I to McKelvey II, there seems to be a general shift from settlements along the Tennessee River floodplain to occupations up the larger tributaries (Walthall 1980). Small McKelvey II components are common along tributaries south of the Tennessee River in the Pickwick and lower Wheeler Basins including sites like 1Fr331 along Mud Creek, 1Ct129 along Town Creek (Brock and Clayton 1966), and 1Fr318 along Little Bear Creek (Oakley and Futato 1975). Like the Flint River culture, McKelvey mortuary practices shifted away from funerary mounds. Burials associated with the McKelvey II component at the Robinson Site on West Flint Creek in Morgan County consisted of flexed interments in shallow graves or in old storage or trash pits (Walthall 1973). No grave goods were included with the burials. The pattern seems fairly similar to that of the contemporary Flint River culture. The development of the Baytown-related West Jefferson phase of the Black Warrior River Valley to the south seems to have been related to the rise of the McKelvey culture in the Tennessee Valley. In the Black Warrior Valley, there is continuity from the Late Woodland to the Mississippian with West Jefferson potters adopting Mississippian vessel shapes while still using clay temper (Jenkins and Nielson 1974). A similar pattern is seen in the upper Tombigbee River Valley where Baytown-related Miller III sites begin to include Mississippian traits like rectangular houses, some with wall trenches, and ceramics with loop handles and minorities of shell-tempered ware (Jenkins 2003). It was originally thought that his pattern did not unfold in the Middle Tennessee Valley. It appeared that by McKelvey II times, the population in the Pickwick and lower Wheeler Basins seemed to have largely resettled along the tributaries to the south of the Tennessee River Valley, leaving the area largely unpopulated throughout the Early Mississippian (Walthall 1980). Excavations in the 1990’s at the Red Fox Site just upriver from Decatur, however, revealed a McKelvey village with material culture traits bridging the gap between the Woodland and Mississippian (Krause 2007). The site was dominated by 51

a square or rectangular platform mound measuring 2.2 m high by 35.3 m long. A portion of the mound had been eroded away by wave action on Wheeler Lake. No structure pattern was identified on the crest of the mound, but a single inclusive bundle burial was encountered in the lowest mound fill layer (Allsbrook et al. 1997). The mound had been constructed in ten stages and was surrounded by a village consisting of oval houses which measured around 5 m by 3 m with single set posts and a central hearth flanked by two roof-support posts. Ceramics in the associated midden were dominated by clay-tempered wares (71.9%), but plain shell-tempered sherds made up 10.2% of the sample from the excavated portions of the midden (Krause 2007). Mulberry Creek Cord Marked was the most dominant ceramic type, followed closely by McKelvey Plain, a clay-tempered assemblage consistent with McKelvey II. Four radiocarbon dates from different levels of the midden ranged from AD 730 to AD 1100 (Krause 2007). This site suggests that as early as the eighth century AD, local Late Woodland McKelvey groups were already adopting Mississippian traits like platform mounds and shell-tempered ceramics.

Early Mississippian By around AD 1000, prehistoric culture throughout the Southeast underwent a radical shift as groups fully adopted or were acculturated into the Mississippian culture. This distinctive culture seems to have originated in the central Mississippi River Valley and is characterized by settlement in towns and villages of permanent rectilinear houses, often arranged around a central plaza. Larger towns were often dominated by one or more flattopped pyramidal mounds which served as bases for public buildings, whether ceremonial structures or high status residences for community leaders. Some of these towns included defensive palisades, often complete with bastions and strategic gates. Local groups adopted shell-tempered pottery with new vessel forms including bowls and globular pots with loop or strap handles. Agriculture increased in importance with a particular focus on corn. A new religious system known as the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex was adopted as seen in pan-regional iconography featuring a “long-nosed god”, bi-lobed arrows, winged serpents, and weeping eyes. Offerings of pottery vessels and ceremonial accoutrements began to be included in human burials. Jenkins (2003) proposes that the stimulus for this cultural change was the migration of a Mississippian population from the Mississippi River Valley into the Central Tombigbee and Black Warrior River Valleys around AD 1000. This population shift is marked by the sudden appearance of the Moundville I Phase in that core area and the adoption of some select Mississippian traits in Late Woodland groups radiating from there. This model is complicated by the Early Mississippian stage in northern Alabama which is characterized by the Langston Phase which may have developed as the local Flint River culture adopted Mississippian traits (Walthall 1980). The Spirit Hill Site may represent the best evidence for this transition. Flint River structures on this site have Mississippian traits such as wall trenches and rectangular floor plans. One of these structures was 52

apparently already built by AD 600, although the dates for the structures are based on a single radiocarbon date for each structure. Three Langston Phase houses were also excavated on the site, and the lack of overlap among the Flint River and Langston Phase structures suggests possible contemporaneity although two of the Langston Phase structures yielded later dates of AD 938(1010)1047 and AD 1147(1200)1261 (Stanyard 2009). Several features on the site yielded both Flint River assemblages and shelltempered sherds (Stanyard 2009). Limestone-tempered ceramics with Mississippian characteristics like loop and strap handles have been recovered from several other sites in the Guntersville Basin (Heimlich 1952). On Redstone Arsenal, a sandstone discoidal, an artifact typically associated with the Mississippian culture, was found eroding out of a Flint River shell pit on site 1Ma150. The Langston Phase seems to be related to the Hiwassee Island Focus upriver in east Tennessee. While Jenkins (2003) most recently argues for Mississippian influence arriving in the Tennessee Valley via a core population around Moundville, the exact mechanism for the spread of Mississippian culture into the Upper Tennessee River Valley has been debated for decades. Complicating the issue is the fact that the initial spread of Mississippian culture was long thought to have largely bypassed the Pickwick and lower Wheeler Basins. Recent work at the Red Fox Site (Krause 2007), however, has indicated that McKelvey groups in that area were already adopting Mississippian traits as early as AD 730. Unfortunately, most of what we know about the major Mississippian sites in the area comes from excavations done in the 1930’s and 1940’s before the advent of radiocarbon dating. The chronology therefore, is largely based on similarities in ceramic styles and other traits and would benefit from more absolute dates. Langston ceramics are similar to those from the Hiwassee Island Focus. Both are dominated by plain shell-tempered vessels including bowls and globular pots, often with appliqué loop or strap handles. Large shallow ceramic basins, most often with deep impressions of coarse fabric on the exterior also occur. These latter vessels frequently occur around salt springs in the Central Mississippi Valley and are thought to have served as salt pans for the evaporation of salt from mineral spring water. The fabric-impressed specimens are most common in the Early and Middle Mississippian periods in the Mississippi River Valley (Brown 1980). This corresponds roughly to the Early Mississippian in the Southeast. Fabric-impressed shell-tempered salt pan ware known variously as Kimmswick or Langston Fabric Impressed is conspicuously absent at Moundville and related sites in central Alabama but occurs from the Wheeler Basin upstream to Norris Basin in northeast Tennessee. This seems to contradict Jenkins (2003) model of initial Mississippian influence radiating out of a core population at Moundville. There appears to have been two phases of transmittal of Mississippian influence in Alabama. Around AD 800, select Mississippian traits such as shell-tempered pottery, stone discoidals, and possibly platform mounds appear to have diffused up the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers from the Mississippian heartland in the Middle Mississippi River Valley. This may have been followed around AD 1000 by an actual population movement from the Mississippian heartland to Moundville. This second influx of Mississippian culture then came into contact with Tennessee Valley groups and influenced the development of the Hobbs Island Phase which succeeded the Langston Phase in the upper Wheeler and Guntersville Basin by around AD 1100. 53

Like the Flint River culture, the Langston Phase was centered on the Guntersville Basin. The type site (1Ja9) was a village with a single platform mound on the floodplain of the Tennessee River in Jackson County. The mound was excavated as part of the Guntersville Basin survey in preparation for the construction of Guntersville Dam (Webb and Wilder 1951). Several structure patterns were identified, superimposed in various stages of the mound fill. The uppermost of these structures was a rectangular single-set post structure measuring 11.0 by 9.2 m. The posts were set vertically about 60 cm below the floor of the structure and were between 12 and 21 cm in diameter. A collarless clay fire basin was located near the center of the structure. One wall of another structure was identified at the base of the mound. This wall measured 9.6 m long and was composed of single-set posts averaging around 15 cm in diameter (Webb and Wilder 1951). The presence of a small amount of wattle-impressed daub from throughout the levels of the mound suggests that the walls of the structures were at least partially wattled and daubed. Another major Langston Phase component was investigated at the Gunter’s Landing Site (1Ms39). This site consisted of a relatively large platform mound in the center of a palisaded village. The mound contained a series of superimposed rectangular structures of large single set posts ranging from 20 to 37 cm in diameter. At one point, a layer of burned grass thatch, split cane, and small logs was excavated suggesting a burned structure with a grass-thatched roof and wattle walls. The excavation of the village area in addition to uncovering about 66 m of a bastioned palisade identified two structure patterns including a rectangular wall trench structure measuring 5.0 by 4.4 m and a square single-set post structure with 5.2 m long sides (Webb and Wilder 1951). The wall trench structure consisted of 15 cm wide trenches with rounded ends that stopped just short of the corners of the structure. The trench along one of the short walls of the structure included a gap near the center which suggests the location of a doorway. The trenches averaged 34 cm deep and contained post molds that averaged around 9 cm in diameter which were spaced about 13 cm apart. Sixteen interior posts may have been associated with roof supports, partitions, or benches. Several large fragments of wattleimpressed daub were found around the structure suggesting that the walls were wattle and daub. The square structure was composed of single post molds measuring from 8 to 11 cm in diameter spaced about 37 cm apart. A roughly square arrangement of 17 interior posts suggests four roof supports connected by benches or partitions. Another small Early Mississippian component was found a little upstream at the Bellefonte Site (1Ja300). A Mississippian burial at this site was dated AD 1150(1224)1298, and the Mississippian component there seemed to represent a single occupation - possibly an isolated Mississippian farm (Futato 1977). A single structure pattern was identified. The structure was semi-subterranean, with a 36 cm deep oval basin. Sixteen posts averaging 8.2 cm in diameter and set an average of 21.4 cm deep were arranged in a rounded rectangular pattern around the edge of the basin. The best candidate for a doorway was between Post 5 and Post 6 at the edge of one of the long sides. These two posts had the widest gap between them at around 45 cm, and just beyond this doorway were three large successive pits containing large quantities of firecracked rock. The structure was relatively small with the basin measuring only 200 cm

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by 143 cm. Futato (1977) theorized that the structure pattern represented a sweat lodge; a safe assumption based on its size, shape, and proximity to the large fcr pits. The Middle Woodland Walling Mound (1Ma50) was also reused at this time after being abandoned several centuries prior. The final fill layer of the mound contained a Langston Phase ceramic assemblage and supported at least one square single-set post structure measuring around 8 m on a side located in the northwest quadrant of the mound summit. Two semi-flexed burials were placed near the center of the mound summit along with four pit features including a large shell-filled pit (Knight 1990). Walthall (1980) theorizes that the apparent lack of emergent Mississippian in the Pickwick Basin is due to sampling error since most work there focused on large impressive sites like shell mounds, burial mounds, and large Mississippian towns. This may very well be the case. All of the Early Mississippian components on Redstone Arsenal are small, and were overlooked by the early reservoir surveys. Langston or Kimmswick Fabric Impressed sherds have only been found at five sites on Redstone - all of them along the current riverbank. Of these, only two sites were represented by more than one sherd of Langston/Kimmswick Fabric Impressed. Two of these sherds have been found near the downriver end of 1Ma285. During Phase II testing of this part of the site, a small Mississippian component was found in Test Unit 2 which may have been part of this Early Mississippian occupation, but only plain sherds were recovered (Oakley and Futato 1987), and no Mississippian features were identified. Three Langston/Kimmswick Fabric Impressed sherds have been recovered on 1Ma1177 along with several Mississippi Plain sherds. Both these sites have also yielded single specimens of shell-tempered sherds with a band of crudely-incised cross-hatching below the rim, an as-of-yet unnamed type that may also be diagnostic of the Langston Phase. Both of these components may represent small isolated farms similar to the component at the Bellefonte Site. The Mississippian cave burials at 1Ma15 and 1Ma1185 may also be assignable to the Langston Phase. While no Langston Phase cave burials have been investigated, cave burials are known from the Terminal Woodland/Early Mississippian in the Black Warrior River Valley in central Alabama (Walthall 1980). A radiocarbon date of AD 994(1129)1263 was obtained from material associated with the remains of at least 46 individuals at Pinson Cave located just north of Birmingham in Jefferson County (Richardson 2003).

Middle Mississippian The Middle Mississippian, sometimes called the “mature” Mississippian, is thought to date to AD 1200-1500 in the Tennessee Valley (Walthall 1980). Southeastern Ceremonial Complex iconography first makes an appearance at this time. Ceramic assemblages were almost entirely shell-tempered and were dominated by plainware, but included incised types such as Barton Incised, Matthews Incised, and Moundville Incised. 55

Vessels with raised nodes covering the entire exterior or concentrated around the rim were also produced, and trade vessels including bottles with negative painted Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs began showing up in both burials and middens (Futato 1998). The Middle Mississippian is fairly well-represented in the Wheeler Basin of the Tennessee River. Walthall (1980) has identified the Middle Mississippian manifestation as the Hobbs Island Phase, named for the mound group at the up-river end of Hobbs Island, just upstream from Redstone Arsenal. During the original Wheeler Basin survey (Webb 1939), two burial mounds, a platform mound, and a village area were investigated there. One burial mound (1Ma1) contained 49 individuals including both flexed and extended inhumations. Grave goods in this mound included shell-tempered jars, water bottles, and bowls, including one duck effigy bowl. Three shell gorgets with Southeastern Ceremonial Complex motifs including a sun symbol, a spider, and a turkey cock were also recovered as well as thousands of shell beads, greenstone celts, stone discoidals, and elbow pipes. Ceramics in the village area (1Ma4) most closely conform to the early Moundville I Phase of the Black Warrior River Valley (Jenkins 2003) which dates to AD 1050- 1200. Ceramics from mound 1Ma1, on the other hand, have affinities with Moundville II or III ceramics (Jenkins 2003) which date as late as AD 1550. The initial occupation of this site on Hobbs Island probably coincides with the consolidation of a paramount center at Moundville around AD 1200. Hobbs Island probably served as a major local focus of exchange channeling exotic goods between major elite centers such as Moundville and Etowah and Tennessee-Cumberland groups to the north. While prepared clay hearths and various prepared floors were encountered in the excavation of the mounds at Hobbs Island, no distinctive structure patterns could be discerned there (Webb 1939). Just downriver, however, a Mississippian village with relatively extensive structure patterns was excavated by H. Summerfield Day in 1940 and 1941 on the T2 river terrace. The Walling Site (1Ma32) as Day identified the site (not to be confused with the Middle Woodland Walling Mound, 1Ma50) consisted of two platform mounds surrounded by 20 structure patterns. The structures were all oriented northeast to southwest for the most part, and when overlap was taken into consideration, only 16 would have been standing on the site at any given time. The structures were all square or rectangular and ranged in size from 4.1 by 2.6 m to 11.6 by 8.8 m. The mean area of the structures was 36.6 m2. Wall construction included an equal number of wall trenches and individual posts, and half of the wall trench structures had open corners, and half had closed corners. At least five of the structures had large central posts, presumably for roof support, and 14 of the structures had either circular or square central interior fire basins. Three of these structures had hearths with prepared clay collars or rims. The presence of intact fire pits below the plowzone suggests that the floors of the structures were dug approximately 20 cm below ground surface. Corner doors are suggested by larger gaps between post molds at or near one of the corners of each of these structures. The smaller of the two mounds featured a 4.5 m diameter circular structure composed of single-set posts at the basal level, while the larger of the mounds contained evidence of 13 superimposed individual structures. At the base of the mound, two structure patterns were uncovered, both rectangular, the larger one measuring 8.5 by 11.9 m and having a 56

prepared clay floor, a rectangular central hearth, a central support post, and interior partitioning (Thomas 1980). A third structure pattern was found on the north end of the mound which was oriented the same way as most of the houses in the village. Nine more structures were found throughout the levels of the mound. All were roughly square or rectangular except for one partial structure which appeared to be circular. The structures included both wall trench and individual post types, and some of the structures exhibited interior support posts and/or partitions (Day 1941). The most noteworthy aspect of the structures at the Walling Site is their variability. While no radiocarbon chronology has been established for the site, the differences in construction do not appear to be due to different phases of occupation. Among the four cases of overlap in the structure patterns at the site, all appear to be cases of rebuilding of structures on roughly the same spot as the previous structure. In three of these cases, the new structure is of the same construction style as the previous one. The only other explanations for this variability are differences in structure function, status differences of the occupants, or merely the individual whims of the builders. Buildings with the same construction styles are not clustered together or patterned in any coherent way on the site. Also, there is no correlation among hearth type, wall type, and interior post pattern. Future comparative analyses of the material culture associated with each structure might shed some light on the reasons behind structure variability which seems to be a pattern among Mississippian architecture throughout the entire Mississippian period in the Middle Tennessee Valley. The most downriver Hobbs Island Phase components discussed by Walthall (1980) were two mounds on Tick Island in Lawrence County. One mound (1La14) was built during the Middle Woodland but included intrusive burials associated with the Hobbs Island Phase (Moore 1915, Walthall 1980). The other mound (1La13) was a low conical burial mound that had been constructed during the Middle Mississippian Period. It contained the remains of 27 individuals including two extended primary inhumations, four primary flexed burials, three bundle burials, and 18 isolated human skulls (Webb 1939). Funerary offerings buried with the dead included a variety of plain shell-tempered vessels including jars with strap handles, shallow bowls, short-necked water bottles, and two duck effigy bowls. Little distinguishes the Hobbs Island Phase from the Krogers Island Phase of the Pickwick Basin. Both seem to have strong ties to Moundville based on shared ceramic types, but both also seem to be distinct populations based on greater percentages of plainware in the ceramic assemblages and differences in house construction and treatment of the dead when compared with the Moundville Phase (Walthall 1980). The Shiloh Phase farther downriver in west Tennessee also seems to have had strong ties to Moundville as well as ties to Central Mississippi Valley groups in the American Bottom (Jenkins 2003). The contemporary Henry Island Phase in the Guntersville Basin was also within the Moundville sphere of influence, but seems to have had stronger ties to Cumberland, east Tennessee, and north Georgia groups (Futato 1998).

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While nearly every site along the riverbank at Redstone Arsenal has yielded shelltempered ceramics, over 95% of the sherds are Mississippi Plain, so it is difficult to assign the components to a particular Mississippian phase. Only two diagnostic Middle Mississippian sherds of Moundville Incised var. Moundville have been recovered from site 1Ma285 indicating a small Hobbs Island Phase component there. One other Mississippian component on Redstone Arsenal can probably be safely assumed to belong to the Hobbs Island Phase. Beartail Rockshelter yielded 158 Mississippi Plain sherds as well as a shell-tempered ceramic discoidal and a large mushroom-shaped shelltempered potter’s trowel (Meyer 1997). The potter’s trowel indicates that ceramic vessels were being manufactured at the site. Similar trowels have been found at Early Mississippian components in Guntersville Basin (Walthall 1980), but they were also recovered at Hobbs Island, and the lack of fabric-impressed salt pan ware at a site so close to active springs suggests that this site does not date to the Early Mississippian Period. There are no decorative elements to suggest that the component dates to the Late Mississippian Period which doesn’t seem to be represented at all in the Wheeler Basin. In addition to the ceramics, 27 Madison points were also recovered (Hubbert 1997). This is contrasted with a single point that was identified as a Nodena and one that was identified as a Guntersville that suggest any use of the site during the Late Mississippian or protohistoric periods. The Mississippian assemblage indicates that multiple activities went on there, and the site likely served as the habitation of a small residential group. Redstone’s only example of aboriginal rock art may also date to this time. Site 1Ma1628 is situated on a narrow shelf above the Tennessee River at the base of a tall limestone bluff. Mississippi Plain sherds along with some Middle Woodland and Late Archaic artifacts have been collected from the surface of the shelf. Four badly-faded rock paintings of red ochre have been recorded on the bluff wall just above the shelf. Two of these are horned quadrupeds that appear to be whitetail bucks. A third represents a serpent, and the fourth has alternately been described as a cross or an anthromorph. Both the cross and the serpent are motifs that often appear in Southeastern Ceremonial Complex imagery. Middle Mississippian settlement in the Wheeler Basin seems to have consisted of small farms or single-family habitations scattered along the Tennessee riverbank away from the towns at Hobbs Island and the Walling Site. Only two sites up the tributaries on Redstone Arsenal have yielded shell-tempered ceramics. Beartail Rockshelter has already been discussed. Site 1Ma546 is another rockshelter just a little farther up Indian Creek which has also yielded a Mississippi Plain sherd and a Madison point (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2002). Madison points have been recovered very sporadically in the uplands, but never in sufficient numbers to indicate an actual component. Overall, Redstone seems to have played a very peripheral role throughout the Mississippian Period.

Late Mississippian and Protohistoric

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It is generally accepted that the Middle Tennessee Valley was vacated by around AD 1550 (Walthall 1980, Futato 1980). Certainly, no diagnostic Late Mississippian ceramics or iconography have been documented in the Wheeler Basin. Occasional points identified as Guntersville or Nodena types which are diagnostic of the Late Mississippian are found in the area, but they are rarely classic examples of the types, and even if they do date to the Late Mississippian, they represent nothing more than occasional hunting forays along this stretch of the Tennessee River. The reason for this abandonment is unknown. The Guntersville Basin, northern Georgia, and east Tennessee remained occupied into protohistoric times, but there is little evidence of human activity downriver from Guntersville. Perhaps localized climatic conditions made the area unsuitable for supporting large populations. During the recent drought from 2005 to 2007, the Middle Tennessee Valley was an site of some of the lowest rainfall in the region. Rainfall amounts gradually increased farther upriver, but the Wheeler Basin remained the epicenter of drought in northern Alabama. A similar situation in the Late Mississippian Period may have rendered the area unsuitable for agriculture on which many Mississippian groups were heavily dependent by this time. The large plots of native prairie and “old fields” encountered by early American settlers in this area may be further evidence of drought conditions. As the area became drier, wildfires could have cleared out large sections of hardwood forests which could not be replenished by new growth due to the parched conditions.

Early Historic By the time Europeans first arrived in the area, it was a sparsely-occupied borderland between the Chickasaws in the west and the Creeks in the Guntersville Basin. Creek material culture developed directly out of the protohistoric Crow Creek Phase of the central Guntersville Basin. The Crow Creek Phase developed out of the Middle Mississippian Henry Island Phase. Crow Creek people constructed some of the last platform mounds in the region. They practiced floodplain horticulture and lived in small villages along the Tennessee River. Their ceramic technology included the McKee Island series of globular jars, carinated bowls, and bottles. Shell-tempering was used and surface treatments included cord-wrapped paddle stamping, incised guilloches, interlocking scrolls, parallel lines with pendant concentric half circles, and obliquelyopposed parallel lines between the rim and shoulders of carinated bowls, and finally brushing which appears toward the latter part of the phase. The protohistoric Crow Creek Phase developed directly into the early historic McKee Island Phase (Walthall 1980). McKee Island Phase burials with English and French trade goods dating to around AD1700 were excavated at the McKee Island Site, Columbus City Landing Site, and Law’s Site in the lower Guntersville Basin (Webb and Wilder 1951). It has been suggested that the McKee Island people were the historic Koasati tribe which were driven southward beginning around 1715 to the Coosa River Valley by Cherokee expansion where they became part of the Creek Confederacy of Muskogee groups (Swanton 1946, Walthall 1980). The Creeks apparently continued to use hunting grounds in this area and on northward into Tennessee passing along “Creek Path” which crossed the Tennessee 59

River at “Lower Creek Crossing” at the shoals below Beard’s Bluff about ten miles downstream from the town of Guntersville (Street 1904), although early maps (Lewis 1804, Carey 1813, 1814) show a Creek crossing at the north end of Pine Island upstream from Guntersville. This would have placed the crossing at one of the likely former settlements of the Koasati. According to Street (1904), a Chickasaw group settled at the upper end of Hobb’s Island around 1765. The settlement became known as Chickasaw Old Fields. At least one historic map (Melish 1818) labels Hobb’s Island as “Chakasaw Island”. The exact location of this settlement has not been verified archaeologically, and excavations at the mounds and middens at the upper end of Hobb’s Island did not yield any Chickasaw or any other historic aboriginal artifacts (Webb 1939). The Chickasaw band apparently met with resistance from expanding Cherokee groups who drove them back downriver in 1769 (Webb 1939). The next closest Chickasaw settlement seems to have been on the north bank of the Tennessee River near the mouth of the Elk River (Street 1904, Wright 2003). By 1790, the Cherokee, moving westward and downriver as a result of pressure from Euro-American expansion, had established a settlement at the present site of the town of Guntersville and another one along the Creek Path in Brown’s Valley (Street 1904). The Cherokee of these lower towns were removed to Oklahoma in 1838, and there is no evidence that their settlements extended into Wheeler Basin. Wright (2003) speculates that the Cherokee had a village at the mouth of Cotaco Creek roughly across the Tennessee River from present day Triana since the word “cotaco” seems to have been derived from an abbreviation of the Cherokee words ikati for “swamp” or “thicket” and kunahita for “long” (Read 1937), but there is no documentary or archaeological evidence for a settlement at this location. The name may indicate nothing more than Cherokee use of the area for hunting and transportation in the years prior to their removal. The Cherokee were known to trade as far downriver as Tuscumbia where several were killed along with some French traders in 1787 in a retaliatory raid by Col. James Robertson of the Tennessee Militia whose brother had recently been killed by Indians in the Cumberland settlements (Haywood 1969 [1823]).

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CHAPTER IV: PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS The history of archaeology at Redstone Arsenal began officially after the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966. This act required Federal agencies to evaluate the impact of all Federally funded or permitted projects on historic and archaeological sites. As a Federal entity, the Army at Redstone Arsenal was now required to consider cultural resources in their activities and planning. Redstone Arsenal began these efforts in earnest in 1978, twelve years after the passage of the act, when they funded the first archaeological survey of Arsenal lands. Archaeology made its mark on the landscape many years before this, however. Long before the Army acquired the land in 1941, the earliest archaeological inquiry took the form of small scale amateur artifact collecting on the rich prehistoric sites that flanked the Tennessee River and its tributaries. The most famous example of an artifact from RSA land privately collected is, of course, the Redstone Point type specimen illustrated in the Alabama point guide by Cambron and Hulse (1964). This iconic Paleoindian point, named by E.C. Mahan after Redstone Arsenal was collected from a site on a terrace west of Indian Creek by Charles Brosemer in 1942 (Cambron, survey notes, ca. 1960, Charles Hubbert files) along with a Cumberland, a Beaver Lake, and a Wheeler point. Using Mahan's old field notes, Mark Cole recorded this site as 1Ma1330 in 2004. Shovel testing of the site failed to yield any cultural material, however, so if 1Ma1330 is the location of Brosemer Site M-17, artifact density on the site is too low to detect with standard survey methods. The years 1914 and 1915 saw visits to the area by the prolific American antiquarian, Clarence Bloomfield Moore. This Harvard educated Philadelphia aristocrat financed his expeditions with his family’s fortune. Moore plied the Tennessee River in his steam yacht, aptly named the Gopher. He remarked on the difficulty in getting permission to dig sites along the Tennessee River, attributing it to landowners perceptions of the value of prehistoric artifacts and their past bad experiences with other site diggers (Polhemus 2002), further testament to the activity of early “relic hunters” in the area. There is no indication in his publications that Moore set foot on what was to become Redstone Arsenal, but he did investigate two Middle Woodland burial mounds (1Ma43 and 1Ma44) at the Slaughter Place just across the river (Moore 1915). The first professional archaeological investigation on what is now Redstone Arsenal took place 17 years after Moore passed through. Walter B. Jones of the Alabama Museum surveyed the Middle Tennessee River valley in the summer of 1932 with funds from the National Research Council. Jones recorded 14 sites based on surface collections and the testimony of local informants on the land which would eventually become Redstone Arsenal. 61

Jones’ survey was timely. In response to the widespread unemployment brought on by the Great Depression, the Federal government invested heavily in public works projects including the construction of dams along the Tennessee River for flood control and electric generation. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established in May of 1933 to administer the projects. As early as August of 1933, concerned citizens brought up the impact that the reservoirs would have on the archaeological sites along the river. In a conference later that year, the TVA invited the Smithsonian’s Curator of Archaeology to advise them regarding the implementation of archaeological surveys within the proposed reservoir basins (Webb 1939). The survey of Wheeler Basin was conducted from December of 1933 to July of 1934. William S. Webb, the TVA supervising archaeologist, directed the excavations with manpower supplied by the Civil Works Administration and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. A total of 19 sites in Wheeler Basin were thoroughly excavated, and another 216 were visited and recorded including ten of Jones’ sites on what was soon to become Redstone Arsenal. These included five “village” sites (Mav12, Mav25, Mav26, Mav27, and Mav29), four “camp sites” (Mav13, Mav14, Mav28, and Mav30), and a bluff shelter (Mac15) (Webb 1939). In addition to these, Jones had also recorded Mav22, the Beadle Run Site on the north end of what is now the Arsenal and Mav24 on what is now the military recreation area on the Tennessee River, but these were not revisited by Webb. In the spring and summer of 1941 while the first tracts of land were being purchased by the Army for the establishment of the Huntsville Arsenal, a second phase of archaeological work was sponsored by TVA in the Wheeler Basin. The work was conducted by the Alabama State Museum of Natural History and was directed by H. Summerfield Day. This was a cleanup phase focused on Woodland and Mississippian mound and village complexes on the upper river terraces on the Walling estate off the southeast corner of what is now RSA. The westernmost of the sites recorded and investigated at this time was Mao50, a Middle Woodland platform mound bisected by the eastern RSA boundary. Day did some preliminary trenching on the mound in March of 1941. He left his position in July of that year and was replaced by Steve B. Wimberly who partially completed the work before TVA shut the project down on August 15. A large part of the eastern half of the mound was excavated, but the work was never published. The field notes from the project are curated at the Erskine Ramsay Archaeological Repository at Moundville. Initially, Wimberly interpreted the mound as a Mississippian period platform mound, but later work by the Alabama State Museum of Natural History demonstrated that it was in fact culturally affiliated with the Middle Woodland period (Knight 1990).

The National Historic Preservation Act and Project Specific Surveys (1978-1995) For almost half a decade, no more formal archaeological work was done on RSA land. After the land became federal property in 1941 and 1942, the Antiquities Act of 1906

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would have technically made it illegal for people to collect artifacts on the Installation, but this practice seems to have continued well into the 1970’s. The lack of formal archaeological investigation was to change after the passage of the NHPA, however. Despite being ratified by Congress and signed by President Johnson in 1966, the NHPA went largely unheeded and unenforced by many Federal agencies until President Nixon issued Executive Order 11593 on May 6 of 1971. This order mandated that “the Federal Government shall provide leadership in preserving, restoring and maintaining the historic and cultural environment of the Nation” (Executive Order 11593 Sec. 1). The executive order required that all Federal agencies complete by July 1, 1973 a complete inventory of “all sites, buildings, districts, and objects under their jurisdiction or control that appear to qualify for listing on the National Register of Historic Places” (Executive Order 11593 Sec. 2). The NHPA had also been given some more teeth a year prior when Nixon signed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) on January 1, 1970. This act required Federal agencies to consider cultural resource preservation among other environmental concerns when evaluating the impacts of Federal actions. The US Army reaction to the top down demand for environmental compliance was Army Regulation (AR) 420-40 of 1984 which required all active Army installations to prepare a Cultural Resources Management Plan in coordination with the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). In 1997, the Army updated AR-420-40 as AR 200-4 to include guidelines for government to government relations with American Indian tribes. AR200-4 has since been rolled into AR 200-1 which provides the framework for the Army’s compliance with environmental and cultural resources laws and AR 200-2 which lays out the protocol specifically for Army NEPA compliance. Morris W. “Bill” Schroder was the General Engineer tasked with implementing these new regulations. He received training at Fort Lee, Virginia in 1976, and afterward set about drafting environmental policies and programs for the RSA Facilities Engineering Division (Schroder, personal communication 7/3/2008). Schroder changed his title to Environmental Quality Coordinator with a staff of one (himself). As Schroder wrote the first Environmental Impact Statements for Redstone projects, addressing the cultural resources sections reignited his passion for history. He had begun collecting prehistoric artifacts as a hobby after he came to Alabama in 1959. This personal interest spurred him to convince the Facility Engineer, Paul Hancock, that Redstone needed to have archaeological surveys conducted to clear proposed construction sites. The University of Alabama was given a small contract to clear a couple of sites and draft reports on the work. Then Carey Oakley from the University’s Office of Archaeological research (OAR) submitted a bid to do a Phase I study on the entire Arsenal. Hancock agreed to allot Schroder no more than $10,000 for a contract to do it. Redstone provided OAR with a Sole Source Contract for the survey, and Lawrence Alexander was assigned by Oakley to do the work in the summer of 1978 (Schroder, personal communication 7/3/2008). Alexander and his crew visited 48 locations on the Arsenal slated for development (Alexander 1979) along with 31 locations of previously identified sites including the 63

original 12 that were recorded by Jones (L. Alexander to B. Schroder, memorandum 1978, RSA DEM). The methodology included surface inspection, limited shovel testing, and in a couple of cases, backhoe trenching. Alexander recorded 78 new sites including Beartail Rockshelter, two cave sites, 72 open air prehistoric sites, and three historic sites. Of the 90 sites that Alexander investigated, he recommended that 72 be preserved or further investigated if development required it (Alexander 1979). The next major archaeological survey took place beginning in January of 1980 as part of an environmental impact study of a major DDT remediation project proposed by the USACE, Mobile District. Some of the highest levels of contamination were found in the sediments of the lower Huntsville Spring Branch stream bed (Peters 1980). One proposal was to reroute Huntsville Spring Branch down the eastern RSA boundary to bypass the DDT contamination and avoid further discharge of DDT into the Tennessee River. This area was chosen for the environmental impact study since it could be easily accessed and wouldn’t disrupt weapons testing on the Arsenal (Redstone Rocket 1980). Water and Air Research, Inc. of Gainesville, FL. were contracted with conducting the environmental impact study. They contracted New World Research, Inc. of Pollock, Louisiana to do the cultural resources segment. The study area was a two mile wide swath straddling the eastern RSA boundary from the Tennessee River seven miles north to Martin Road. The goal of New World’s study was the development of a predictive model for archaeological site locations. They gridded the project area into 46 quarter section units and surveyed a 20 percent systematically selected sample of these (Thomas 1980). New World’s archaeological work was directed by Prentice Thomas. In February and March, Thomas and his crew visited a total of 44 sites including 15 on Arsenal land, only one of which (1Ma219) was newly recorded as part of the project. The additional 29 sites were all on private land east of the Arsenal boundary (Thomas 1980). In addition to surface collection and shovel testing, all but 15 of the sites were also investigated with small numbers of excavation test units. Backhoe cuts to examine the stratigraphy were also made on 12 of the sites, and a Gradall excavator was used to mechanically strip the plowzone on three sites. Both techniques were used on an additional three sites. The predictive model developed by New World focused on environmental variables including proximity to a water source, proximity to the Tennessee River, soil series, landform, and elevation. The data from the sample of sites visited in the survey demonstrated that proximity to water, type of water source, and soil series were the most significant variables in predicting both historic and prehistoric sites. Soils appeared to be strongest predictor with over 80% of the sites occurring on Decatur/Cumberland silty clay loam, Etowah silt loam, and Etowah silty clay loam (Thomas 1980). Since soil series designation is most frequently based on landform, the association between archaeological sites and soil series is intuitive since the Decatur and Cumberland soils are found on uplands in valleys (USDA-NRCS 2001a, 2004) and the Etowah series is found on high stream terraces and alluvial fans (USDA-NRCS 2001b) - all landforms that would be logically suited for human habitation.

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The rest of the archaeological projects in the 1980’s were focused specifically on areas slated for impact by impending development. The first of these involved the transfer of 375 acres on the north end of the Arsenal from the Army to NASA for improvements to the Alabama Space and Rocket Center and the construction of Space Camp. Redstone contracted OAR to do the survey which was directed by Carey Oakley (1980). In April of 1980, Oakley and his crew conducted surface survey and shovel testing of the parcel and recorded 16 sites in addition to one that had been recorded by Alexander (1979). Oakley only recommended three of these for further work. They included two lithic scatters (1Ma191, 1Ma200) and a historic house site (1Ma198) (Oakley 1980). They also recorded an unmarked historic cemetery. Cemeteries are specifically excluded from nomination to the National register of Historic Places (NRHP) according to the NHPA, but they are protected under Army Regulation (AR 420-74 and AR 210-190) and by Redstone Arsenal’s land acquisition agreement as well as by Alabama State Law 93-905. After reviewing plans for an expansion of the Space Museum in May of the following year, Oakley urged further work on 1Ma200 which was entirely in the path of the proposed construction (C. Oakley to E. Buckbee, letter, 4 May 1981, archives, RSA EMD). The Alabama Space and Rocket Center responded by arranging an investigation of the site to determine whether it was in fact eligible for the NRHP. They elicited the help of David Chase of the USDA Soil Conservation Service who shovel tested site 1Ma200 and extended the site boundaries, but came to the conclusion that it was not NRHP eligible (Chase 1981a). Chase also shovel tested sites 1Ma191 and 1Ma198 and concurred with Oakley’s finding that the latter was NRHP eligible. He also investigated the area thought by Oakley to be a historic cemetery and reported that he found no evidence of grave shafts other than some depressions of questionable origin (Chase 1981b). The Space and Missile Command legal division at Redstone Arsenal wanted a more thorough evaluation of the cemetery done, so Chase returned in August at the behest of the Alabama Space and Rocket Center to do further investigation (Chase 1981b). He excavated seven plow zone removal strips with a front end loader on the north end of the area fenced in for the cemetery. Chase identified five historic grave shafts near the center of the area and effectively delineated the northern end of the cemetery (Chase 1981b). He also found two prehistoric pit features in the northwest corner of the area where Oakley had mapped site 1Ma200. Nonetheless, he maintained his previous recommendation that 1Ma200 was not NRHP eligible. Earlier this same year, Lawrence Alexander with OAR returned to Redstone Arsenal to conduct a Phase II investigation on Site 1Ma24, the location where he plotted the site first recorded by Walter B. Jones in 1932. The location was slated to be impacted by the construction of an outfall sewer line. Despite intensive examination of the study area including the examination of 58 core samples and 18 backhoe trenches, no prehistoric cultural deposits were identified. Alexander concluded that 1Ma24 must have been an insignificant light density artifact scatter that evaded recovery with the methodology used (Alexander 1981). It seems more likely, though, that Jones’ description of the site location was more approximate than what Alexander gave him credit for. The nearest 65

site that might have fit Jones’ description of 1Ma24 is the one recorded as 1Ma750 just a few meters closer to the river on a high spot along the bank of the Tennessee River. At that same time, Lab and Base Support Branch of the U.S. Army Missile Command (USAMICOM) was contracting with New World Research to survey two proposed borrow pits on the northeastern part of the Arsenal. Steven D. Shelley directed the work. A total of 33 acres were shovel tested resulting in the recording sites 1Ma232 and 1Ma233, both lithic scatters (Shelley 1981). Shelley recommended further work on both sites. In the succeeding years, New World and OAR were contracted to conduct a series of Phase II investigations to evaluate the NRHP eligibility of a few of the sites previously recorded on RSA which were in the paths of proposed development. The first of these was at 1Ma173 in July of 1982. Alexander directed the field work with Oakley as the principal investigator. The crew excavated four 1m by 1m test units on the site and identified five features related to an early 20th century house including a brick chimney base, a raised area which was beneath the house, a well, a depression representing an outbuilding, and a possible privy foundation (Alexander 1982). Another historical site was identified just to the south of 1Ma173. Both sites were found to be ineligible for nomination to the NRHP, and both were subsequently destroyed by the construction of the Software Development Center. A small Phase II investigation was conducted by New World on site 1Ma232 in preparation for the construction of a softball and soccer field adjacent to the borrow pit previously surveyed by Shelley. This part of 1Ma232 was badly disturbed and no significant deposits were encountered, so it was considered ineligible for the NRHP (Swanson and Weed 1982). In June of 1983, additional shovel testing along with some mechanical stripping and trenching was done on site 1Ma142, a prehistoric scatter on the upper terrace of the Tennessee River, in preparation for the proposed construction of a small building and septic tank system near the center of the site. Alexander and Oakley conducted the investigation with the help of Bill Schroder. The only feature encountered was a cache of river cobbles around 1m below ground surface in a trench excavated with a Gradall. Local informants reported that a three to five meter high mound had been leveled on the site in 1971 producing a large number of artifacts including projectile points and “axes” (Schroder 1983). Oakley recommended that the construction could proceed, but additional work needed to be conducted if other parts of the site were to be impacted. Another Phase II was conducted later that same month on the proposed location of small rocket firing platform along Indian Creek. A prehistoric site, 1Ma238, was identified there based on a surface scatter, and OAR under the direction of Oakley, excavated five shallow backhoe trenches on the site to examine the stratigraphy and look for features. The cultural material was found to be confined to the plowzone, so no further work was recommended (Oakley 1983a). This work was conducted on part of Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge (WWR) which was established by Executive Order in 1938. Redstone 66

Arsenal has a land use agreement with WWR for about 4085 acres which are within RSA boundaries and is responsible for managing the cultural resources on that portion. A series of small project-specific Phase I surveys was also conducted in the mid-1980’s. Oakley conducted a survey under contract with Morton Thiokol, Inc. of approximately nine acres in the southeast part of RSA in advance of the construction of a Thiokol administrative building. He found a small lithic scatter which was recorded as site 1Ma176 and was considered ineligible for the NRHP (Oakley 1983b). A year later, William Paul Jordan of OAR conducted another survey for Thiokol, this time of roughly 4.5 acres for a proposed borrow pit. Jordan identified a small lithic scatter which he recorded as 1Ma239 which he considered ineligible due to its light artifact density (Jordan 1984). Another large Phase I survey took place in the autumn of 1984 when New World Research surveyed 12 parcels totaling roughly 465 acres for a proposed directed energy laboratory, laser range, and associated borrow pits stretching from the intersection of Buxton and Patton Roads all the way to Hatton Mountain to the west-northwest. New World recorded 16 new sites in the survey, and did Phase II level testing on two of the sites. The two sites chosen for additional testing were 1Ma241 and 1Ma244, both prehistoric lithic scatters. Mechanical Plowzone removal blocks on both sites failed to uncover any intact prehistoric deposits or features. Of the 16 sites, only four, three prehistoric and one historic, were recommended for further investigation (Campbell et al. 1985). OAR conducted a Phase II investigation of a late 19th century house site, 1Ma240, in late November, 1984. OAR staff archaeologist Charles Hubbert directed the work. Despite extensive features including a large stone-lined cellar, a bottle dump, a privy, and the ramp for a bank barn, as well as a rich oral history, Hubbert considered the site insignificant both archaeologically and historically (Hubbert 1985). Nonetheless, an alternate location was chosen for the Target Measurement and Seekers Measurement Facility that had been planned for that location. During the last week of March and the first week of April, 1985, OAR performed a survey of about 145 acres along the lower reaches of Huntsville Spring Branch. It had been decided that the most cost-effective and environmentally sound way of dealing with the DDT contamination in Huntsville Spring Branch was to reroute the drainage to bypass the worst of the contamination. Initially, seven areas were surveyed including about 1000 m of the proposed canal, access roads, staging area, temporary fill storage, and a section of the natural channel which was to be filled upon excavation of the bypass canal. Six new prehistoric sites were recorded, and two of the sites previously recorded by Alexander were revisited. A major development in April of 1985 was the creation of the Installation Archaeologist position at Redstone Arsenal. Charles Hubbert of OAR was chosen to fill the position. As the Installation Archaeologist, Charles Hubbert began conducting small projectspecific surveys in-house. In April of 1985, he surveyed four project areas totaling about 67

68 acres (Hubbert, Memorandums for Record, April 1985, RSA EMD Archives). One of these surveys resulted in the recording of an archaeological site, site 1Ma518, a light density prehistoric lithic scatter. In May, he did a rudimentary survey of a Training/Exercise Area and recorded two historic house sites which he recommended for avoidance and a large prehistoric site (1Ma279) which he considered ineligible (Hubbert, Memorandums for Record, 30 May1985, RSA EMD Archives). Hubbert performed several more small surveys in the summer of that year including 25 acres at the Morton Thiokol area, an area between the Redstone Airfield and Locust Road, several borrow pits on the north end of the Arsenal, an area around the south base of Madkin Mountain, among others (Hubbert, Memorandums for Record, May through September 1985, RSA EMD Archives). Hubbert recorded a few small insignificant lithic scatters in these surveys, but nothing that he considered significant enough to warrant preservation. Subsequent surveys, however, identified a good many NRHP eligible historic sites in some of the larger areas Hubbert surveyed. This is probably both a reflection of understaffing for such large project areas, and the prevailing attitude that persisted into the late 1980’s that historic sites were of less archaeological value than prehistoric sites. Outside help was still contracted out for larger surveys and Phase II investigations which necessitated greater manpower. In June of 1985, OAR conducted a small survey of a proposed building site and the associated borrow areas and found two prehistoric and two historic sites and conducted a Phase II investigation of site 1Ma160, an Archaic lithic scatter which had been recorded by Alexander in 1979. The project was directed by Paul Jordan and Van King. Jordan and King thoroughly investigated 1Ma160 with a controlled surface collection, test units, and extensive plow zone removal. The investigation dramatically extended the site boundaries, but no intact subsurface deposits or features were identified, so Jordan and King recommended no further work (Jordan and King 1985). The proposed building was eventually constructed elsewhere, but use of one of the borrow pits destroyed historic site 1Ma284. OAR was contracted to perform another Phase II project in December of 1985, this time at sites 1Ma256 and 1Ma272, both on Test Area 1 (TA-1). Rick Walling directed the work which included general surface collection and mechanical stripping of the plowzone with a road grader. While multiple Archaic and Woodland components were documented at both sites through the surface collection, no intact features or midden deposits were uncovered at either site (Walling 1986). A major investigation was set in motion late in 1985 when RSA proposed to dredge an old meander slough out for a boat harbor and cut a channel from it to the Tennessee River at what is now the Colonel Hudson Civilian Recreation Area. Hubbert visited the area in October and did a surface inspection along the Tennessee River bank noting a dense scatter of prehistoric lithics and Woodland and Mississippian ceramics along the shoreline and prehistoric features including a Mississippian fire pit, a fired or hardpacked clay floor, and shell lenses eroding from deep in the cut bank (Hubbert, notes, 1986, RSA EMD archives). Hubbert recorded the site as 1Ma285. Proposed expansion of the recreation area along the harbor would have also impacted a large part of site 1Ma126, a prehistoric scatter on the upper terrace of the Tennessee River that was 68

originally recorded by Alexander. The Facilities Engineer contracted with OSM Archaeological Consultants, Inc., a joint venture between Carey Oakley and Boyce Driskell which they ran out of Northport, Alabama, to conduct Phase II evaluations on both sites. Oakley and Driskell and a crew of several OAR alums began work in July of 1986 by excavating a continuous backhoe trench along the crest of the natural levee from near the mouth of a small tributary draining Fishing Hole spring upriver for approximately 850 m. This trench bisected several prehistoric features including an Archaic hearth and living surface, a Middle Woodland shell lense, a Middle to Late Woodland hearth and shell lense, and two Late Woodland Flint River Phase shell pits (Oakley and Driskell 1987a, b). The first radiocarbon assays of material from Redstone Arsenal were performed on material from two of these features. Feature 6 which was a large shell-filled pit that yielded limestone-tempered ceramics including 98 Mulberry Creek Plain (including var. Hamilton) sherds, four Wright Check Stamped sherds, and three of an unidentified type yielded a radiocarbon date of 2350±90 BP which intercepts the calibration curve at 673-342, 325-204, and 763-681 cal. BC. The second date was 2460±70 BP (769-406 BC) for the other Late Woodland shell pit which yielded Mulberry Creek Plain and Flint River Brushed ceramics and small triangular arrow points. Both of these dates are far too early for the Flint River Phase which Walthall (1980) placed between AD 500 and 1000 and Knight (1990) placed between AD 500 and 900. Both of these early dates were obtained from samples of shell, a material which is now considered notorious for producing excessively early dates. A third date of 4550±105 BP (3522-3000, 2994-2928, or 3622-3606 cal. BC) was obtained for a fire-hardened surface buried 3.2m below the present ground surface in a deep backhoe probe at the eastern end of the trench placing this lowest component in the middle part of the Late Archaic period. Diagnostic projectile points and ceramics collected in the investigation of 1Ma285 represented components ranging from the Late Archaic through the Mississippian periods (Oakley and Driskell 1987a, b). Investigation of 1Ma126 included the mechanical removal of the plowzone in two intersecting strips across the site. Eleven soil anomalies were identified in the strip trenches. Upon further investigation, only six of these were confirmed to be cultural in origin. These included four pits of varying sizes with unidentified prehistoric cultural affiliation, a small Woodland pit, and a post hole of indeterminate age. After these were excavated, a backhoe trench was dug along the strip trench that had the highest density of features. Three additional features were identified in the profile of the strip trench. These included two pits filled with fire-cracked rock and a third with a human burial. The burial consisted of a primary flexed interment of a young adult male (USACE 1996) buried with a flint-knapping kit and Wade points in varying stages of resharpening and rejuvenation. The grave was roughly lined with rock fragments and was capped by two large flat quartzite cobbles. Several of the human bone fragments were submitted to Beta Analytic for radiocarbon dating which returned a date of 2050±170 BP (484-465 cal BC or 416 cal BC to cal AD 388). Oakley and Driskell (1987a,b) dismissed the date as being too late for Wade points which have been assigned to the end of the Late Archaic through the Middle Gulf Formational periods (ca. 1100-500 BC), but once calibrated, the dates are only a few decades from the very end of this span.

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In November, Carey Oakley returned, this time back with OAR to direct deep testing of a portion of the Huntsville Spring Branch floodplain which was potentially going to be impacted by the DDT remediation project. Three slot trenches were excavated with a backhoe, but no cultural deposits were encountered (Oakley 1986). The following year saw another major project on RSA soil, but this one was funded by the Alabama Highway Department. The ever-expanding facilities on the Arsenal had necessitated improvements in the infrastructure leading into the base, so the Highway Commission was planning to expand the interchange between Highway I-565 and Rideout Road. Unfortunately, this would require a widening of the exit ramp into an unmarked historic cemetery that had first been discovered in 1965 when the road had to be shifted to the east after original road improvements severely impacted a row of graves. The rediscovered cemetery was named Elko Switch Cemetery after the historic railroad stop just north of the cemetery and was recorded as site 1Ma305. The Highway Department contracted with the Alabama Museum of Natural History, Division of Archaeology to delineate the cemetery and remove the graves from a 60 ft (18.3m) right of way along the east edge of the cemetery. This was not the first time that road improvements on Redstone necessitated the removal of historic burials. In 1959, during construction of Centerline Road on TA-1, an unmarked cemetery was discovered on a low hill (“mound”), and ten burials were moved to Clark Cemetery, 1.2 km to the westsouthwest (J. Birch, journal note, 10 August 1959, archives, RSA EMD), and in 1965 around the same time that Elko Switch Cemetery was accidentally discovered, another unmarked cemetery was encountered during construction of an interchange on Toftoy Thruway. Several burials from this latter cemetery were disinterred and reburied in what was named the Indian Creek Cemetery on the bluffs east of Indian Creek (R. Henry to Members of Master Planning Board, memorandum, 26 May 1965, archives, RSA EMD). The difference this time is that professional archaeologists were called in to disinter and study the remains before reburial. Field work involved the removal of the plowzone with a road grader followed by a careful excavation of each uncovered grave shaft. A total of 56 graves were identified and excavated in the proposed right of way. Based on coffin hardware and grave shape, the graves were thought to date between roughly 1850 and 1920. The cemetery was definitely still in use as late as 1916 based on a 1916 buffalo nickel that was recovered from the southernmost grave. All the remains that could be typed according to race were black, leading the investigators to theorize that this was originally a slave cemetery associated with the nearby Oakendale Plantation and was used by the local black tenant and sharecropper community in the years after the Civil War (Shogren et al. 1989). After being analyzed, the remains were individually placed in wooden boxes and were reinterred in a trench on the west side of the cemetery. In September of 1988, Charles Hubbert conducted Phase II testing on site 1Ma101, a prehistoric lithic scatter in TA-3 on a terrace of Indian Creek which was slated for impact from the testing of Humvees. The site was first plowed and repeatedly surface collected after which the plowzone was stripped with a road grader in a strip across the center of the site. Two possible pits and a tree mold were found extending into the subsoil, but none yielded artifacts upon excavation. A historic chimney base was also identified on the southern end of the site. Diagnostic points from the surface collection indicated that 70

the site was occupied repeatedly from the Early Archaic on. Hubbert recommended that further investigation be done on the site prior to any potential disturbance (Hubbert 1988). Hubbert continued to conduct small in-house archaeological surveys throughout the final years of the decade, performing a rudimentary survey of landforms on McKinley Range (Hubbert, Memorandums for Record, March 1989, RSA EMD Archives) and a 20 acre strip along the west side of Anderson Road in the northwest corner of the Arsenal (Hubbert 1989). Hubbert did not identify sites at either location. In the spring of 1989, as part of his on-going examination of prehistoric settlement on the terraces of the Tennessee River, Hubbert organized a volunteer excavation of site 1Ma366 on the upper terrace of the Tennessee River. The site is in an area of complex geomorphology where Indian Creek wraps around the south side of Bradford Mountain and pirates a former channel of the Tennessee River for about 2.2 miles (3.5 km) before emptying into the current channel which has meandered at most a half-mile (0.8 km) southward since the Pleistocene. Hubbert invited volunteers from the Huntsville Chapter of the Alabama Archaeological Society (AAS) to participate. Testing at 1Ma366 consisted of the excavation of test units and shovel tests at 30 m intervals for about 800 m along the crest of the old river terrace. The excavations recovered cultural material from every test unit in depths typically reaching to 40 to 50 cm, with a maximum depth of 80 cm. Diagnostic artifacts recovered from the excavations included a Hardaway Dalton point, two early side-notched points, and two Kirk Corner Notched points (Hubbert 1997). Hubbert gave passing mention to this investigation in his later report on Beartail Rockshelter, but as of yet, none of the data has been formally analyzed or published. The 1990’s were ushered in with a series of archaeological projects related to improvements stemming from the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Act of 1988. In April of 1990, archaeologist Neil Robison of the USACE, Mobile District, surveyed a two acre project area for the construction of a primary radiation standards complex (USACE 1990a) and a nearly 120 acre area for the construction of the John J. Sparkman Center for missile Excellence office complex and associated electrical substation and sewer line (USACE 1990b). Robison did not identify sites in either location. In August, Robison returned with USACE archaeologist Dottie Gibbens to investigate a nearly 200 acre area which was to be impacted by a proposed expansion of the Redstone golf course. Redstone personnel plowed four roughly 3m wide transects across the area for surface inspection. The surface survey was supplemented with shovel tests transects in areas which had not been plowed. Eight sites were recorded – all light density prehistoric lithic scatters primarily located around the rim of a sink complex. Six of the sites were identified based on surface survey, and two were identified along shovel test transects. All of the sites were heavily eroded, and Robison and Gibbens did not recommend any for further testing (USACE 1990c). At that same time, they surveyed a four acre parcel near the Civilian Recreation Area that was being considered for a dry boat storage area. Prehistoric lithic debitage was recovered from several of the shovel tests in the project area. Robison and Gibbens suggested that the artifacts represented a southwestward extension of site 1Ma126 and recommended that further work be done prior to construction (USACE 1990c).

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In November, the Mobile Corps of Engineers contracted with New South Associates of Stone Mountain, Georgia to implement Robison’s and Gibbens’ recommendation for further work at 1Ma126. Work was directed by New South archaeologists Charles Cantley, J. W. Joseph, and Theresa Hamby. They thoroughly shovel tested and delineated the artifact scatter discovered at the proposed dry boat storage area and confirmed that it was in fact an extension of site 1Ma126 which afforded it protection based on the Phase II investigation which was completed by Oakley and Driskell (1987a, b). They excavated eight 1m by 2m test units on the western part of 1Ma126. Although no features were identified, the presence of intact cultural deposits dating from the Early Archaic through Late Woodland periods was verified. Some of the deposits extended to a depth of 70 cm and appeared to represent natural stratification near the nose of the upper terrace of the Tennessee River. The New South crew also conducted an extensive Phase I survey of roughly 750 acres that would potentially be crossed by an eastward extension of Neal Road from its intersection with Mills Road. Only the highest potential areas were thoroughly shovel tested, and later surveys of the area recorded additional sites, but most of the major sites were identified and thoroughly delineated with shovel tests. These included eleven previously recorded prehistoric sites and 12 new sites including eight prehistoric sites, a historic house site, a historic cemetery, and two sites with both historic and prehistoric components. New South recommended four of these sites for further testing. Cantley and his co-authors noted the heavy representation of Archaic points and lack of ceramics on sites around the McDonald Creek wetland complex on the east side of the project area. Although Thomas (1980) documented Woodland components in the area, and later work in the area would confirm extensive use of the area during the Middle and Late Woodland periods, Cantley, Joseph, and ethnobotonist Leslie Raymer theorized that the high biodiversity of edible plants around the wetland margins aided Archaic women in their dual roles of plant food collecting and child rearing by establishing habitation areas in close proximity to sources of abundant food thus decreasing the time required to gather food and increasing the time available for nursing and caring for children (Cantley eta al. 1991). They explained the perceived lack of Woodland components in the area by the decreased importance of wild plant foods in favor of cultivated species which could be grown closer to major waterways like the Tennessee River. Later surveys of the wetland complexes along McDonald Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch demonstrated, however, that the focus on settlement in these areas continued well into the Late Woodland period, at least on a seasonal basis. In 1991, about a year after his first visit, Robison of the USACE returned to RSA to conduct Phase II testing on site 1Ma114, a prehistoric lithic scatter which had been recorded by Alexander in 1978 and was recommended for further work by New South in 1990. Robison worked with Charles Hubbert to place four test units on the site in an area slated for impact by the construction of an electrical substation. They failed to find any intact cultural deposits or features but confirmed the presence of both Archaic and historic components (USACE 1991). Hubbert continued to perform small projects around the Arsenal. Between April of 1991 and April of 1995 when he resigned from the position of Installation Archaeologist, Hubbert surveyed 52 areas (Hubbert, Memorandums for Record, 1991-1995, RSA EMD 72

Archives) including 11 locations totaling 129 acres scheduled for impact by BRAC related construction (Hubbert 1992). The Alabama Historic Commission (AHC) provided oversight for the work, reviewing the findings on a project by project basis. When not surveying areas in the path of proposed development, Hubbert pursued his own research goals and performed site reconnaissance along the Tennessee River terraces to study the geological history of the river system and how it related to human habitation along its banks. He recorded 53 sites along the River and the lower reaches of Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch often identifying them with the aid of a backhoe supplied by the Directorate of Engineering and Housing. After his work on 1MA336, Hubbert became particularly interested in Site 1MA96, Beartail Rockshelter, the largest rock shelter site on Redstone, located just across Indian Creek from 1MA336. Bill Schroder was particularly fond of Beartail Rockshelter and was responsible for showing it to Hubbert and many other archaeologists over the years. It was even featured in a local news story about the cultural resources at Redstone Arsenal on WAAY-31 nightly news (Schroder, personal communication 8/19/2009). In October of 1992, Carolene Wu who had just joined the environmental team as NEPA coordinator and wetlands and endangered species reviewer, was tasked with writing an application for a Legacy Grant from the Department of Defense (DoD). The Legacy Resource Management Program was set up by Congress in 1990 to provide financial assistance to DoD efforts to preserve natural and cultural resources. The goal of the program was to assist the military in protecting and enhancing resources while still supporting the missions of the armed forces. Based on Hubbert’s recommendations, Wu requested $225,000 (Rogers 1995b) to fund an in-depth study on Beartail Rockshelter. Meanwhile, during February of 1993, the University of Alabama, Alabama State Museum of Natural History, Division of Archaeology was contracted by Volkert Environmental Group, Inc. of Mobile to survey a section of a corridor for a highway bypass proposed by the Alabama Department of Transportation to skirt traffic around the southwest side of Huntsville. Just prior to New South’s work on 1Ma126, the University of Alabama had surveyed three alternative corridors for the proposed highway bypass starting at the east edge of the Arsenal and heading south just outside of the Arsenal boundary toward the Tennessee River where they merged and arced to the east for a junction with AL-431 just north of Whitesburg Bridge (Patterson 1990). The 1993 survey was for the segment of the bypass planned to cross the northern and eastern part of Redstone Arsenal. The survey on Arsenal land was directed by Jeffry Meyer. Meyer and his crew revisited 16 previously identified sites in the proposed right of way and recorded an additional 11 new sites. Meyer maintained the recommendations previously made for the treatment of the 16 previously recorded sites and recommended Phase II testing on two of the new sites he recorded (Meyer 1993). Seven months later, Hubbert led a small team of Redstone Arsenal Division of Environmental Quality personnel in the excavation of three exploratory 1m by 1m test units in Beartail Rockshelter. Two were placed inside the shelter. One of these was terminated due to NAGPRA concerns after a human burial was encountered at 30 cm below surface. The third unit was placed at the base of the talus slope in front of the 73

shelter. Upon being notified that Redstone had won the Legacy grant, Hubbert suspended further work and began making arrangements for a larger scale excavation (Hubbert 1997). The contract for the Beartail excavation was given to the university of Alabama, Office of Archaeological Services (OAS, formerly OAR). Michael Collins of the University of Texas, Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, and Boyce Driskell of the University of Alabama headed up the project. In the spring of 1994, OAS began work by drafting a detailed contour map of the site and excavating all the way to bedrock one of the units that Hubbert had previously started inside the shelter. Full scale work began on August 10. The first field season lasted until September 18. In that time, work was focused on examining the potential for significant late Pleistocene/early Holocene deposits at the site. Four excavation units were opened. The first of these (TU4) was a 1.5m by 3m unit placed just outside the modern dripline of the shelter. A second burial was uncovered in the south end of the unit, so excavation ceased on that half, and only the north half was excavated to a total depth of 280 cm. Likewise, the next test unit (TU5), near the top of the talus, began as a 1.5m by 3m unit, but only the north half of the unit was fully excavated to a depth of 400 cm. The next test unit (TU6) was supposed to abut the south wall of TU5 to form a continuous 6m trench in the upper talus, but a third burial was encountered upon opening the north half of the unit, so it was discontinued, and only the southern half was dug to a total depth of 380 cm. The final test unit of the first season (TU7) was a 1.5m by 1.5m unit near the base of the talus slope. It was excavated to a depth of 200 cm. The result of the first season was the sampling of a thick cultural midden at the site which represented continuous use of the rockshelter from the early Holocene to the protohistoric period (Meeks et al. 1995). This was the last major archaeological project done on RSA soil before major reorganization ushered in a new era of archaeology on the Installation.

Basewide Surveys and Phase II Testing (1995-2005) Bill Schroder retired after 24 years of Civil Service on January 3, 1995 (Schroder, personal communication 8/1/2008). Soon after, the Environmental Office at Redstone Arsenal was changed to the Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning. After Schroder was made a Team Leader in 1993 for the Installation Restoration group which oversaw clean-up of the Superfund sites, all of the other things formerly overseen by Schroder were distributed among his former staff. Daniel “Danny” Dunn had been brought on in 1991 as a NEPA advisor and was promoted to Chief of the Cultural and Natural Resources Branch after Schroder retired. Dunn had worked as a wildlife biologist for the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service for about 10 years and had asked to be transferred to Redstone Environmental to be closer to his family in Arab. He grew up in Arab and attended college at University of Alabama, Huntsville where he received his MS degree in biology. Dunn then appointed Carolene Wu to the position of Cultural Resources Manager (CRM). Wu, a Huntsville native, had transferred in 1992 from Aberdeen Proving Ground 74

in Maryland to RSA Environmental where she initially worked under Schroder as a NEPA coordinator and wetlands and endangered species reviewer. Wu retained the responsibilities of NEPA coordinator and requested to also manage the cultural resources as a way to keep her job interesting (Wu, personal communication 7/30/2008). Also at this time, Charles Hubbert’s IPA contract expired, and OAS appointed Scott Shaw as the new Installation Archaeologist. Shaw continued to survey small project areas, investigating 22 locations between April and December, 1995 (Shaw, Memorandums for Record, 1995, RSA EMD Archives) including five areas for road improvements related to the 1995 BRAC (Shaw 1995). In between these surveys, Shaw pursued his own research, exploring and recording several of the cave sites on RSA. In April, Shaw assisted Joseph Betterton III of OAS in conducting the first Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) work on Redstone which consisted of the survey of portions of Beartail Rockshelter to identify buried boulders or human burials which might impede excavation (Hubbert 1996). Areas without such obstacles were selected for excavation in the 1995 field season. Hubbert, meanwhile, found himself back at RSA less than three weeks after his contract expired. He was appointed by OAS to direct the next field season of excavations at Beartail Rockshelter which focused on the geomorphology of the rockshelter and adjacent Indian Creek floodplain. Work resumed on June 21 (Hubbert 1996) with the opening of three 2m by 2m test units in a continuous block near the center of the rockshelter beneath the overhang. Two of these were excavated to bedrock during the 1995 season, while the third was not completed until the following year. In addition to these units, a series of 1.5m units were dug in a trench at the toe of the talus slope. Work in the lower talus trench was primarily done by volunteer workers recruited from the Redstone Arsenal community and members of the AAS all of whom were extremely grateful for the opportunity (Rogers 1995a). A backhoe was then employed to excavate below the hand excavation in the lower talus to as deep as the backhoe could reach. Preliminary observations of the stratigraphic profiles indicated a basal stratum of micaceous Tennessee River alluvium at the toe of the talus, overlain by non-micaceous Indian Creek alluvium interbedded and overlain at the toe of the slope with layers of poorly sorted colluvium which originated from erosion and collapse of the rockshelter and the slopes of Bradford Mountain. The layers of colluvium thickened with proximity to the face of the bluff. Attempts were also made to establish a paleobotanical sequence from pollen contained in soil samples from various depths in the excavation units. Unfortunately, however, only the uppermost sample contained preserved pollen, so no diachronic comparison could be formulated (Hubbert 1996). Several radiocarbon dates were calculated from charcoal fragments found throughout the stratigraphy, but unfortunately, the upper components were so mixed within the colluvium that most of the dates contributed little to the understanding of the site and of cultural history in the Middle Tennessee River valley in general. The lowest dates were an exception. The most significant is Beta-85156 which was recovered from the top of the Tennessee River alluvium just below the basal layer of colluvium. The analysis resulted in a radiocarbon date of 9550±60 BP (Hubbert 1996, 1997) or 9183-8742 cal. BC. This marks the approximate time when the Tennessee River, which had prior to that point removed much 75

of the slopewash from the base of Bradford Mountain, began migrating toward its present channel to the south. Charcoal associated with cultural material from slightly lower in the Tennessee River alluvium returned a date (Beta-85157) of 9930±60 (Hubbert 1996, 1997) or 9665-9274 cal. BC. Late in the field season, several early artifacts including a Hardaway Dalton point, a Big Sandy point, and a small stemmed point Hubbert typed as a Jude point were found sealed under a rockfall in a zone of yellow cherty colluvium beneath the midden (Hubbert 1997; Rogers 1995b). Plans were made for a third season to obtain a larger sample of this early component and hopefully recover some datable material. Meanwhile, in October and November of 1995, Panamerican Consultants, Inc. of Tuscaloosa was contracted by the U.S. Army Missile Command (AMCOM) to intensively survey a 43 acre area where Hubbert had previously recorded site 1Ma279. The entire project area was shovel tested on a 30m grid, with sites delineated at 10m grids. Phase II evaluation then commenced on the sites in the form of 1m by 1m test units and mechanical plowzone stripping trenches. Site 1Ma279 was found to encompass the prehistoric component and both historic components which Hubbert had observed in 1985. Intact prehistoric midden was encountered in one of the test units, but no other features were identified despite extensive sampling, so the site was considered ineligible for the NRHP. One other site was recorded. This site, 1Ma597, was located just north of 1Ma297 and represented the former location of a third historic house which included an intact brick foundation/cellar. Despite the intact feature, Panamerican recommended that this site too be considered ineligible (Jackson et al. 1996). Although funding from the Legacy Grant was starting to dwindle by then, OAS returned in May of 1996 for one more field season at Beartail Rockshelter. During this final season, OAS added three 2m by 2m excavation units to the block inside the rockshelter. Only one of the units penetrated to the depth of the lowest cultural component. Excavation of this unit ceased at 240 cm below the modern surface of the rockshelter. At the 210 to 220 cm level, at the same depth as the side-notched points recovered the previous season, a fragment of mammal longbone was recovered with a mass of carbonized organic matter clinging to it. This was submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc. for AMS dating (Beta-105643). Beta returned a date of 9820±60 BP (9441-9427 or 94129192 cal. BC) likely marking the earliest human occupation of the rockshelter, although point types such as Beaver Lake and Quad traditionally assumed to be older than Dalton and Big Sandy types were found mixed into the same strata above this lower component (Hubbert 1997). Hubbert spent the next year drafting the final report for the fieldwork at Beartail. Justifiably, the focus of the report was limited to the early Holocene component and the depositional history of the site which contributed substantially to our understanding of the geomorphology of the Middle Tennessee River valley. Disappointedly, the upper 9000 years or so of deposits at Beartail Rockshelter was so badly mixed by the activities of progressively later shelter occupants, both human and otherwise, that few meaningful patterns could be teased out of it. With such a large sample, however, there is still the 76

potential for some additional research opportunities including a detailed analysis of the faunal assemblage. Unfortunately, in hindsight, the three burials which were circumvented to avoid lengthy NAGPRA consultation probably would have contained more significant data for the cultural history and anthropology of the area than all of the other deposits. Also, in August, Scott Shaw resigned his position as Installation Archaeologist to help his father with the family business (Wu, personal communication, 7/30/ 2008). OAS replaced Shaw with Beverly Curry, who began work at RSA on September 3, 1996 under the IPA contract. Curry first worked for OAR in 1981 while she was working on her BA degree in anthropology. She continued her association there, becoming full-time in January of 1990. Throughout this time, she participated in and supervised dozens of Phase I surveys (Curry, Vita, Feb. 1996, RSA EMD Archives). She received her M.A. degree in Anthropology from the University of Alabama in 1987 and had just finished a second M.A. degree in Teaching English as a Second Language prior to taking the position at Redstone. Soon after Curry was appointed, Danny Dunn decided to move the Installation Archaeologist out of the old environmental field office (Building 7108) from which Hubbert and Shaw had operated to Building 112 which housed the Directorate of Environmental Management and the rest of the Redstone Garrison. Dunn also made a decision in 1995 that would dramatically change Redstone Arsenal’s approach to the management of archaeological resources. Prior to Curry’s tenure as Installation Archaeologist, reports of small surveys were typically submitted as Memoranda of Record to the Cultural Resource Manager, often without any sort of SHPO review. Curry instituted a policy that all Phase I surveys be conducted in accordance with Alabama Historical Commission (AHC) standards allowing for SHPO review and concurrence with the recommendations (Curry, personal communication, 8/25/2009). This, of course, dramatically increased the turnover time between initial environmental review of each project and approval to proceed. Early in 1995, Dunn sent a request to ALSHPO to waive archaeological survey of several upland pine plantation parcels that were scheduled for timber harvest on the grounds that the impacts would be low, and the surveys done to that point showed a low probability for significant archaeological sites in those areas. F. Lawrence Oaks, Alabama SHPO from 1982 to 1997, denied the request citing the high potential for Paleoindian and Archaic lithic scatters on high spots around the rims of old sinks in the uplands. Since the project area would be so large, and since so much of the Installation was in pine plantation that would need to be periodically harvested, and since the system of getting SHPO concurrence on every single little project was a drain on time and resources, Dunn decided to implement a complete base-wide archaeological survey to identify and evaluate all sites on Redstone Arsenal. The base-wide survey got off to a bumpy start. The money for the first phase of the survey was not secured until the next fiscal year. The contract was given to TRC Garrow and Associates, Inc. of Memphis after they dramatically underbid the competitors. Dunn was skeptical that they could adequately survey the contracted 8653 acres with what they bid, but the Acquisitions Department at Redstone proceeded to assign the contract 77

anyway (Dunn, personal communication, July 29, 2008). TRC assigned Charles McNutt, Jr. to manage the project. Fieldwork began in October of 1996. Because of Scott Shaw’s recommendation prior to his resignation, the survey was organized around parcels of land divided by the relative amount of ground disturbance which had taken place there according to a study done by David Dye of Memphis State University in 1985. Dye (1985) divided the Arsenal into his “Ground Disturbance Areas” (GDA) based on documentary evidence including maps, Army records, and previous archaeological reports. TRC had based their budget on Dye’s predictions - the areas selected for the survey were predicted by Dye to range from 30 to 90% disturbed. The actual groundtruthed disturbance of those areas was far less than what Dye predicted, however, prompting TRC to approach Acquisitions at Redstone for more funds. By this time, the entire Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning (DEMP) budget had been allotted, however, and Danny Dunn denied their request (Dunn, personal communication, 7/29/2008). As a result, TRC replied that they would only survey up to the standards stipulated in the contract. They nonetheless recorded 30 new sites and revisited 10, and in some of the areas, they were able to identify and delineate all or nearly all of the sites. In other areas, they do not appear to have surveyed at all. In two of the areas (GDA 9 and 10) totaling around 314 acres, TRC accurately described the terrain but failed to identify any sites (McNutt et al. 1998a) - a later survey recorded 14 sites (Alexander and Redwine 2008), two of which were potentially NRHP eligible and had high artifact densities. By this time, Lawrence Alexander had moved to the Chattanooga area and started his own small consulting company called Alexander Archaeological Consultants (AAC). Alexander had worked with Curry at OAR, and she was familiar with his work, so when RSA was looking for a new contractor to continue the base-wide survey Alexander bid on the survey of an additional 6696 acres and won the contract. They conducted the field work from November of 1996 through July of 1997 and recorded 59 new archaeological sites and revisited 39 that had been previously recorded. Like the TRC Garrow surveys, this survey divided the project areas into Ground Disturbance Areas based on Dye (1985) and also investigated only the percentage of those areas that Dye considered intact. The actual project areas totaled 6875 acres, but the scope of work only specified that 3624 acres be intensively surveyed (Alexander, Campbell, Minnich, and Moore 1998). As a result, based on later resurveys of those areas, as much as 40% of the sites were missed. Clearly, a new survey strategy had to be implemented. A few months later, AAC won the contract for an additional survey of 331 acres of timber stands on RSA to comply with the ALSHPO request that they be intensively surveyed prior to harvest. Work commenced in September of 1997. Two new sites were recorded in the survey, and one previously recorded site, 1Ma151, the Timmons Plantation site, was revisited (Alexander, Campbell, and Minnich 1998a). Meanwhile, Curry conducted a few small surveys for specific projects including several proposed locations for small buildings and utility corridors (Curry, Memoranda 19961997, RSA EMD Archives) often with the help of DEMP staff Troy Pitts and Jesse Horton. In October of 1997, she surveyed four areas totaling approximately 42 acres that were scheduled for selective timber harvest (Curry 1997). The following March, she 78

surveyed two areas totaling around 1 acre for asphalt pads on TA-1 (Curry 1998a), and in April, Curry surveyed a small section of an old meander slough for the proposed construction of a low head dam (Curry 1998b). No new sites were identified in any of these surveys, although on the latter project, Curry employed the help of AAC to examine the terrain surrounding the project area where they recorded two new prehistoric sites which were then included in the AAC GDA report. By this point, it became clear that the GDA-based survey proposed by Dye was inadequate, and 100% survey would be necessary to record all of the potentially NRHP eligible archaeological sites. The cultural resources staff at RSA decided to begin awarding contracts each year for survey based on a number of acres for complete survey instead of for previously defined disturbance areas. In Fiscal Year (FY) 1997, they were allotted funds for the survey of 2600 acres. Once again, the contract went to AAC. The fieldwork began in November and lasted seven months. AAC recorded 41 new sites and revisited 17 that had previously been recorded (Alexander, Minnich, Campbell, and Stevens 1998a) equaling over 76% of the sites that would eventually be recorded in those survey areas. It appeared that the base-wide survey was finally starting to get off the ground. In February of 1998, AAC was contracted again to perform a project-specific survey of roughly 330 acres that was to be developed for the FBI Hazardous Devices School. The survey resulted in the identification of eight new sites and the retesting of four previously recorded sites. These included nine historic sites and three prehistoric sites (Alexander, Minnich, Campbell, and Stevens 1998b). At the same time, they surveyed an additional 20 acres of timber stands under another contract (Alexander et al. 1998b). In this second survey, they revisited and delineated site 1Ma365, an Archaic scatter which had previously been recorded by Hubbert. In April, they surveyed another 75 acres in one of the storage magazine areas (Alexander, Minnich, and Campbell 1998), and in July, AAC returned to survey about 220 acres on TA-3 for a proposed tank track (Alexander 1998). They recorded one new historic site and revisited three previously recorded prehistoric sites, including 1Ma164 which had first been recorded by Alexander in 1978. They determined that three of the sites were too badly disturbed to warrant preservation, but they reiterated Alexander’s earlier findings that 1Ma164 be considered NRHP eligible. In August, AAC was contracted to perform a Phase II evaluation on site 1Ma164. The site is a high density prehistoric scatter on a terrace of Indian Creek. AAC had recommended further work on it in preparation for the construction of the proposed tank track, but despite this, Richard Gibson, the range chief for TA-3, had ignored demands from the DEMP to avoid the site (Wu, personal communication 8/14/2008) and directed that a waterline be laid right through the center of it. Before any further damage could be done, the DEMP ordered the Phase II investigation. Jeff Thomson who had previously done work on Redstone for OSM, directed the fieldwork. For the Phase II, AAC first delineated the site with shovel tests on a 10m grid, then placed two 1m by 1m test units in a wooded area on the southeast edge of the site which they thought might be relatively undisturbed. This was followed up with three mechanically excavated plowzone stripping trenches and three deeper backhoe trenches to examine the geomorphology of 79

the site. Twelve features were identified in the plowzone removal trenches in the southern half of the site (Alexander and Thomson 1998). These included 11 prehistoric pits and a Woodland post mold which contained 47 sherds of Mulberry Creek Plain (including var. Hamilton) and two sherds of Flint River Brushed suggesting a cultural affiliation with the Late Woodland Flint River culture. Alexander and Thomson recommended that site still be considered NRHP eligible and protected from further impacts. A few months later, in December, AAC returned for more Phase II work, this time at four historic house sites that were identified as part of the survey of the FBI Hazardous Devices School. These sites included 1Ma657, 1Ma767, 1Ma768, and 1Ma769. All four of these sites turned out to date to the late 19th through early 20th century (all four show up on the 1936 Farley quad map). Fieldwork was directed by Jeff Thomson and Victor Thompson. Each site was investigated with a combination of hand excavated test units and mechanical stripping. Only one feature was identified in the work – a limestone chimney base uncovered on site 1Ma168 (Alexander, Williams, and Thompson 2002). None of the sites were considered eligible for further protection. The year 1999 saw several relatively small project-specific surveys conducted by AAC including 178 acres for wildlife habitat improvements on TA-3 (Alexander, Thompson, and Thomson1999), 169 acres for power line management (Alexander, Thomson, Walgren, and Williams 1999), 346 acres on TA-3 (Alexander and Thomson 1999), five acres along Mills Road (Alexander, Azzarello, and Thomson 1999), and two contracts for 309 acres (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2000) and 466 acres for timber management (Alexander, Minnich, Thomson, and Williams 1999). Collectively, these projects resulted in 19 new sites being recorded and nine previously recorded sites being revisited and reevaluated. Some of these small projects were rolled into another phase of base-wide survey totaling 5000 acres. As a result of the 5000 acre survey, 69 new sites were recorded and 15 previously recorded sites were revisited between February and September of that year (Alexander, Minnich, Thomson, and Williams 2000). From 2000 through 2004, AAC maintained a near constant presence at Redstone. Jeff Thomson, who lived locally, directed most of the Phase I surveys on the Installation during this time. Small project-specific surveys were still conducted as needed (Alexander and Williams 2000; Alexander 2000; Alexander and Hoksbergen 2001; Alexander and Williams 2002; Alexander and Hoksbergen 2003), but the acreage from these was often included as part of each year’s base-wide survey acreage, and the reports were collapsed into the final volumes of the larger survey reports. From December 1999 to July of 2000, AAC surveyed 7000 acres recording 133 new sites and revisiting 52 previously recorded sites (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2003). From December of 2001 through February of 2002, AAC surveyed 586 acres (Alexander, Hendrickson, and Thomson 2002). The largest survey was conducted between August 2000 and April 2003 during which time 7002 acres were surveyed resulting in the recordation of 217 new sites and delineation of 78 previously recorded sites (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2008). The 7002 acres completed the survey of everything except the land on Wheeler Wildlife Refuge (WWR), Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), and the numerous 80

contaminated areas that were deemed unsafe for survey and were mostly disturbed anyway. Once an ARPA permit was secured from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, AAC proceeded to survey the uninvestigated portions of WWR between 2002 and December of 2004 (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2008; Alexander and Smith 2008). The NASA land was not surveyed until the fall of 2005 after Carolene Wu recommended to MSFC cultural resources staff that they fund a 100% survey of the facility. The MSFC Environmental Engineering and Management Office gave the contract to AAC who documented 22 sites on the NASA facility as result of the survey (Alexander and Alvey 2006). In 2003, the RSA DEM contracted AAC to collect GPS data on all the sites that had been recorded up to that point. AAC staff Jeff Thomson and Brandon Key spent a large part of the next three years relocating over 800 sites and shooting in their boundaries with a Trimble GPS backpack unit (Alexander and Smith 2005). For many of the sites that had been delineated in the early surveys, no sketch maps were available, so the archaeologists were forced to rely on site descriptions and the locations plotted on quad maps. For all subsequent surveys, site boundaries were shot in with GPS as part of the standard Phase I procedure. All of the GPS data on the site boundaries was downloaded and is maintained as ArcGIS shape files in a limited access layer in the RSA Environmental Management Division GIS database. Although archaeological survey was the focus of the work during this time, two Phase II investigations were also conducted. From December 2000 to March 2001, AAC performed a Phase II excavation of 1Ma709, an upland prehistoric scatter on the rim of a small sink in the proposed location of an addition to the Von Braun Complex office buildings. Controlled surface collection and test unit excavation followed by mechanical plowzone removal on around 40% of the site documented prehistoric components ranging from the transitional Paleoindian through the Late Woodland. Transitional Paleoindian and Early Archaic components were most heavily represented with 56% of the diagnostic points. The Middle Woodland period was also well represented. One Middle Woodland pit feature yielded abundant carbonized botanical remains including hickory nuts, persimmon seeds, a sassafras seed, elm, hickory, and maple charcoal. The feature also yielded a Copena Triangular point and limestone-tempered ceramics. A radiocarbon assay on some of the charcoal yielded a date of 1900±60 BP (30 cal. BC to cal. AD 240). A smaller pit feature yielded carbonized hickory nuts, cane fragments, and hickory charcoal as well as a limestone-tempered ceramic assemblage made up of 78% Mulberry Creek Plain and 19% Bluff Creek Simple Stamped suggesting affiliations with either the Walling Phase or the Bell Hill Phase of the late Middle Woodland. Other features included a possible late Gulf Formational pit containing a sand-tempered sherd, a Late Woodland pit, and four other pits for which cultural affiliation could not be determined (Alexander, Thomson, and Hoksbergen 2002). The second Phase II was in preparation for the construction of a wetland mitigation bank in an old meander slough of the Tennessee River. This work was done by AAC in the spring of 2003 and consisted of the excavation of test units and extensive stripping on the western half of site 1Ma504 on the second terrace of the Tennessee River where a dam 81

was to be constructed across the slough to form the mitigation pond. Despite the removal of around 870 square meters of plowzone, no cultural features were identified. Overall artifact density on this part of the site was low, with only 375 prehistoric artifacts recovered from ten 1m by 1m test units. Three diagnostic points recovered suggested Early Archaic and Late Archaic components. A 56 m long backhoe trench excavated along the long axis of the project area revealed stratified alluvial deposits dating back to the Early Holocene (Walling and Alexander 2003).

Creative Mitigation, Public Outreach, and Filling In the Gaps (2005-2011) Bev Curry retired in 2005, but prior to her departure, she left a significant legacy in the form of one of the RSA Cultural Resources Program’s most creative mitigation measures. Back in 1996, Curry had been told by a range officer on TA-3 about an elderly minister who occasionally came to the range to visit the former site of a church that he had attended as a young man. The church site was eventually recorded by AAC in 1999 as site 1Ma937. Curry had seized on the opportunity to collect some oral history on an archaeological site, and invited the Reverend McKinley Jones to her office. The meeting was the first of many interviews with the Reverend Jones who graciously shared his memories about the pre-Arsenal landscape where he had grown up. He showed Curry where his childhood home had stood (site 1Ma787), and gave extensive oral history on the 1930’s community around Indian Creek including the Union Hill Cumberland Presbyterian Church and school (1Ma937). Curry was struck by the potential well-spring of information that could be provided through collecting similar oral history, but since she was immersed in orchestrating the base-wide Phase I surveys, the collection of oral history was shelved until late in 1999 (Curry 2006). In the meantime, an ever-growing number of early 20th century house sites were being recorded in the Phase I surveys. With the arrival of Tom Maher as the ALSHPO, a new emphasis was put on these historic sites, and ALSHPO instituted the standard that as long as there was evidence for extant features on the sites in the Phase I survey, they were considered to be potentially eligible for the NRHP. Past Phase II evaluations on this class of site at RSA had not proven very fruitful, however (Alexander 1982; Hubbert 1985; Alexander, Williams, and Thompson 2002). Based on the success of her interviews with Reverend Jones, Curry reasoned that oral history could provide more information than archaeological excavation. In November of 1999, Curry began to track down other former residents of the land that became Redstone Arsenal. She interviewed eight individuals between November 1999 and February 2001. Her goal was to tie information from the oral histories to specific archaeological sites (Curry 2006). Unfortunately, at that time Curry only had a copy of a 1938 highway map of Madison County which was shy on accuracy and details, and since the landscape had changed so much since the Army acquired the land, the informants had little frame of reference for locating their former homes. Nonetheless, she collected a wealth of information on the culture of the late 20th century communities that were displaced by the Arsenal. 82

In collaboration between Curry and Carolene Wu and Danny Dunn, a plan was hatched to use oral history to reconstruct the early 20th century landscape in order to develop a Programmatic Agreement (PA) with ALSHPO to use the study as mitigation for all but a select sample of early 20th century sites. They developed a Scope of Work for the project and contracted AAC to draft and implement a research design. In 2001, the Garrison including the Environmental Division was moved to Building 4488 where the office of Wernher von Braun had been housed in the 1950’s, and following the terrorist attacks in 2001, the Environmental office at RSA was faced with a barrage of urgent new reviews related to projects focused on improving security. The oral history project was put on hold until January of 2005. With Curry’s retirement imminent, Dunn requested that she make the collection of oral history her number one priority. Curry expanded the focus of the interviews to include more information on the culture of the time and the context within the larger community (Curry 2006). Some of the original informants which Curry had interviewed between 1996 and 1999 were revisited. Some of them had already passed away in the intervening years. Additional informants were referred to Curry as word of her project spread. By the time Curry retired in the fall of 2005, she had amassed a volume of information based on the interviews of over 35 former residents of Arsenal land as well as newspaper accounts and other materials found in the Huntsville Public Library. While Curry was collecting oral history, AAC was working on the first volume of the cultural footprint study. The draft for this report was submitted in June of 2005. The report used the former Elko and Union Hill communities as a case study to evaluate the amount and quality of information available from documentary sources and archaeological surveys regarding the late 19th through early 20th century pre-Arsenal communities (Coco et al. 2005). This included some additional early attempts at associating documentary and oral history with specific archaeological sites. Bev Curry retired in September of 2005. At that time she was still talking with preArsenal residents and compiling notes for a manuscript compiling all her oral history data. She moved to her home in Cudjoe Key, Florida and continued to write. In December of 2006 she completed the manuscript. The book, which is over 500 pages in length, entitled The People Who Lived on the Land that is Now Redstone Arsenal was provided to the Alabama SHPO as a contribution to RSA’s cultural footprint in 2007. In October of 2008, after her retirement, Bev Curry, along with Carolene Wu and Danny Dunn, were invited to the Alabama Preservation Conference where the AHC presented them with the Distinguished Service Awards for the survey and management plan they had created at Redstone Arsenal. Upon Curry’s retirement, the contract for the Installation Archaeologist position was given to AAC. Lawrence Alexander selected Ben Hoksbergen for the position. Hoksbergen had eight years of CRM experience throughout the Southeast, Midwest, Middle Atlantic, and elsewhere and had worked for AAC between February of 2000 and August of 2001, spending much of his time assisting Jeff Thomson in conducting the 83

base-wide Phase I survey. After working for AAC, Hoksbergen received his MA in anthropology from Iowa State University in 2003. Upon arriving at Redstone Arsenal, Hoksbergen immersed himself in the records of the oral history interviews, comparing the oral history to archival research on the historic cemeteries on the Arsenal that had been conducted by self-trained historian John Rankin of Madison between 2002 and 2005. Hoksbergen collected additional historic maps and other documents and entered these into the equation, getting them uploaded into the GIS database and using the georectified maps to locate and identify dozens of historic sites that had been missed in the Phase I surveys. These sites and others Hoksbergen found by reinvestigating areas where there were conspicuous gaps in the site density were recorded in a series of Phase I reports from 2006 through 2008 (Alexander and Redwine 2008a and 2008b). By 2007, he was able to associate oral history with 50 known archaeological sites. AAC completed the second report for the cultural footprint study in January of 2008. This volume examined the documented sites associated with six civic and communal organizations, one post office, 12 schools, 22 churches, and various commercial enterprises (Coco and Alexander 2008). The report relied on archival research, oral history, and historic maps to provide as much information as possible on these classes of sites on the Arsenal. The final three volumes of the cultural footprint study are currently in the works by AAC. These reports will include the compilation of any additional archival and oral history and that can be obtained, sorting all recorded historic archaeological sites on the Installation into defined site types, recommendations regarding the potential for each of the site types to yield valuable information, and the selection of representative samples of each site type to be preserved by Redstone Arsenal as sites eligible for nomination to the NRHP. The draft for the final report is due in August of 2011. The reports will be the bases for the PA for mitigation of the majority of the historic sites. In addition to providing oversight for these projects, reviewing project reports, filling the gaps in Phase I surveys, updating the GIS database, helping to compile and maintaining a database of sites and recovered diagnostic artifacts in the RSA collection, contributing to various environmental assessments, and reviewing proposed undertakings for impacts to archaeological resources, Installation Archaeologist Ben Hoksbergen dramatically stepped up involvement in public outreach. Huntsville City Schools Earthscope outdoor education program approached Hoksbergen in the summer of 2006 about a venue for Indian education field trips. In response, starting in August of 2006, Hoksbergen began construction of a full-scale replica of a late Mississippian wall post house at the Environmental Management Division’s Path to Nature educational trail near the civilian recreation area along the Tennessee River. The house was constructed with the help of Earthscope staff, AAC, and volunteers from the Alabama Archaeological Society (AAS) and the local community and with funding provided by the Environmental Management Division and a Public Education Grant from the Alabama Archaeological Society. It is now the centerpiece of an outdoor Indian education classroom at the Path to Nature which includes interpretive signs on area ecology and cultural history, nature trails, and room for demonstrations. Earthscope held their inaugural Indian education field trips there in October of 2006. The house was completed in October of 2008, and Redstone 84

hosted around 1200 Huntsville fourth graders there for Indian education field trips during the first week of November of that year. For the first year of field trips, Hoksbergen also opened a small sample excavation near the Path to Nature on site 1Ma490 on the rim of a small sink in the upper Tennessee River terrace where seven Greenbriar Dalton points had been collected from the surface between 1992 and 1999. Hoksbergen excavated two test units with the help of AAC field staff and Richard Kilborn of the Huntsville Chapter of the AAS. One test unit yielded cultural material to a depth of 150 cm. The stratigraphy in the test units suggested that there was intact transitional Paleoindian/Early Archaic deposits stratified in colluvium or early Holocene alluvium along the edge of the terrace. This was overlain by a buried Ahorizon which yielded a Big Sandy point and abundant charcoal. A radiocarbon assay of the charcoal yielded a date with recent calibration intercepts (AD 1660-1960) suggesting that it was the surface in relatively modern times. This historic surface was overlain by about 50 cm of alluvium with mixed cultural material including yet another Greenbriar Dalton point. The other test unit near the crest of the landform revealed a severely deflated profile suggesting that the upper alluvium in the other test unit resulted from downslope erosion following clearing and cultivation of the landform in the last 200 years. The site had previously been considered ineligible for NRHP nomination, but due to the presence of intact early Holocene cultural deposits, Hoksbergen recommended that the site be considered eligible (Hoksbergen 2008, 2009). The Natural and Cultural Resources Branch of the Environmental Management Division continued to secure funds for Phase II investigations into Fiscal Year 2010. Sites selected for Phase II evaluation were selected based on potential land-use needs to support the Redstone Arsenal mission, but their potential to contribute to the cultural footprint study was also taken into account. Sites with oral history were given preference in order to evaluate the quality and accuracy of the oral history vis-à-vis the archaeological evidence. Also sites were selected to represent the full spectrum of potential site types to evaluate each type’s potential to yield valuable information through archaeological excavation. The first round of these Phase II excavations was conducted in April and May of 2006 focusing on sites associated with the historic Oakendale Plantation on the north end of the Arsenal. The investigation focused on site of the plantation big house (1Ma639) which was moved from its original location in 1955 to a location near Gate 3 of the Arsenal where it became known as the Goddard House and served as housing for visiting dignitaries. The remains of the big house and 20 additional structures were identified and investigated (Trudeau 2006). Two other sites that were located on land that was at one time part of the plantation were also investigated. One was 1Ma793 which did not yield much in the way of cultural remains. The other was 1Ma694, a late 19th to early 20th century tenant or sharecropper house which yielded extensive cultural remains including a cellar and a chimney base. In clearing rubble from the chimney base, several fragments of at least four marble and limestone grave markers were recovered including one with an inscription for Peyton Dandridge, a theretofore unknown infant son of Thomas Bibb, the second Governor of Alabama (Trudeau 2006). Bibb’s sister-in-law, Sophia Thompson 85

Manning was the wife of James Manning, the owner of Oakendale Plantation from 1818 to 1845. The tombstone fragments seem to have originated from an early 19th century family cemetery associated with the plantation (Trudeau 2006). The location of the cemetery is unknown, but a small cemetery is plotted on two early Army maps including one dated 1941 and one dated 1952 to the north of the big house in an area now impacted by Interstate 565. Ten sites with varying amounts of oral history were budgeted for Phase II in FY 07 including the Lea-Cooper-Harris plantation (1Ma1471), two African-American landowner houses (1Ma618, and 1Ma1053), a white landowner house (1Ma544), a mid19th century plantation house turned early 20th century land-manager’s house (1Ma630), three tenant/sharecropper houses (1Ma777, 1Ma787, and 1Ma903), a church/school and fraternal lodge (1Ma937), and an additional house in a location shown as a church on one historic map (1Ma1411). Final reports have been submitted for nine of the sites (Jurgelski and Alexander 2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, and 2009d). Fieldwork is complete on 1Ma1471, the one remaining site. This latter site represents a good cautionary tale in archaeological prospection. Site 1Ma1471 is the former location of the Lea-CooperHarris plantation center. This plantation operated continuously from 1818 to 1941. The Army maintained the plantation house until 1973 when a private party dismantled and moved the house to Madison after hearing of the Army’s plans to demolish it. The location of the house was recorded by AAC in 2005 based on the remains of a concrete foundation and a surprisingly light density scatter of early 19th through 20th century artifacts in a 10m grid of shovel tests. The Phase II excavation commenced with the excavation of a series of 1m by 1m test units. None of the test units resulted in the identification of additional features, and all seemed to reveal about 20 cm of dense fill directly overlying sterile subsoil. Ben Hoksbergen then performed a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey of the site in order to identify any other potential features and to delineate the cellar which was represented by one surviving wall at ground level. The GPR survey was inconclusive. Aside from a few amorphous anomalies and a gravel pad on the northwest side of the site, no features were identified. Still refusing to write the site off, AAC and Hoksbergen decided to perform mechanical trenching of the site with a trackhoe in December of 2008. Initial stripping revealed that around 50 cm of dense heterogeneous fill covered most of the site. The lower layer of the fill was dense clay; while the upper part was composed of a mixture of various soils intermingled with gravel and construction debris. This probably explains the failure of the GPR to adequately penetrate. Below the fill were large pockets of original intact A-horizon soils with sheet middens containing 19th century artifacts and a light prehistoric scatter. Several early to mid 19th century historic features including post holes and footer trenches as well as four large trash pits were identified below that. Sampling of the features yielded a wealth of information on the early 19th century occupation of the site (Alexander, Redwine, and Eggiman 2010). Two Phase II projects were funded in FY 08, both focusing on sites thought to be related to historic commercial operations. One of these sites was 1Ma1476 which was located on an upper terrace of the Tennessee River adjacent to the right bank landing of Leeman’s Ferry which began operating prior to 1832 and served as a major river crossing 86

throughout the 19th century. The ferry landing itself was recorded as 1Ma1516, but was too impacted by shoreline erosion to warrant further investigation. Site 1Ma1476 is a historic house site right above the ferry landing and is presumed to be related based on its proximity. The Phase II investigation did not yield any significant information on the ferry operation, but through georectification of highly detailed 1934 TVA property assessment maps, the exact location of the ferry landing was confirmed, and the site structure for the 1Ma1476 house site was defined (Alexander, Redwine, and Lafferty 2009). The other site investigated was 1Ma1510 which was initially thought to be the location of a 19th century grist mill operated by Elijah Boardman based on what was originally interpreted as a mill race feature. Through archival research, however, it was discovered that the mill was located on another parcel to the north of the site (work is underway to determine the actual location of the mill and examine it for archaeological remains). Nonetheless, the site proved to have several significant components ranging from Early Archaic through at least the mid-1930s. Several features were identified in 1m by 1m test units including a possible semi-subterranean Middle Woodland house basin for which radiocarbon dates are pending, and several prehistoric post molds. Mid19th century and early 20th century historic components were also documented (Alexander and Redwine 2009). Several project-specific Phase II investigations were also performed in the years following 2005. Test excavations were conducted on four riverbank sites where groundwater testing wells were proposed. These areas had been surveyed for this purpose by Hoksbergen in 2001 (Alexander and Hoksbergen 2003). Two of the sites (1Ma1141 and 1Ma1142) were recorded at that time while two (1Ma141 and 1Ma285) had been previously recorded. The most significant contribution of these Phase II’s was the geomorphological data which established a tidy timeline for alluvial deposition on the first terrace of this section of the Tennessee River. Bulk soil samples of selected strata were submitted to Beta-Analytic in Miami for radiocarbon dating. At site 1Ma141, the second stratum, a dark brown (10YR 3/3) silty clay loam from 32-64 cm below surface yielded a date of AD 890-1030 while the fourth stratum, a dark brown (10YR 3/3) compacted silty clay from 102-142 cm below surface yielded a date from 1430-1370 BC and the basal stratum, a dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) compact silty clay from 225316 cm below surface yielded a date of 4450-4330 BC. About 1.5 km downriver at 1Ma285, a dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) silty clay at 90-100 cm below surface yielded a date of 3360-3040 BC while a dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4) silty clay from 140-150 cm below surface yielded a date of 4210-4190 BC (Alexander, Hoksbergen, and Wolke 2006). An additional deep soil core was taken on each of sites 1Ma141 and 1Ma285 and was subjected to particle size, total carbon and nitrogen, and bulk geochemical analyses to supplement the stratigraphic data from the Phase II trenches. The analysis indicated that the profiles in these areas were composed of two main solums. The earliest solum probably dates to the Early Holocene and is composed of about 2 m of overbank sediments over laterally-accreted bar deposits. The upper horizon of this solum is truncated and marked by a change in depositional regime. The uppermost solum is characterized by low energy overbank deposition. The lowest horizons of this upper solum correspond with the earliest date from the excavation trenches indicating that the change in depositional regimes occurred during the Middle 87

Holocene (Kocis and Sherwood 2006). This was corroborated by a date of 4049-3935 or 3872-3809 BC at this level at the Whitesburg Bridge Site (1Ma10) another two km upriver (Meeks 2002). This data suggests that there is a potential for intact Early Archaic deposits in the first terrace of this section of the Tennessee River in the overbank deposition portion of the lower solum, but none of the test units in these Phase II investigations were extended to that depth. Five Phase II investigations were funded in support of the Base Realignment and Closure Act (BRAC) of 2005 which will result in significant expansion of personnel and operations on Redstone Arsenal by 2011. Increased infrastructure needs in support of BRAC-related expansion resulted in planned construction projects potentially impacting all five sites. Three of the sites, including two early 20th century house sites (1Ma483 and 1Ma1050) and a prehistoric lithic scatter (1Ma713) did not have significant features or intact deposits and were considered ineligible for the NRHP (Wolke and Alexander 2006 and 2007). The other two sites both yielded surprising finds. Site 1Ma1014 was originally identified as an early 20th century house site. During excavation, however, two large pits were identified containing artifacts dating to the early 19th century, one with a mean ceramic date of 1812 (Wolke and Alexander 2007). While this earlier component was not significantly represented in the sheet midden surrounding the 20th century component of the site, the presence of the early component, the earliest historic component investigated on RSA to date was significant enough to be considered NRHP eligible. The other BRAC site was 1Ma1167, a vast prehistoric midden on a terrace east of Indian Creek. The northern fringe of the site was slated for impact by the addition of lanes to Martin Road, the main east-west artery through the heart of the Arsenal. Martin Road is a four lane road except for the westernmost 2.5 miles which is only two-lane. The section of road west of the Arsenal is scheduled for expansion and would create a major bottleneck on the two-lane section, especially with increased traffic volume resulting from BRAC-related expansion. Phase II investigation was conducted on a 40m wide strip of land adjacent to the southern shoulder of Martin Road. This part of the site is on a lower terrace of Indian Creek and had a lower artifact density in the Phase I than portions of the site on higher ground where an apparently intact midden as thick as 70 cm with extensive organic remains including bone fragments and shell was documented (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2004). Nonetheless, intact stratified deposits were identified in the area investigated including a lower strata with Middle and Late Archaic components and an upper strata with a fairly homogenous late Middle Woodland Bell Hill Phase midden including what appeared to be an intact house basin (Wolke and Alexander 2006) which yielded a radiocarbon date of cal. AD 220-400. The site was declared eligible for the NRHP, and since that section of Martin Road is bound to the north by capped toxic waste lagoons, the road must be expanded onto the south, so work began to plan Redstone Arsenal’s first archaeological data recovery on that section of site. (Hoksbergen had conducted a very small-scale mitigation on sites 1Ma863 and 1Ma864 in 2005 in preparation for the construction of a security fence (Hoksbergen 2005), but this basically consisted of glorified stratigraphically-excavated shovel tests at individual post locations). 88

Funds for the data recovery of 1Ma1167 were secured in September of 2008, and AAC submitted the lowest bid and won the contract. The Installation Management Command (IMCOM) of the Army funded the project with the caveat that the entire site would be mitigated, but the allotted funds were not sufficient to excavate the 20% minimum handexcavated sample stipulated by ALSHPO. Work began in March of 2010 to mitigate the area of potential impact for the road widening. Several prehistoric features were documented including hearths with what appeared to be burned clay objects similar to Poverty point objects found in the lower Mississippi River Valley and an apparent secondary burial containing the heavily deteriorated remains of two individuals. Most of the cultural material was associated with the late Middle Woodland component. Work was completed in this area by July. Work resumed in August of 2011 focused on the area within the fence of Sewage Treatment Plant 3 which is scheduled for clean-up of PCB contamination in 2014. Dozens of prehistoric features have been already uncovered in this area which sits on a high level portion of the Indian Creek terrace. Another small project-specific Phase II was conducted in early summer of 2007 on an early 20th century house site, 1Ma1484, which stood near the center of a proposed Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) explosives testing and training range in the bluffs along the Tennessee River. The site was identified by Hoksbergen in August of 2006 during the final drafting of the Environmental Assessment for the construction of the range. No site was found there during Phase I testing of the area, but by using GIS to overlay the 1936 quad map on modern imagery, it was discovered that two houses were previously located there. Upon a field check, an intact limestone chimney base was noted along with a scatter of rubble and early 20th century artifacts. The Phase II investigation documented several features in addition to the chimney base including a rubble pile probably representing the chimney of another structure and a historic post hole. Artifacts from the site indicated occupation limited to the 20th century. It was determined that the site would not yield significant information about the broader history of the area, so it was considered ineligible for inclusion on the NRHP (Jurgelski and Alexander 2007). Early in 2008, the site was destroyed by construction of the range. A similar situation arose in the summer of 2007 when Installation Archaeologist Hoksbergen and AAC field personnel identified an extension to site 1Ma748 into an area that was scheduled for timber removal for compliance with FAA line of site guidelines for the Redstone Airfield. Funds were secured to fund a Phase II excavation of that portion of the site. Soon after, a series of concrete foundations were discovered by the RSA Forester in the northern part of the project area. Hoksbergen confirmed that the foundations dated to before the formation of the Arsenal and recorded the site as 1Ma1560. By this time, however, additional Phase II funds could not be secured, so it was decided that Hoksbergen would direct the Phase II field work on both sites and draft the report while AAC would provide supplemental support to the extent that the allotted funds would cover it. Field work began in January of 2008. Several features were investigated at 1Ma748 including a brick chimney base, a stone-lined well, two storm cellars, a retaining wall along a historic road, a post hole, and various small pits and rubble piles. Nonetheless, the occupation was demonstrated to be limited to the early 20th 89

century, and despite the extensive intact features, the excavation did not provide significant information relevant to the history of the area. The same proved true for 1Ma1560. The structures at 1Ma1560 included a large rectangular foundation which likely represented a cotton gin based on the recovery of abundant cotton seeds in a flotation sample taken from the interior of the structure, a well house associated with the probable gin that would have provided water for the steam engines that powered the machinery, a concrete water tank which could have been used as a reservoir for the steam engines, and a possible mechanic’s pit to the south of the gin complex. Both sites were considered ineligible for nomination to the NRHP (Alexander, Redwine, and Trotter 2009), and by the winter of 2008, both sites were virtually destroyed by tree clearing. Yet another site was the subject of an emergency Phase II in the fall of 2008 after future expansion plans for the proposed headquarters of the Army Materials Command (AMC) were discovered to include the location of a recently-recorded late 19th through early 20th century house site. This site, 1Ma1530, had been recorded by Hoksbergen in March of 2007 after loggers performing a selective timber harvest of the area discovered a stonelined well. The Phase II investigation was conducted by AAC in September of 2008. Besides the well, no additional features were identified. The artifact scatter was limited to a relatively brief period between around 1870 and 1920. The site was not considered NRHP eligible (Jurgelski and Alexander 2009e). Site 1Ma616 was evaluated with a Phase II investigation in the winter of 2009 in preparation for the construction of a proposed small arms range at the western base of Weeden Mountain. The investigation documented a minor unidentified prehistoric component as well as the remains of a tenant or sharecropper house and a World War II era Army small arms range (Jurgelski and Alexander 2011). Three more sites (1Ma1161, 1Ma1162, and 1Ma1165) underwent Phase II investigation by AAC in late 2009 and April of 2010. These were all three small yeoman farms operated by African-American landowners in the first part of the 20th century. Extensive features were documented and investigated at each site, and all three were considered eligible for listing on the NRHP based on their outstanding integrity and for representing a significant but understudied pattern in American history – black yeoman agriculture in the Jim Crow and Great Depression eras of the American South (Trudeau 2010). Four sites were also investigated in preparation for development of the Redstone Gateway Enhanced Use Lease project on the north end of the Arsenal around Gate 9 on Rideout Road. The developer, Jim Wilson & Associates, contracted with URS Corporation to do the environmental groundwork including the Phase II investigations of the archaeological sites. The first of these sites, 1Ma844, underwent Phase II testing in September of 2008. URS performed a controlled surface collection of this moderatedensity lithic scatter, piece plotting each individual artifact. They excavated three 1m by 1m test units and stripped nearly 820 square meters of plowzone. While artifacts were recovered documenting possible transitional Paleoindican and Early Archaic components, the only cultural feature that was identified was a historic cow burial (Jorgenson and Cassedy 2009). 90

The next two sites were excavated by URS in December of 2008. Both sites were investigated with similar methodologies to that used on 1Ma844. Site 1Ma850 was investigated with a controlled surface collection grid, three test units, and mechanical stripping. A possible Dalton component was documented, but no cultural features were identified. The other site, 1Ma501, was a small early 20th century farm site. Several historic features were found in the course of mechanical stripping on the site. These included a brick pier, three post holes, and a large debris-filled cellar that yielded abundant artifacts dating to the first half of the 20th century (Jorgenson and Brown 2009). All three of these sites were considered ineligible for listing on the NRHP, but the fourth site, 1Ma639, was the former location of Oakendale Plantation, was not so easily cleared. Site 1Ma639 had been previously investigated by AAC with a Phase II in 2006 that focused only on the western wooded portion of the site. The URS Phase II examined the eastern part of the site which was located in a former agricultural field. The entire 9.12 acres of this portion of the site was gridded off and surface collected. The controlled surface collection yielded several prehistoric artifacts including a Clovis point as well as thousands of 19th century historic artifacts. The data from the surface collection included interesting patterns including two distinct concentrations of architectural material and a separation between concentrations of pre-1860 and post-1860 artifacts. Five 1m by 1m test units were excavated in areas of high artifact density based on the controlled surface collection data. Then, a total of 527 square meters of plowzone was removed in five different mechanical stripping blocks placed in order to examine areas of high, moderate, and low artifact density. The plowzone removal resulted in the identification of 11 early 19th century features. All but one of these were uncovered in areas of high artifact density, while the remaining one was in an area of moderate density. The features included five pits and six posts. Four of the posts and two of the pits appeared to be associated as part of a domestic structure, likely a slave cabin (Jorgenson and Janowitz 2010). The site was judged to be eligible for listing on the NRHP, concurring with the findings of the 2006 investigation. Consultation is now underway to mitigate the entire site with a Phase III data recovery prior to impacts by the construction of the Redstone Gateway development. Another Phase II investigation was conducted by AAC on 1Ma269 in the summer of 2010. This site is located in the bluffs above the Tennessee River between two World War II era earth-covered storage magazines that were scheduled to be updated with security fencing and new driveways. The investigation identified minor Archaic components represented by a Pickwick point and a possible re-used Dalton Greenbrier point, but the primary component dated to the Middle Woodland Period. Fourteen prehistoric features were identified including five post molds and several pits, at least 10 of which represented the Middle Woodland component. All of the feature fill was saved for flotation, and analysis of the resulting botanical assemblage identified several Eastern Complex cultigens including chenopod, maygrass, little barley, and erect knotweed, as well as Cucurbita pepo. The ceramic assemblage included 67% Long Branch Fabric Marked, 27% Mulberry Creek Plain, 3% Wright Check Stamped, and 3% Bluff Creek Simple Stamped. The points recovered included Copena and Copena Triangular types. 91

Charcoal from two of the pits returned AMS dates of AD 90(130)220 and AD 140(230)250 suggesting affiliation with the Walling Phase. The ceramic assemblage, however, suggests a Colbert II association (Alexander and Jones 2011) although all of the Long Branch Fabric Marked sherds were recovered from a single pit feature. The site probably represents a warm season residential base camp. In October and November of 2010, New South Associates conducted Phase II evaluation of five sites that lay in the path of proposed development on Redstone Arsenal. Two of the sites were prehistoric. One, 1Ma149, had been expanded dramatically by Ben Hoksbergen since the Phase I survey. The original site had been recorded by AAC (Alexander et al. 2003), but surface collection of freshly-plowed firebreaks and food plots to the north of the site indicated that the scatter extended over the entire landform. A proposed FBI range there was set to impact the northwest corner of the scatter. Phase II efforts focused on just the area set to be impacted. Further delineation in this area expanded the site boundaries yet further into the area of potential effect, but several test units and mechanical plowzone removal blocks failed to locate intact cultural deposits (Joseph et al. 2011a). The other prehistoric site was located far in the uplands on a small terrace/alluvial fan at the confluence of an unnamed tributary of Indian Creek and a first order drainage flowing from the southwest side of Weeden Mountain. This single-component site, 1Ma698, was in an area that had been alternately proposed as a utility corridor and as the eastern end of an earthen dam for an artificial lake. The site yielded a ceramic assemblage consisting exclusively of plain limestone-tempered ware (Joseph et al. 2011a) as well as a Swan Lake point. Another Swan Lake point had been collected during the Phase I (Alexander et al. 1998), and yet another was collected by Hoksbergen after the site had been backfilled. Like 1Ma149, the site boundaries were very poorly defined in the Phase I, and were dramatically increased during Phase II work. Three prehistoric pits were identified in the Phase II investigation. All three pits were amorphous and contained an abundance of charred hickory nut shells. An AMS date on some of the charred material from one of the pits returned a calibrated date of AD 540(595)650 (Joseph et al. 2011a) which places the site at the very end of the Middle Woodland Period. The site appears to have been a small late autumn logistical camp focused on the procurement of hickory nuts. The pits may have served as basins for propping up ceramic vessels for boiling crushed nutmeats for the fatty oils. Dense lithic debitage across the site suggests that its occupants were also exploiting the Monteagle chert residuum that can be procured from the drainages around the base of the mountain. The other three sites were all historic and were located in the uplands west of the Redstone Arsenal Airfield which was proposed to expand westward toward Locust Road. The remainder of 1Ma748 was investigated and was found to contain another cluster of features associated with a second early 20th century house. Remains of contemporary houses were also investigated at 1Ma747 and 1Ma779. Historic research revealed that all three sites were occupied by tenants or sharecroppers in the first decades of the 20th century. While they all contained intact historic features, the sites were determined to be

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good candidates for mitigation with the pending historic sites Programmatic Agreement, and were not considered NRHP eligible (Joseph et al. 2011b). The future of the Redstone Cultural Resources program is bright. A report is underway for the last of the Phase I clean-up focused on areas where boundaries of contaminated areas were tightened up opening unsurveyed areas to testing. Phase II data from 1Ma166, a multicomponent site on Corkern Range, is in the process of being analyzed and written up. Data recovery work has resumed on 1Ma1167, and supplemental Phase II work is being done on 1Ma639 to better define disturbed areas to reduce the project area for the data recovery there. Site 1Ma1180 Site 1Ma1180 was recorded by Ben Hoksbergen in 2001 while he was directing Phase I survey for AAC. The site was recorded as part of the RSA program to survey the entire Installation for archaeological resources. This particular survey parcel was selected at that time due to potential impacts resulting from the proposed widening of the eastern section of Martin Road. The site was recorded based on a high density of prehistoric artifacts found in shovel tests along the landform. Artifacts recovered included firecracked rock, lithic debitage, and a single eroded limestone-tempered ceramic sherd. Hoksbergen initially recommended that the site be considered eligible for listing on the NRHP due to the roughly 10 m wide strip of intact soils on the west side of the site and the high artifact density. Upon review of the draft Phase I report, however, the Alabama SHPO recommended that the site be considered ineligible due to the heavy disturbance on the eastern half of the site. The initial recommendation was reversed, and the final draft of the Phase I report recommended that the site be considered ineligible for listing on the NRHP (Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2009). Hoksbergen assumed the duties of Redstone Arsenal Installation Archaeologist in 2005. In 2006, he became involved with resumed discussions about the construction of the Huntsville Southern Bypass. The Alabama Department of Transportation (ALDOT) and Redstone Arsenal began comparing notes on the NRHP status of sites along proposed routes of the Southern Bypass where they crossed Redstone Arsenal. The official literature listed 1Ma1180 as ineligible for listing on the NRHP, and as a result, neither ALDOT nor RSA could justify funding for a Phase II investigation on the site. Richard Kilborn of the Huntsville Chapter of the AAS had approached Hoksbergen about possibly hosting volunteer fieldwork opportunities at the Arsenal, and Hoksbergen seized on this opportunity. Hoksbergen conducted some initial exploratory testing to evaluate the project’s feasibility, and with Kilborn’s help, began organizing a volunteer field day for 1Ma1180.

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Figure 2. Phase I Sketch Map of 1Ma1180 (from Alexander, Thomson, and Williams 2009).

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CHAPTER V: METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS Phase II field work on Site 1Ma1180 was begun on June 26, 2007. A site datum was established along the eastern Redstone Arsenal Boundary, and an east-west baseline was laid in using a measuring tape and compass. Three 1m by 1m test units were laid in at 5m intervals along this baseline. A north-south baseline was then laid in at 25m west of datum. Seven additional test units were laid in along this baseline. Another north-south baseline was established at 30m west of datum, but only one additional test unit was laid in on that line. The total site area for the portion of the site on Redstone Arsenal was calculated using ArcGIS to be 4,364 square meters. The 11 test units represent only about 0.25% of this site area. The site grid and all 11 test units were oriented to magnetic north. The site was mapped using a compass and tape. All test units were shot in with a Trimble GPS with sub-meter accuracy, and the resulting points were uploaded into ArcGIS where topographic data generated with LIDAR could be overlaid on the site map (Figure 3). The test units were placed in order to sample all intact portions of the site as defined by the Phase I testing. The goal was to excavate all test units in 10 cm levels until a single culturally-sterile level was excavated. The surface of each level was sloped with the ground surface so that each level was the same volume of soil (10,000 cm3). This permitted accurate comparison of artifact density from level to level. The soil in each level was dry-screened through ¼ inch (6.35 mm) hardware cloth. The artifact counts for each level were then charted to map their vertical distribution. Profiles of the test units were photographed and then drawn and digitized. All potential cultural features were investigated by first drawing and photographing them in plan view, and then bisecting them along the widest dimension. Half of the feature fill was dry screened through ¼ inch hardware cloth, and then the profile of the feature was drawn and photographed. The other half of the feature fill was removed as a flotation sample, unless the feature fill totaled less than 1 L in volume, then the entirety of the feature fill from both halves was retained for flotation. Following excavation, all artifacts were washed and sorted according to artifact class and type. All artifacts and excavation records will be curated at the Erskine Ramsay Archaeological Repository in Moundville, Alabama.

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Figure 3. Site 1Ma1180 Phase II Plan Map.

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Test Unit N-0/W-25 Test Unit N-0/W-25 was placed on the east-west baseline at the crest of the terrace near where a limestone-tempered sherd was recovered in a shovel test during the 2000 Phase I survey. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. The unit was excavated in 10 arbitrary 10 cm levels. The first six levels were excavated between June 26, 2007 and July 2, 2007 prior to the AAS field trip in order to get a grasp of the site stratigraphy for guiding excavations during the field trip. One more level (Level 7) was excavated the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. Level 7 still yielded 53 artifacts, so the unit was reopened a year later with the final level dug on July 11, 2008. A total of five strata were identified in the test unit (Figure 4). Stratum I was a very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) silt and was excavated as Level 1 and Level 2. The base of Level 2 was the natural stratigraphic break between Stratum I and the underlying reddish brown (5YR 4/4) silt loam which was designated Stratum II. Stratum I had the highest density of artifacts, with a slight increase in artifact density from Level 1 to Level 2. All of the prehistoric ceramics recovered from this unit were confined to Statum I.

Figure 4. Test Unit N-0/W-25 Wall Profiles.

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At the base of Level 2, a small amorphous stain was identified near the center of the unit. The stain was designated Feature 1 (Figure 5). The feature was intrusive from Stratum I. It was investigated by bisecting it from east to west and first removing the south half upon which the profile was photographed and drawn, and then the north half was removed. All of the feature fill was retained as a flotation sample which totaled around 1 L in volume. Feature 1 proved to be a small shallow basin containing a brown (10YR 4/3) silt loam with dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6) mottling and a moderate density of prehistoric artifacts and charcoal fragments. A sample of the charcoal was submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc. for a radiocarbon assay. The sample returned an AMS date of 110 ±40 BP (Cal AD 1670-1780, 1800-1950, 1950-1960) suggesting that the feature was of relatively modern origin.

Figure 5. Feature 1 Plan and Profile. 98

Feature I intruded into Stratum II which appeared to be a weakly-developed E horizon but lacked the platy structure typical of illuvial horizons. It was designated Stratum II, and for the sake of simplicity, it was designated a transitional AB horizon. Stratum II measured 18 cm thick at its thickest and represented all of Level 3 and the upper few centimeters of Level 4. Several root molds intruded into Stratum II, and some of the larger ones contained artifacts. These were isolated as much as possible from the surrounding matrix. One large root mold cut through Feature 1 and intruded into the underlying strata. This one contained 1 eroded limestone-tempered body sherd, seven flakes, and 2 pieces of blocky shatter in the 30-40 cmbd level. After the first level of Stratum II was removed, a stratigraphic anomaly became evident in the northeast corner of the unit. A dense yellowish red (5YR 4/6) clay containing a high density of manganese concretions and decayed chert and limestone fragments appeared to intrude from below into Stratum II. Efforts were made to isolate this anomaly and screen it separately. The artifact density in the yellowish red clay dropped off significantly compared to the surrounding matrix. The top of the soil anomaly graded to a strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) silt loam which was designated Stratum III. This stratum appeared to be a thorough mixture of Stratum I and Stratum II soils with the underlying subsoil which was designated Stratum IV. Stratum IV began at a depth of around 33 cm below surface. It was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay loam Bt horizon. With each succeeding level into subsoil, more of the test unit was taken up by the soil anomaly which was designated Stratum V. The Stratum V soils continued to be isolated and screened separately from the surrounding matrix, and it continued to yield only a very small number of artifacts. By Level 10, Stratum V covered the entire base of the unit. Only a single flake was recovered from this level, so excavation of Test Unit N-0/W-25 was discontinued at this point.

Table 3. Artifacts from Test Unit N-0/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material 2.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 24 eroded limestone-tempered 2.4 sherds 67 flakes 10 blocky shatter 12 fcr (36.1g) 29 tin can fragments 3.1- 2: 10-20 ccmbs I 2 Mulberry Creek Plain var. 3.8 Hamilton body sherds 1 Mulberry Creek Plain rim sherd 1 Mulberry Creek Plain body sherd 99

Count 142

136

4.14.2

3: 20-30 cmbs

II, III

5.15.8

4: 30-40 cmbs

II, III, IV, V

6.16.2

5: 40-50 cmbs

IV, V

7.17.2

6: 50-60 cmbs

IV, V

8.18.3

7: 60-70 cmbs

IV, V

44.1- 8: 70-80 cmbs 44.3

IV, V

45.1- 9: 80-90 cmbs 45.3

IV, V

46.1

10: 90-100 cmbs V

21 Eroded limestone-tempered sherds 1 McKelvey Plain body sherd 2 Hamilton Incurvate points 1 thin point distal 1 microlith drill/burin 85 flakes 6 blocky shatter 15 fcr (146.5g) 59 flakes 14 blocky shatter 16 fcr (104.8g) 1 Buzzard Roost Creek point 1 stemmed point medial fragment 1 preform distal fragment 53 flakes 15 blocky shatter 6 fcr (25.3g) 24 flakes 4 blocky shatter 4 fcr (30.0g) 22 flakes 1 blocky shatter 4 fcr (6.4g) 1 ferrous concretion 1 biface distal 42 flakes 9 blocky shatter 1 fcr (6.4g) 1 unidentified stemmed point proximal fragment 15 flakes 1 blocky shatter 2 fcr (13.6g) 1 biface fragment 1 utilized flake 9 flakes 3 blocky shatter 1 flake Total

100

89 77

32 28

53

19

14

1 591

Table 4. Artifacts from Feature 1. FS# Level Fraction 9.2 1: 21-25 cmbd ≥1/4”

9.2

1: 21-25 cmbd

heavy

Material 3 eroded limestone-tempered sherds 3 flakes 1 blocky shatter 0.2g wood charcoal 12 flakes 1.9g wood charcoal

Count 7

12

Test Unit S-10/W-25 Test Unit S-10/W-25 (Figure 6) was located near the center of the north-south baseline at the crest of the landform. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner.

Figure 6. Test Unit S-10/W-25, View to the East.

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Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped slightly to the west. The unit was excavated in six arbitrary 10 cm levels. All six levels were excavated on the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. Four strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit S-10/W-25 (Figure 7). Stratum I was a 10 cm thick brown (7.5YR 4/3) silt that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively modest density of artifacts including lithic debitage and firecracked rock (Table 5).

Figure 7. Test Unit S-10/W-25, East Wall Profile. Upon removal of Stratum I, a dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) stain with charcoal flecking was identified in the northeast corner of the unit (Figure 8). This stain was designated Feature 2 and was excavated in a single level to a maximum depth of 32 cmbs. The feature was bisected by the east wall of the test unit, and only the portion within the unit was excavated. Upon careful examination of the test unit wall, it was noted that Feature 2 originated at or near the modern ground surface. Approximately 3L of soil was retained as a flotation sample. This sample yielded five flakes and four fragments of fcr (26.2g) in the ≥1/4” fraction and 31 micro-flakes, one tiny shell fragment, five unidentified bone fragments, and 0.4g of charcoal fragments in the heavy fraction. The remainder of the soil was dry-screened and yielded five pieces of debitage (Table 6). A 102

sample of the charcoal was submitted to Beta Analytic, Inc. for a radiocarbon assay. The sample returned an AMS date of 180 ±40 BP (Cal AD 1650-1710, 1710-1880, 19101950) suggesting that the feature was of relatively modern origin. Stratum II was identified below Stratum I as a brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt E horizon. It was excavated as a single level (Level 2). Level 2 had the highest density of artifacts of any other level in the unit, yielding one core, 32 pieces of debitage, and 20 fcr fragments (342.7 g).

Figure 8. Feature 2, Plan View. Stratum III was identified at a depth of 19 cmbd. This was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silt loam Bt horizon. It was excavated as all of Levels 3 through 5 as well as the upper half of Level 6. Artifact density progressively decreased through each level of Stratum III (Table 5). At a depth of 54 cmbd, a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay loam was identified and was designated Stratum IV. This stratum was sampled as the lower part of Level 6. Stratum IV did not yield any cultural material, so excavation of Test Unit S-10/W-25 was discontinued at that point. 103

Table 5. Artifacts from Test Unit S-10/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material 22.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 28 flakes 22.2 5 blocky shatter 5 fcr (43.9g) 23.1- 2: 10-19 ccmbs II 1 bipolar core 23.3 21 flakes 11 blocky shatter 20 fcr (342.7g) 24.1- 3: 19-29 cmbs III 1 endscraper 24.3 32 flakes 13 blocky shatter 5 fcr (83.9g) 25.1- 4: 29-39 cmbs III 1 core fragment 25.2 14 flakes 5 blocky shatter 26.1- 5: 39-49 cmbs III 1 preform distal fragment 26.2 8 flakes 2 fcr (7.3g) 27.1 6: 49-54 cmbs III 2 flakes 1 blocky shatter 3 fcr (14.3g)

Count 38 67

51

20 11 6

Total Table 6. Artifacts from Feature 2. FS# Level Fraction 28.1 1: 12-37 cmbd ≥1/4” 28.3

1: 15-62 cmbd

heavy

193

Material Count 3 flakes 5 2 blocky shatter 31 flakes 37 1 small unidentified shell fragment 5 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.4g charcoal

  Test Unit S-25/W-25 Test Unit S-25/W-25 (Figure 9) was placed on the north-south baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner.

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The unit was excavated in five arbitrary 10 cm levels. The first three levels were excavated during the AAS field trip on July 7, 2007. The unit was reopened a year later with the final two levels dug on July 8, 2008. A total of three strata were identified in the test unit (Figure 10). Stratum I was a very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) silt and was excavated as Level 1. The base of Level 1 was the natural stratigraphic break between Stratum I and the underlying brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt loam which was designated Stratum II. Stratum II was around 15 cm thick had the highest density of artifacts (Table 7), particularly in the upper level (Level 2). All of the prehistoric ceramics recovered from this unit were confined to the upper 10 cm of Statum II. These included eight sherds that refit into the rounded base of a Mulberry Creek Plain jar. Two other refits of two sherds each were also recovered from this level. The sherds were scattered throughout the level, and since so many refit and all appear to have been from the same vessel, it is an indication of the intact nature of the soil in that location.

Figure 9. Test Unit S-25/W-25, View to the East.

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Figure 10. Test Unit S-25/W-25 East Wall Profile. A few cm into Level 2, a small amorphous stain was identified near the center of the unit. The stain was designated Feature 3 (Figure 11). The feature appeared to be intrusive from Stratum I. It was investigated by bisecting it from east to west and first removing the south half upon which the profile was photographed and drawn, and then the north half was removed. Approximately 3L of the feature fill was retained as a flotation sample. This sample yielded one flake and one piece of blocky shatter in the ≥1/4” fraction and 25 micro-flakes, three tiny unidentified shell fragments, five unidentified bone fragments, and 0.2g of charcoal fragments in the heavy fraction. The remainder of the soil was dry-screened and yielded three pieces of debitage (Table 8). As excavation of Feature 3 commenced, several small runners were identified along the base of the pit, and it soon became evident that the “feature” was actually the result of tree roots that had since rotted or burned away.

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Figure 11. Feature 3 Plan and Profile. Feature 3 intruded into through Stratum II and into Stratum III, a dense yellowish red (5YR 4/6) clay loam. Stratum III was sampled as the lower part of Level 3 and all of Levels 4 and 5. Artifact density progressively decreased with depth in Stratum III, and by Level 5, only three pieces of lithic debitage were recovered, so excavation of the unit was discontinued at that point.

107

Table 7. Artifacts from Test Unit S-25/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material Count 31.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 26 flakes 44 31.2 5 blocky shatter 13 fcr (60.3) 32.1- 2: 10-20 ccmbs II 16 Mulberry Creek Plain body 74 32.4 sherds (14 refit into a pot base) 1 preform medial fragment 36 flakes 7 blocky shatter 14 fcr (173.0g) 33.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs II/III 23 flakes 28 33.2 3 blocky shatter 2 fcr (54.4g) 54.1- 4: 30-40 cmbs III 1 uniface distal fragment 28 54.3 23 flakes 3 blocky shatter 1 fcr (3.4g) 55.1 5: 40-50 cmbs III 1 flake 3 2 blocky shatter Total 177 Table 8. Artifacts from Feature 3. FS# Level Fraction 34.1 1: 13-25 cmbd ≥1/4” 34.2

1: 13-25 cmbd

≥1/4”

34.2

1: 13-25 cmbd

heavy

Material 2 flakes 1 blocky shatter 1 flake 1 blocky shatter 25 flakes 3 small unidentified shell fragments 5 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.2g wood charcoal

108

Count 3 2 33

Test Unit N-10/W-25 Test Unit N-10/W-25 (Figure 12) was located at the north end of the north-south baseline where the landform began to slope into the surrounding wetland. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped slightly to the north. The unit was excavated in four arbitrary 10 cm levels. Three levels were excavated on the day of the field trip, while the fourth was excavated the following year on July 2, 2008.

Figure 12. Test Unit N-10/W-25, View to the East. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit N-10/W-25 (Figure 13). Stratum I was a 10 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) silt that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively modest density of artifacts including a point stem, lithic debitage, and fire-cracked rock (Table 9). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt loam. Upon removal of the first level of Stratum II, an edge of a faint apparently circular stain was identified in the northeast corner of the unit (Figure 14). This stain was designated Feature 4 and upon further investigation of the profile, it was found to originate in Stratum I.

109

Figure 13. Test Unit N-10/W-25, East Wall Profile.

Feature 4 was excavated in a single level to a total depth of 58 cmbs. The feature fill was a dark brown (7.5YR ¾) silt loam that contained a light density of artifacts including a single small limestone-tempered sherd with dried/fired clay inclusions, a burned point medial, and a small amount of lithic debitage (Table 10). A flotation sample totaling around 3L of soil was taken from throughout the feature. The flotation sample yielded 12 micro-flakes, two small unidentifiable bone fragments, and 0.4g of charcoal. Only the quadrant of the feature extending into the test unit was excavated. Based on the dimensions of this quadrant, however, Feature 4 probably represents a large conical pit with an 80-100 cm diameter and a depth of 58 cm. Feature 4 intruded into Stratum II which averaged 15cm in thickness. Stratum II was excavated as Level 2 and the upper half of Level 3. Level 2 had the highest density of artifacts of any other level in the unit and yielded six eroded sherds with a mixture of clay and limestone temper. A similar sherd was recovered from the upper part of Level 3, but the sherd originated from near Feature 4 and may have originally been part of the feature fill.

110

Stratum III was identified at a depth of 26 cmbd. This was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay loam subsoil. It was excavated as the lower part of Level 3 and all of Level 4. Level 4 yielded only a single flake, so the unit was discontinued at that point.

Figure 14. Feature 4, Plan View.

Table 9. Artifacts from Test Unit N-10/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material Count 10.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 1 unidentified point stem 16 10.3 11 flakes 4 fcr (56.0g) 10.4- 2: 10-20 ccmbs II 6 eroded limestone/clay-tempered 50 10.8 body sherds 1 unidentified point medial 1 utilized flake 27 flakes 8 blocky shatter 7 fcr (67.3g) 111

11.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs 11.3

II/III

43.1

III

4: 30-40 cmbs

Table 10. Artifacts from Feature 4. FS# Level Fraction 12.1- 1: 15-62 cmbd ≥1/4” 12.3

12.4

1: 15-62 cmbd

heavy

1 eroded limestone/clay-tempered body sherd 5 flakes 1 fcr (67.3g) 1 flake Total

7

1 74

Material Count 1 eroded limestone/clay-tempered 14 body sherd 1 unidentified burned point medial 6 flakes 6 blocky shatter 12 flakes 14 2 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.4g wood charcoal

Test Unit N-5/W-25 Test Unit N-5/W-25 (Figure 15) was located toward the north end of the north-south baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped slightly to the south and west. The unit was excavated in five arbitrary 10 cm levels. All five levels were excavated on the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit N-5/W-25 (Figure 16). Stratum I was a 14 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silt loam that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively modest density of artifacts including an unidentified corner-notched point, lithic debitage, and fire-cracked rock (Table 11). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/3) silt. The first level of Stratum II (Level 2) yielded the majority of the ceramics from the unit including three Mulberry Creek Plain sherds and one Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherd. Artifact density decreased with depth within Stratum II. Stratum III was identified at a depth of 40 cmbd. This was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay loam subsoil. It was excavated as the lower part of Level 5. Level 5 yielded only 10 artifacts including a single limestone-tempered sherd, the deepest recovered

112

ceramic from the site. Due to the low artifact density at this level, no further levels were excavated.

Figure 15. Test Unit N-5/W-25, View to the East.

Figure 16. Test Unit N-5/W-25, East Wall Profile.

113

Table 11. Artifacts from Test Unit N-5/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material Count 13.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 1 eroded limestone-tempered body 95 13.4 sherd 1 unidentified corner-notched point 60 flakes 6 blocky shatter 27 fcr (94.1g) 14.1- 2: 10-20 ccmbs II 3 Mulberry Creek Plain body 93 14.5 sherds 1 eroded limestone-tempered body sherd 1 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherd 1 biface distal fragment 2 biface medial fragments 56 flakes 9 blocky shatter 20 fcr (93.5g) 15.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs II 1 Swan Lake point 78 15.6 2 biface medial fragments 1 preform 1 amorphous core 50 flakes 14 blocky shatter 9 fcr (284.7g) 16.1- 4: 30-40 cmbs II 1 point distal fragment 31 16.3 15 flakes 5 blocky shatter 10 fcr (69.5g) 17.1- 5: 40-50 cmbs II/III 1 eroded limestone-tempered body 10 17.3 sherd 5 flakes 2 blocky shatter 2 fcr (8.3g) Total 307

114

Test Unit S-5/W-25 Test Unit S-5/W-25 (Figure 17) was located on the north-south baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped gently to the west. The unit was excavated in five arbitrary 10 cm levels. The first four levels were excavated on the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. The final level was excavated a year later on July 2, 2008. Only two strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit S-5/W-25 (Figure 18). Stratum I was a 14 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silt that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively high density of artifacts including a Big Sandy point, a Sykes/White Springs point, Late Woodland ceramics, lithic debitage, and fire-cracked rock (Table 12). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt loam. The first level of Stratum II (Level 2) yielded the highest artifact density of any levels in the unit and included the majority of the ceramics from the unit including nine Mulberry Creek Plain sherds, 19 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherds, and one McKelvey Plain sherd. Artifact density decreased with depth within Stratum II. The final level of Stratum II (Level 5) yielded only four artifacts, so the excavation of Test Unit S-5/W-25 was discontinued at that point.

Figure 17. Test Unit S-5/W-25, View to the East.

115

Figure 18. Test Unit S-5/W-25, East Wall Profile.

Table 12. Artifacts from Test Unit S-5/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material 18.1- 1: 0-12 cmbs I 7 eroded limestone-tempered body 18.9 sherds 5 Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds 9 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherds 4 unidentified clay/grit-tempered body sherds 1 Big Sandy point proximal fragment 1 Sykes/White Springs point proximal fragment 2 preform fragments 44 flakes 11 blocky shatter 9 fcr (32.4g) 19.1- 2: 12-20 cmbs II 11 eroded limestone-tempered 19.8 body sherds 6 Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds 4 Mulberry Creek Plain var. 116

Count 92

137

20.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs 20.2

II

21.1- 4: 30-40 cmbs 21.2

II

47.1

II

5: 40-50 cmbs

Hamilton rim sherds 17 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherds 1 McKelvey Plain body sherd 2 amorphous cores 59 flakes 8 blocky shatter 29 fcr (188.0g) 37 flakes 6 blocky shatter 4 fcr (49.9 g) 8 flakes 3 blocky shatter 3 fcr (32.2g) 3 flakes 1 fcr (g) Total

47 14 4 294

Test Unit S-15/W-25 Test Unit S-15/W-25 (Figure 19) was located on the north-south baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface was fairly level at this location. The unit was excavated in six arbitrary 10 cm levels. The first two levels were excavated on the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. The unit was then closed until the following year with the remaining four levels excavated on June 12, 2008. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit S-15/W-25 (Figure 20). Stratum I was a 10 cm thick brown (10YR 4/3) silt that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively low density of artifacts including the only ceramics from the test unit (Table 13). Stratum II was identified below that as a strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) silt loam Bt horizon. The first level of Stratum II (Level 2) yielded a slightly lower artifact density including one Little Bear Creek point proximal fragment. Artifact density decreased with depth within Stratum II. Stratum III was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) clay loam containing an abundance of decayed cherty limestone. It was excavated as the lower half of Level 4 and all of Levels 5 and 6. Stratum III was fairly low in artifact density. Level 6 yielded only five flakes, so the unit excavation was discontinued at that point.

117

Figure 19. Test Unit S-15/W-25, First Two Levels, View to the East.

Figure 20. Test Unit S-15/W-25, East Wall Profile. 118

Table 13. Artifacts from Test Unit S-15/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material Count 29.1- 1: 0-12 cmbs I 2 Mulberry Creek Plain body 38 29.5 sherds 1 thin biface fragment 1 Pickwick point proximal fragment 25 flakes 8 blocky shatter 1 fcr (27.6g) 30.1- 2: 12-20 ccmbs II 1 Little Bear Creek point proximal 32 30.6 fragment 1 stemmed point medial fragment 2 preform proximal fragments 1 preform distal fragment 1 amorphous core 18 flakes 7 blocky shatter 1 fcr (37.5g) 50.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs II 1 amorphous core 14 50.2 10 flakes 3 blocky shatter 51.1 4: 30-40 cmbs II/III 3 flakes 8 5 blocky shatter 52.1- 5: 40-50 cmbs III 1 unidentified point fragment 12 52.3 1 point distal fragment 9 flakes 1 blocky shatter 53.1 6: 50-60 cmbs III 5 flakes 5 Total 109

Test Unit S-30/W-25 Test Unit S-30/W-25 (Figure 21) was located on the south end of the north-south baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped slightly to the south at this location. The unit was excavated in five arbitrary 10 cm levels. The first three levels were excavated on the day of the field trip on July 7, 2007. The unit was then closed until the following year with the remaining two levels excavated on June 25, 2008. 119

Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit S-30/W-25 (Figure 22). Stratum I was a 10 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silt loam that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively low density of artifacts including a Little Bear Creek point (Table 14). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt loam B horizon. The first level of Stratum II (Level 2) yielded a slightly lower artifact density than the upper level. Stratum II was excavated as Levels 2 and 3. Stratum III was a yellowish red (5YR 4/6) silty clay loam containing a small amount of decayed cherty limestone. It was excavated as Levels 4 and 5. Only the upper 10 cm of Stratum III yielded artifacts. Level 4 yielded only eight flakes. Level 5 was sterile of cultural material, so the unit excavation was discontinued at that point.

Figure 21. Test Unit S-30/W-25, View to the East.

120

Figure 22. Test Unit S-30/W-25, East Wall Profile.

Table 14. Artifacts from Test Unit S-30/W-25. FS# Level Strata Material Count 35.1- 1: 0-12 cmbs I 1 Little Bear Creek point proximal 35 35.3 fragment 23 flakes 7 blocky shatter 4 fcr (39.0g) 36.1- 2: 12-20 ccmbs II 11 flakes 14 36.2 1 blocky shatter 2 fcr (39.0g) 37.1 3: 20-30 cmbs II 9 flakes 15 6 blocky shatter 38.1, 4: 30-40 cmbs II/III 8 flakes 9 48.1 Total 73

Test Unit S-50/W-30 Test Unit S-50/W-30 (Figure 23) was located on the low part of the landform near the southern edge of the site. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. 121

The unit was excavated in six arbitrary 10 cm levels. The unit was opened a year after the AAS field trip in order to fill in a gap in the testing on the southern end of the site. The first three levels were excavated on July 9, 2008, and the final three were excavated on July 11, 2008. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit S-50/W-30 (Figure 24). Stratum I was a 12 cm thick dark brown (10YR 3/3) silt loam that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively low density of artifacts including a preform fragment, lthic debitage and fire-cracked rock (Table 15). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/4) silt B horizon. Stratum II was excavated as Levels 2 through 4 along with the upper half of level 5. Artifact density remained fairly constant throughout Stratum II. Stratum III was a strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) compact silt. It was excavated as the lower half of Level 5 and all of Level 6. Artifact density dropped off at Stratum III. Level 6 yielded only two small flakes, so the unit excavation was discontinued at that point.

Figure 23. Test Unit S-50/W-30, View to the North.

122

Figure 24. Test Unit S-50/W-30, North Wall Profile.

Table 14. Artifacts from Test Unit S-50/W-30. FS# Level Strata Material 61.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 1 preform fragment 61.3 23 flakes 3 blocky shatter 3 fcr (50.2g) 62.1- 2: 10-20 ccmbs II 22 flakes 62.2 3 blocky shatter 2 amorphous cores 63.1 3: 20-30 cmbs II 25 flakes 4 blocky shatter 38.1, 4: 30-40 cmbs II 25 flakes 48.1 3 blocky shatter 64.1 5: 40-50 cmbs II/III 12 flakes 66.1 6: 50-60 cmbs III 2 flakes

Count 30

27 29 28

Total

123

12 2 128

Test Unit N-0/W-30 Test Unit N-0/W-30 (Figure 25) was located on the east-west baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped significantly to the west. The unit was excavated in four arbitrary 10 cm levels, but these corresponded closely to the natural stratigraphy. All four levels were excavated on November 20, 2008. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit N-0/W-30 (Figure 26). Stratum I was a 10 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silt that was excavated as Level 1. It contained a relatively high density of artifacts including fragments of two stemmed points (Table 15). Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/3) silt loam. The first level of Stratum II (Level 2) yielded all of the ceramics from the unit including a Mulberry Creek Plain body sherd amd a Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherd. Artifact density decreased quickly with depth. Stratum III was reached at a depth of 30 cmbs. Stratum III was a strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) silty clay loam. It was sampled with a single level that only yielded three small flakes. The excavation of Test Unit S-5/W-25 was discontinued at that point.

Figure 25. Test Unit N-0/W-30, View to the North.

124

Figure 26. Test Unit N-0/W-30, North Wall Profile.

Table 15. Artifacts from Test Unit N-0/W-30. FS# Level Strata Material 39.1- 1: 0-12 cmbs I 1 unidentified corner39.4 notched/stemmed point distal fragment 1 unidentified point stem 1 amorphous core 74 flakes 4 blocky shatter 40.1- 2: 12-20 ccmbs II 2 eroded limestone-tempered body 40.5 sherds 1 Mulberry Creek Plain body sherd 1 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherd 1 point proximal fragment 2 amorphous cores 125

Count 81

46

41.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs 41.2

II

42.1

III

4: 30-40 cmbs

37 flakes 2 blocky shatter 1 preform distal fragment 17 flakes 2 blocky shatter 3 flakes

20 3 Total

150

Test Unit N-0/W-35 Test Unit N-0/W-35 (Figure 27) was located on the west end of the east-west baseline. The unit was oriented to magnetic north, and the unit datum was established in the southeast corner. Opening levels indicated that the ground surface sloped gently to the west. The unit was excavated in five arbitrary 10 cm levels. All five levels were excavated on June 25, 2008. Three strata were encountered in the excavation of Test Unit N-0/W-35 (Figure 28). Stratum I was a 15 cm thick dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silt that was excavated as Level 1 and most of Level 2. Level 1 contained a relatively low density of artifacts including two small eroded limestone-tempered sherds (Table 16). Level 2 yielded a much higher artifact density and most of the ceramics from the unit including 13 eroded limestonetempered body sherds. Stratum II was identified below that as a brown (7.5YR 4/3) silt loam. The first level of Stratum II (Level 3) yielded two early-stage preforms and several unusually large fragments of debitage. The lack of large pieces of debitage from any other levels suggests some stratification with Level 3 representing a discrete depositional episode overlain by a discrete ceramic zone (Stratum I). Stratum III was reached at a depth of 34 cmbs. Stratum III was a strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) silty clay loam. It was sampled with the lower half of Level 4 and all of Level 5. Level 4 yielded only six artifacts, and Level 5 yielded only three. The excavation of Test Unit S-5/W-25 was discontinued at that point.

126

Figure 27. Test Unit N-0/W-35, View to the North.

Figure 28. Test Unit N-0/W-35, North Wall Profile. 127

Table 16. Artifacts from Test Unit N-0/W-35. FS# Level Strata Material Count 56.1- 1: 0-10 cmbs I 2 eroded limestone-tempered body 15 56.3 sherds 11 flakes 1 blocky shatter 1 fcr (1.7g) 57.1- 2: 10-20 ccmbs I 13 eroded limestone-tempered 43 57.4 body sherds 1 retouched flake 19 flakes 3 blocky shatter 7 fcr (30.3g) 58.1- 3: 20-30 cmbs II 1 biface distal fragment 38 58.4 2 preform fragments 1 tested tab 16 flakes 18 blocky shatter 59.1- 4: 30-40 cmbs II/III 1 preform medial fragment 6 59.2 4 flakes 1 blocky shatter 60.1 5: 40-50 cmbs III 3 flakes 3 Total 105

128

CHAPTER VI: ARTIFACTS Artifacts recovered from Site 1Ma1180 consisted of prehistoric lithics, prehistoric ceramics, and a small amount of historic material. A total of 2349 individual artifacts were collected during the Phase II investigation. Lithics Fire-cracked rock (fcr) A total of 273 fragments of burned or fire-cracked rock totaling 2558.1g were recovered in the test unit excavations. These included all chert, quartzite, limestone, and sandstone fragments that bore evidence of burning such as thermal fracture or oxidation of iron resulting in red or pink coloration. Incidentally burned lithics of other classes such as chipped stone tools or lithic debitage were excluded from this class, as were specimens that appeared to be intentionally heat-treated. Nearly all of the fcr from the site consisted of locally available chert or limestone. Cores Cores include any piece of lithic material from which flakes were struck excluding bifaces and tools (see below). Thirteen such specimens were recovered in the current investigation. Twelve of these were classified as amorphous cores which did not exhibit any discernable flaking pattern. The remaining core was a tested tab of chert with only one flake removal. The cores were found throughout the various excavation levels and represented locally available materials. Lithic Debitage This artifact class consists of the by-products of chipped stone tool production. It was subdivided into blocky shatter (n=286) which consisted of angular debris that did not exhibit a discernable striking platform, and flakes (n=1476) which did exhibit a striking platform and/or distinguishable dorsal and ventral surfaces. Since multiple components were represented at the site, and there was little coherent stratigraphic separation of the individual components, no effort was made to further subdivide the lithic debitage. Nearly all of the debitage appeared to represent locally available raw material including cherts from the Bangor, lower Monteagle, Tuscumbia, and Fort Payne formations. Unifacial Tools These tools consist of both expedient flake tools which were used without modification of any edges and retouched flake tools including formal unifaces such as endscrapers. A notably small number of unifacial tools were recovered at 1Ma1180. These include a blade medial fragment with bifacial retouch along one edge that was recovered from the surface of the gravel road on the east side of the study area (Figure 29). This tool appears to be made on a true blade (although the lack of a proximal end makes this determination 129

tentative) with the distal and proximal ends snapped off. Such blades are commonly associated with Paleoindian assemblages. The blade was manufactured from high quality local Lower Monteagle chert and is heavily patinated to a yellowish gray (5Y 8/1) to light gray (N7) color.

Figure 29. Possible Paleoindian Blade Tool.

Another tool of note was a microlithic drill or burin (Figure 30) of an unidentified yellowish gray (5Y8/1) chert with light brownish gray (5YR 6/1) banding. The microlith was recovered from Level 2 of TU N-0/W-25 along with one of the highest densities of ceramics recovered from the site. Two Late Woodland Hamilton Incurvate points were also recovered from this level. Similar microliths were common in Late Woodland Flint River culture features at the Bellefonte Site (Futato 1977) as well as on Late Woodland Miller III sites in the Tombigbee River Valley (Futato 1987). Microliths are also known from mature Mississippian sites in the central Mississippi Valley where they are thought to have been used for the specialized drilling of shell beads (Mason and Perino 1961; Yerkes 1989). Upon examination of this particular specimen under 20x magnification, rounding and polish of the ridges between flake scars was observed only along the ventral face of the distal end suggesting that the tool was used as a burin as opposed to a drill. It could not be determined whether the microlith was manufactured from a flake or a bladelet.

130

Figure 30. Microlithic Burin, Dorsal, Lateral, and Ventral Views; Arrow indicates area of use-wear. Less diagnostic unifacial tools found in various levels of the test units include a single somewhat blocky endscraper, a small fragment of an unidentified retouched unifacial tool, a retouched flake, and two utilized flakes with edge wear suggestive of use in scraping. Bifaces Bifaces consist of chipped stone artifacts that were flaked on two faces which meet in a sinuous working edge that can serve as a bi-directional platform for further flake removal. Bifaces were frequently reduced into finished tools, but they could also serve as easily-transported cores for the production of flakes for expedient unifacial tools. In the latter case or in the case of unfinished bifacial tools, the artifacts were considered preforms (n=14). If the artifacts were too fragmentary to determine whether they represented pieces of finished tools or preform fragments, they were simply identified as biface fragments (n=8). Finished bifaces were commonly incorporated into composite tools as hafted blades for adzes, knives, or projectile points. The presence of some sort of prepared hafting element is the best indicator of these types of tools. Among projectile points and knives, the styles of these hafting elements can be highly diagnostic and is one of the primary sorting criteria for placing hafted bifaces into temporally and culturally sensitive types. Most hafted projectile points and knives have a discernable hafting element on the proximal end and an acute point on the distal end. To avoid the technically accurate but cumbersome term “hafted biface” while also avoiding unproven functional interpretations by labeling an artifact “knife” or “projectile point”, these artifacts are simply referred to as “points”. All but two of the recovered points were fragmentary. Proximal fragments made up the majority of these (n=13). Nearly all of these could be identified according to a named 131

type. The assemblage also included five distal fragments, four medial fragments, and one complete blade. One of the distal fragments was particularly thin and carefully pressureflaked and probably dates to the Late Woodland Period. Two of the medial fragments also included the distal end of stemmed hafting elements and probably date to the Late Archaic Period. The remaining distal and medial fragments and the point blade could not be identified according to type or age. One whole point and two of the proximal fragments were diagnostic of the transitional Paleoindian and Early Archaic periods (Figure 31).

Figure 31. Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic Points Recovered from 1Ma1180: a. Greenbrier Dalton, b. Big Sandy, c. Lost Lake drill. A Greenbrier Dalton point (Figure 31a) was recovered from the disturbed surface of the perimeter road. A small recent chip at the center of the point's base reveals a brownish gray (5YR 4/1) chert which has thoroughly patinated elsewhere to a pale yellowish brown (10YR 6/2) with a few diffuse medium light gray (N6) mottles. The point exhibits pronounced basal grinding on all margins of the hafting element. The blade is slightly 132

resharpened with serrations and is laterally snapped 7.5 mm above the hafting element. Both basal ears appear to have been snapped off – one prehistorically, and one more recently. A Big Sandy point (Figure 31b) was recovered from the first level of Test Unit S-5/W-25. The point is manufactured from a dark gray (10YR 4/1) to grayish brown (10YR 5/2) fossiliferous chert with a dense hash of white (N9), pinkish gray (5YR 8/1), and olive black (5Y 2/1) fossil bits representing sponge spicules and either fusilinids or crinoids columns. Similar chert outcrops in the Bangor Formation in the upper elevations of the local mountains. The base and notches of the point are lightly ground, and the blade has been lightly resharpened with serrations. The blade has a lateral snap fracture near its midpoint. A Lost Lake point which has been resharpened into a drill form (Figure 31c) was recovered from an eroded area along the fenceline toward the south end of the site. The raw material of this point is a dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/2) chert with very light gray (N8) speckled mottles and medium dark gray (N4) speckled banding. The surface is glossy and appears to be patinated. The base and notches are heavily ground, and the blade has been thoroughly resharpened with alternate beveling along the right side of each blade face. Under low magnification (40X), the tip exhibits micro-flaking and polish along the margins suggestive of use in drilling fairly hard material. One of the whole points, two of the medial fragments, and seven of the proximal fragments are diagnostic of the Middle and Late Archaic Periods (Figure 30). The one whole specimen (Figure 32a) has affinities with the Buzzard Roost Creek type. It was recovered from Level 4 of Test Unit N-0/S-25. The raw material is a very dark bluish gray (5PB 3/1) chert banded with grayish orange (10YR 7/4) and pale yellowish brown (10YR 6/2). The chert is similar to material near the edges of chert nodules from the Bangor Formation. The point does not exhibit any damage or wear that would have prompted its discard, but it is a rather thick and asymmetrical specimen. Three of the proximal fragments (Figure 32b-d) exhibit the relatively square stems with bifacially-beveled edges characteristic of the Benton type. One is half of a proximal fragment (Figure 30b) made of brown (7.5YR 5/2) chert. One is represented only by a stem (Figure 30c) severed with a haft snap. The stem is manufactured from patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert. Another proximal fragment (FS 39.2) is very similar to this stem, but it is a smaller fragment severed with a crenated fracture from thermal alteration. It too seems to be manufactured from Fort Payne chert. Another proximal fragment (Figure 30d) is manufactured from an unidentified pink (7.5YR 8/3) chert. Based on its coloration and luster, the material appears to have undergone thermal alteration. The point exhibits a lateral snap fracture just above the hafting element. It was found on the surface of the gravel road on the east side of the project area. The other proximal fragments were all recovered from the first levels of test units.

133

Figure 32. Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic Points Recovered from 1Ma1180: a. Buzzard Roost Creek, b-d. Benton e. Pickwick, f-g. unidentified stemmed, h. Little Bear Creek, i-j. unidentified expanded-stemmed points.

134

A Pickwick point proximal fragment (Figure 32e) was recovered from the first level of Test Unit S-15/W-25. It was manufactured from a possible cortical piece of Bangor chert with light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) and very pale brown (10YR 7/3) bands. The point exhibits a lateral snap about midway up the blade. Two medial fragments of stemmed points (Figure 32f-g) similar in size to points of the Pickwick type were recovered from test units. One (30f) is made from local Lower Monteagle chert. The material is patinated to a light bluish gray (10B 7/1) color. The distal end exhibits crushing and snapping suggestive of an impact, and the proximal end exhibits a haft snap fracture. It was recovered from Level 4 at 39 cmbd in Test Unit N0/W-25. The other stemmed medial fragment is made from a light brownish gray (5YR 6/1) chert with obvious thermal alteration in the form of pink (10R 7/4) margins and pot lid fractures some of which resulted in the severing of the stem. The blade is broken by a lateral snap fracture near its midpoint. The edges of the blade exhibit rejuvenation in the form of fine serrations as are often seen among the Flint Creek type. One point proximal can be safely typed as a Little Bear Creek (Figure 32h). It was recovered from Level 2 of Test Unit S-15/W-25 and is made from an opaque and chalky light brown (7.5YR 6/4) chert similar to brown varieties from the Fort Payne Formation. The blade has been thoroughly crushed and snapped just above the hafting element, apparently the result of a hard direct impact. Two more proximal fragments have hafting elements similar to Little Bear Creek points except for slight outflaring of the margins near the stem base. One (Figure 32i) is manufactured from bluish gray (5PB 5/1) Lower Monteagle chert with a fracture across the blade along a bedding plane above very pale brown (10YR 7/4) cortex. This point was recovered from Level 8 of Test Unit N-0/W-25. The other (Figure 32j) is manufactured from dark gray (7.5YR 4/1) Bangor chert and exhibits a lateral snap fracture near the midpoint of the blade. Two of the proximal fragments may date to the Early and Middle Woodland Periods, but they are difficult to type (Figure 33). One is a corner-notched point (Figure 33a) that may be related to the Coosa Notched or Upper Valley Side Notched types. It is made from reddish gray (2.5YR 5/1) chert that is thermally altered based on the coloration and heavy pot-lidding which has split the point longitudinally. It was recovered from Level 1 of Test Unit N-5/W-25. The other point is likewise split longitudinally by pot-lid fractures. It is a shallow side-notched point reminiscent of the Swan Lake type and is manufactured from a white (2.5Y 8/1) chert with one small crinoids column fossil. It came from Level 3 of Test Unit N-5/W-25.

135

Figure 33. Possible Early and Middle Woodland Points Recovered from 1Ma1180: a. unidentified corner-notched, b. Swan Lake. Three of the recovered points are representative of the Hamilton Incurvate type of small arrow point. One of the Hamilton Incurvate points (Figure 34a) is made from bluish gray (10B 7/1) Lower Monteagle chert with dark bluish gray (10B 4/1) banding. It has a lateral snap fracture toward the middle of the blade and was the stratigraphically deepest Late Woodland point recovered at Level 5 of Test Unit S-15/W-25. The other two Hamilton Incurvate points were both recovered from Level 2 of Test Unit N-0/W-25. The most complete specimen (Figure 34b) is extremely thin and well-made with pronounced incurvature on all three margins. It is made from dark gray (10YR 4/1) Bangor chert and has a lateral snap fracture across the very tip. The third Hamilton Incurvate is made from an unidentified light gray (N7) chert with reddish gray (10R 5/1) diffuse mottles. The tip has been removed with a lateral snap fracture, and the remaining blade has been heavily damaged by pot-lidding. The very thin distal fragment discussed earlier was also found in this same level. It does not have incurvate margins, but the thin cross section and finely-executed pressure flaking is similar to that seen on Hamilton Incurvate points. It is manufactured from brown (7.5YR 5/2) Fort Payne chert and was severed with a lateral snap fracture.

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Figure 34. Hamilton Incurvate Points Recovered from 1Ma1180.

Table 4. Point Data (*measurement taken based on reconstructed specimen). lateral snap lateral snap none

Max. Length 57.0* 72.9

Max. Width 20.6 18.5 24.9

Max. Thick. 5.9 5.4 8.0

Shoulder Width 20.6 17.9 23.0

Haft Length 18.0* 11.2 12.7

Neck Width 17.8 11.8 16.3

Basal Width 18.9 16.9 23.1

FS #

Type

Raw Mat.

Rejuv.

Breakage

1.1 18.5 1.2

Dalton Big Sandy Lost Lake Buzzard Roost Crek Benton Benton? Benton? Benton Pickwick unid. stemmed unid. stemmed Little Bear Creek unid. expandingstemmed unid. expandingstem unid. cornernotched Swan Lake Hamilton Incurvate Hamilton incurvate Hamilton Incurvate

unid. chert Bangor? unid. chert

light light heavy

5.1 18.6 10.1 39.2 1.3 29.3 5.2 30.2 30.1 44.1 35.1 13.2 15.1 52.4 3.5 3.5

Bangor?

none

none

60.4

28.3

10.1

28.3

10.1

12.7

13.7

unid. chert Fort Payne Fort Payne unid. chert Bangor? Lower Monteagle

mod.

72.0*

32.2

12.1

29.5 32.2

9.6 10.2 12.2

17.0 16.2 16.4

17.1 19.1 16.9 n/a

-

29.8

8.9

29.1

-

16.2

-

Fort Payne?

mod.

lateral snap haft snap crenated lateral snap lateral snap impact/haft snap lateral snap, pot lid

-

31.1

10.7

29.2

-

18.4

-

Fort Payne?

light

impact

-

29.9

9.3

28.5

15.4

14.7

14.6

Lower Monteagle

-

incipient plane

-

25.5

8.9

25.0

14.6

17.8

19.7

Bangor

mod.

lateral snap

-

25.0

10.8

24.5

11.2

14.9

16.2

unid. chert

none

pot lid

-

-

-

-

7.1

-

-

unid. chert Lower Monteagle

none

pot lid

-

-

-

-

8.2

-

-

none

lateral snap

34.3*

20.9

4.0

20.9

n/a

n/a

20.9

Bangor

none

lateral snap

32.0*

19.6

3.0

19.6

n/a

n/a

19.6

none

lateral snap, pot lid

-

-

-

-

n/a

n/a

-

unid. chert

light

Lithics Discussion The diagnostic bifaces from 1Ma1180 indicate that the site was periodically visited throughout the Holocene. The transitional Paleoindian and Early Archaic periods probably saw occasional visits by small hunter/forager groups, but the sample is small and mostly out of context. The few 137

diagnostics cannot be reliably associated with any of the non-diagnostic material, therefore, their analytical value is restricted to providing points on a map for landscape level distributional analysis. The late Middle Archaic period is well represented at the site by the Buzzard Roost Creek point and the four possible Benton point fragments. Consistent with findings elsewhere, Fort Payne chert is heavily represented as a raw material among these points. The heavily fragmented nature of the Benton points suggests that they were discarded as part of retooling activity at the site, but beyond that, little can be said about this component with any analytical certainty. Occupation of the site may have become more sporadic during the Late Archaic Period as represented by the Pickwick point, the Little Bear Creek point, and the less diagnostic stemmed points. Once again, there is no way to associate the Late Archaic points with any non-diagnostic artifacts, so their analytical value is limited. The possible Coosa Notched or Upper Valley Side Notched point suggests limited occupation of the site during the Early Woodland Period, and the Swan Lake point probably represents visits to the site during the later part of the Middle Woodland. The Hamilton Incurvate points compliment the ceramic assemblage (see below) and represent the most analytically discreet component at the site. Two of the points were found along with a morphologically similar distal fragment in the same level of a single test unit along with one of the heaviest concentrations of ceramics. Indeed nearly all of the ceramics were found within one stratigraphic level of these points on the site. Association is likely, and the association between Hamilton Incurvate points and the types of ceramics represented at the site has been well established elsewhere. The only exception is FS 52.4 (Figure 32a) which was found well into the C-horizon, about 30 cm deeper than the other Hamilton Incurvate points and ceramics. More than likely, this point was out of vertical context and suggests some sort of localized turbation in the site stratigraphy. Two of the points are manufactured from locally available material, while the third is of unidentified chert. This is typical of Hamilton Incurvate points in the Redstone Arsenal collection among which locally available Lower Monteagle chert is overwhelmingly represented. All three Hamilton Incurvate points are damaged and probably represent broken points removed from carcasses during the processing of game. Another lithic artifact likely associated with this component is the microlithic burin. It was also recovered from the same level of the same test unit as two of the Hamilton Incurvate points, and similar tools have been recovered from Late Woodland features elsewhere.

Ceramics A discreet assemblage of prehistoric ceramics consisting of 170 individual sherds was recovered from 1Ma1180. All ceramics with the exception of one sherd were recovered from the upper two 10 cm levels of the test units. The temper and surface treatment of the ceramics is typical of a Late Woodland assemblage. The fact that all the ceramics 138

were restricted to the upper 20cm at the site suggests that there has been minimal stratigraphic mixing in the two millennia since the Late Woodland period. No ceramics diagnostic of earlier or later cultures were recovered from the site suggesting that the ceramic assemblage at 1Ma1180 represents a single component dating to the Late Woodland period. The horizontal distribution of the ceramics seemed to indicate two main concentrations. The north end of the site had the heaviest concentration of ceramics, particularly Test Unit S-5/W-25 which yielded 38% of the entire ceramic assemblage. The north concentration included a much greater variety of ceramics than the southern concentration which seemed to represent a single pot break of a Mulberry Creek Plain vessel. Limestone-tempered The vast majority of the ceramics recovered at 1Ma1180 were tempered primarily with crushed limestone. In all but four specimens, the actual limestone fragments had been leached out resulting in a pock-marked surface on the faces of the sherds and sub-angular cavities in the paste. If the majority of the temper consisted of crushed limestone, the sherds were considered limestone tempered. That being said, 31% (n=51) of the primarily limestone tempered sherds included small quantities of very fine sand. Another 19% (n=32) included between 5 and 30% small rounded bits of dried or previously fired clay. Another 3% (n=5) included small quantities of both sand and dried/fired clay. An attempt was made to identify the source of the sand by viewing it under low magnification (40X). Even at that magnification, it was difficult to determine whether the sand represented quartz or calcite crystals and whether the fragments were rounded or angular. It is not determined, therefore whether the sand represents naturally-occurring particles from the clay used to make the vessels or whether it represents incidental calcite crystals that occurred in the limestone used for the temper. Likewise, it is unknown if the dried/fired clay was intentionally added as temper or whether it represents recycling by the crushing and rehydrating of previously dried or partially fired clay. Of the 69 limestone-tempered sherds that were intact enough to allow for identification of surface treatment, two modes were represented. Just over half (n=35) had smooth surfaces (Figure 35). Limestone-tempered ceramics with smooth surfaces have been universally identified as the type Mulberry Creek Plain in the Tennessee River Valley. The remaining 34 sherds had surfaces that were scraped. They appeared to have been scraped with a flake or other hard tool while the clay was partially dry. All but one of the sherds were scraped only on the exterior while the interior was smooth. One sherd exhibited scraping on the interior, but the exterior was too eroded to identify surface treatment. Limestone-tempered ceramics with scraped surfaces have historically been typed inconsistently as either Flint River Brushed or Mulberry Creek Plain. The original typology of middle Tennessee River Valley ceramics done by Heimlich (1952) described the Flint River Brushed type as having a surface that "is roughened, as brushed horizontally with a bundle of twigs, often vertical on the necks and rims and generally vertical on the base." She goes on to say that roughening can occur on both the interior and the exterior of the vessel or on one surface or the other and that "many sherds were 139

subsequently smoothed, some obtaining an imperfect polish so there is a gradual gradation from the brushed type to the plain surfaced limestone tempered type". While Heimlich did not specifically mention scraping, many researchers in Alabama have lumped all scraped, burnished, roughened, or brushed limestone-tempered ceramics into the type Flint River Brushed. Indeed, even in Heimlich's illustration of the representatives of the Flint River Brushed type, brushed specimens are shown alongside specimens that appear to be scraped, burnished, and otherwise roughened. Many researchers, however, have reserved the designation Flint River Brushed for limestonetempered ceramics that were actually brushed and classified the others as Mulberry Creek Plain (eg. Knight 1990). Still others have identified the sherds with scraped surfaces as Hamilton Plain (Graham 1964). This created inconsistencies in the literature as pointed out by Futato (1977) and others who attempted to rectify the situation by distinguishing all scraped, roughened, or burnished limestone-tempered ceramics that did not exhibit obvious signs of actual brushing. After Futato (1998), this report classifies all the scraped limestone-tempered ceramics as Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton.

140

Figure 35. Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics from 1Ma1180. a. reconstructed base (FS#32.1), b. rim sherd (FS#3.2). The only other kind of surface treatment that may be represented at the site is check stamping which is suggested by a single small body sherd from Level 2 of Test Unit S5/W-25. The possible check-stamping has been smoothed over, somewhat obscuring the original surface treatment. Since the sherd is small and the possible stamping somewhat ambiguous, the sherd was lumped with other small eroded limestone-tempered sherds with unknown surface treatment (FS#19.1). A minority of sherds with smoothed-over and scraped check stamping have been found eroding out of Flint River shell pits at 1Ma150, however. The Mulberry Creek Plain sample included two rim sherds and a base. One rim (FS 3.2) represented a flared rim jar with a rim diameter of around 40 cm. The other rim (FS 18.2) represented a constricted mouthed jar with a flattened rim with a diameter of around 30 cm. The base was reconstructed from 12 sherds found in Level 2 of Test Unit S-25/W-25 and represented a rounded based jar. 141

Figure 36. Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton ceramics from 1Ma1180. a-c. rim sherds (FS#19.3), d. body sherd (FS#18.3). The Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sample (Figure 36) included five rimsherds. Four came from Level 2 of Test Unit S-5/W-25 and all probably came from the same vessel - a constricted mouthed jar with a rim diameter of around 35 cm in diameter. The remaining rimsherd came from Level 2 of Test Unit N-5/W-25 and represented a flared rimmed jar with a rim diameter of around 30 cm. All five of the rims exhibited horizontal scraping as opposed to the vertical "brushing" noted by Heimlich. Clay-tempered Only two sherds were found to contain temper composed primarily of dried or fired clay particles (Figure 37). Neither sherd contains any crushed limestone fragments, although one of the sherds contains a small amount of fine sand, and both sherds contain a few of what appear to be small manganese nodules. Seven of the non-typable limestonetempered sherds also appear to contain small manganese nodules. Such nodules are 142

common redoximorphic features in some of the older hydric or formerly hydric soils in the area and probably originated in the raw clay that was used in the ceramics.

Figure 37. McKelvey Plain ceramics from 1Ma1180. a. body sherd (FS#3.4), b. body sherd (FS#19.5). Both of the clay-tempered sherds have plain smooth surfaces and can be typed as McKelvey Plain after Heimlich (1952) or Baytown Plain var. McKelvey after Futato (1998). The designation McKelvey Plain is retained in this report for the sake of simplicity and to underscore this type's association with the McKelvey Phase. Mixed-tempered Besides those sherds with different inclusions mentioned above, there were four sherds that had temper mixed evenly between crushed limestone and dried/fired clay. Whether the dried/fired clay was intentionally added as a tempering agent or whether it was an incidental inclusion cannot be determined.

Ceramics Discussion The ceramics seem to represent a single Late Woodland component at 1Ma1180. Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton ceramics have been associated with the Late Woodland Flint River Culture in the Middle Tennessee River Valley. A large shell pit containing a burial and a nearly identical ceramic assemblage to what was recovered at 1Ma1180 was recently excavated at site 1Ma1177 on Redstone Arsenal. An AMS date of AD 960(1010)1040 was returned on wood charcoal found throughout the shell pit. The presence of the two McKelvey Plain sherds as well as the mixed-tempered sherds and possibly the inclusion of dried/fired clay in several of the limestone-tempered sherds at 1Ma1180 suggests contact between the Flint River culture occupants and McKelvey/Baytown culture groups. While Mulberry Creek Plain ceramics are the 143

dominant ware in late Middle Woodland assemblages, the spatial association with the Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton and clay-tempered ceramics and the Late Woodland lithics at 1Ma1180 suggests that the smooth plain ceramics do not represent an earlier component. Likewise, it is possible that the two McKelvey Plain sherds represent a small separate McKelvey component, but the occurrence of clay temper inclusions in some of the otherwise limestone-tempered ceramics and the spatial association with the rest of the ceramics argues for inclusion with the Flint River component. The types of vessels represented at 1Ma1180 were large fairly thin-walled jars (Figure 38) that would have been cumbersome and fragile and probably were only transported any great distance by watercraft. The large jars would have been more suitable for storage than for cooking and probably indicate that the Late Woodland component at 1Ma1180 was more long-term than occasional over-night camping in the course of resource procurement. Based on differences in temper and rim form, a minimum of eight individual vessels is represented in the sample from 1Ma1180. This includes three Mulberry Creek Plain, three Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton, and two McKelvey Plain. While not a great number, only about 0.3% of the site area was sampled. This suggests that 1Ma1180 was occupied repeatedly or for an extended period of time.

Figure 38. Rim profiles of recovered sherds. a-c. Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton (FS 19.3), d. Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton (FS# 14.2), e. Mulberry Creek Plain (FS# 3.2), f. Mulberry Creek Plain (FS# 18.2). 144

CHAPTER VII: SIGNIFICANCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS Depositional Integrity The portion of site 1Ma1180 that was investigated as part of this Phase II evaluation appears to be remarkably intact. Historic imagery shows that the site was wooded and not in cultivation during the twentieth century (Figure 39). The stratigraphic profiles of the test units confirm that this portion of the site was never cultivated. At least one test unit (S-10/W-25) exhibited an intact illuvial horizon beneath a 10cm A horizon, a zone that would have certainly been obliterated by plowing.

Figure 39. Site 1Ma1180 on 1937 aerial imagery.

145

The typical stratigraphy at the site consists of a 10cm thick silty A horizon over a loamy Bt horizon which averages 25cm in thickness. In several of the test units, a silty clay loam C horizon was reached which contained varying amounts of decaying cherty limestone. This profile is typical of Etowah Series soils which develop on well-drained convex rises in shallow alluvium underlain by limestone (USDA-NRCS 2001b).

Figure 40. Vertical artifact distribution in Test Units. A mantle of low energy alluvium on the site is evinced by silty soil and lack of naturally occurring rock in the upper 30-50 cm of the soil profiles. Some stratification is evident in this alluvium as demonstrated by the vertical artifact distribution. Nearly 96% of the ceramics were recovered from the upper 20cm of the site stratigraphy. Of the seven sherds that were not, all but two were clearly redeposited. Interestingly, of the sherds that came from the upper two 10cm levels, 67% came from the second level between 10 and 20cm below the surface. In all but one of the test units that yielded ceramics, more ceramics and more artifacts in general came from the lower part of the A-horizon. The overall artifact count typically peaked between 10 and 20cm below surface (Figure 40). This suggests a degree of alluvial deposition over the site in the millennia since the Late Woodland Period. All but one of the Late Woodland lithics were recovered from the upper 20cm as well, but so did all but four of the 14 points and point fragments of earlier periods that were recovered from the test units. In general, the artifact count dropped off by more than 50% with each succeeding level below 20cm below surface (Figure 40) to a depth of 40 to 50 cmbs. An interesting exception was Test Unit N-0/W-25 which, in addition to having the greatest overall artifact count and deepest vertical distribution of artifacts, had marked peaks in the artifact count at the 30-40cm level and 60-70cm level. The overall 146

stratigraphy of this unit was anomalous. A culturally sterile thick yellowish red clay containing dense decaying limestone rose up in the northeast corner of the test unit while the remainder of the test unit appeared to consist of stratified silty alluvium. This anomaly was interpreted as a massive prehistoric tree tip which pulled up a plug of Chorizon matrix in the northeast corner and left a depression in the rest of the unit which incrementally filled with colluvium washing from the root ball and sides of the depression. Other stratigraphic anomalies were initially interpreted as small prehistoric pit features, although modern radiocarbon dates on wood charcoal from two of the pits indicates a modern and probably non-cultural origin. Features 1 and 2 were similar in that they were small amorphous stains containing dense wood charcoal. Feature 1 yielded an AMS date of 110±40 BP with a calibrated range between 1800-1960. Feature 2 yielded an AMS date of 180±40 BP with calibrated ranges between 1650 and 1880 and 1910 to 1950. According to the 1942 aerial photographs, the Redstone Arsenal perimeter road was constructed right around that time. This was the first major disturbance at the site as the road cut straight north and south across the crest of the landform. The row of spoil piles along the west side of the road attests to clearing and construction with heavy machinery. Since the site was wooded prior to the road construction, tree clearing was obviously part of the construction process. Features 1 and 2 are interpreted as scars resulting from the impact of branches from the felled trees, and the dense wood charcoal suggests that the trees were burned where they fell. Analogous disturbance was observed in 2009 when a storm blew the top off a pine tree at the author's home in Madison (Figure 41).

Figure 41. Modern tree fall scar analogous to those which formed Features 1 and 2. 147

The only pit that has the potential to be an actual cultural feature is Feature 4 a large conical pit on the north edge of the site that yielded a limestone-tempered sherd, a burned medial portion of a large blue-gray Fort Payne chert biface, 24 pieces of lithic debitage, two small unidentifiable bone fragments, and a very small amount of charcoal. No radiocarbon date was run for this feature, but the presence of the sherd indicates an association with the Late Woodland component. In general, the portion of the site on Redstone Arsenal includes 1,385 square meters of intact prehistoric deposits. While some stratification has occurred on the site, individual components are generally not well-separated enough to vertically isolate them. The presence of one prehistoric feature in the investigated sample, however, demonstrates a potential for additional features which could provide discreet samples of material culture representing individual components.

Archaeological Significance Settlement Patterns Site 1Ma1180 is a multi-component prehistoric open habitation site which was occupied sporadically from the transitional Paleoindian period through the Late Woodland. Most of the early components are mixed or are poorly separated and cannot be isolated for meaningful analysis. The only component with significant research potential is the Late Woodland component which can be assigned to the Flint River culture and is represented by the entire ceramic assemblage at the site. The types of Late Woodland ceramic vessels represented at 1Ma1180 were large fairly thin-walled jars that would have been cumbersome and fragile and probably were only transported any great distance by watercraft. The large jars would have been more suitable for storage than for cooking and probably indicate that the Late Woodland component at 1Ma1180 was more long-term than occasional over-night camping in the course of resource procurement. The presence of storage jars suggests that the Late Woodland occupation at 1Ma1180 was a residential camp as opposed to a short term stop for logistical forays. The only examination of Flint River culture settlement patterns is that presented by Walthall (1980) who based his model on the Hamilton culture settlement pattern proposed by McCollough and Faulkner (1973). According to this model, Flint River groups aggregated in large floodplain settlements during the warm summer and fall seasons to collect shellfish and exploit floodplain resources which they supplemented with limited maize horticulture. These groups would disperse as extended family bands to small upland seasonal camps in the cold weather months. The distribution of Flint River ceramics and Hamilton Incurvate points at Redstone Arsenal lends support to this basic model. Four types of Flint River sites are represented (Figure 42). The largest and most complex of these are represented at sites 1Ma150 and 148

1Ma285/1177 and to a lesser extent at 1Ma485 and 1Ma26/27. These sites represent good candidates for warm month aggregation camps along the first terrace of the Tennessee River. Each site includes series of small shell middens and large shell-filled pits containing abundant Flint River ceramics. One such pit was excavated in 2010 at 1Ma1177 (notes on file at the Redstone Arsenal Environmental Management Division). The top of the pit measured about 170cm east to west by around 90cm north-south. It tapered down to a flat base measuring around 110 by 70cm at a depth of about 98cm from the top of the pit. Shells had been mounded over the top of the pit and extended in a lens along the cut bank of the river 75cm beyond the western edge of the pit and 285cm beyond the eastern edge. The feature fill was primarily composed of mussel shell along with a various freshwater snail shells. A total of 55 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherds were recovered from the feature fill along with six small eroded limestonetempered sherds and one rimsherd which appeared to exhibit smoothed-over checkstamping. Based on rim sherd profiles, at least five vessels were represented including both large storage jars and possible cooking pots. Most of the sherds were lightly scraped on the interiors. Scraping on the exteriors included scraping oblique to the rim, horizontal scraping, and a 30mm band of horizontal scraping below the rim with vertical scraping on the body of the vessel below that. Faunal material from the feature fill included several deer bones, a fish spine fragment, several turtle carapace fragments, and the complete skull, neck, scapula, pelvis, rear leg, and foreleg of an adult dog which appeared to have been unceremoniously tossed in with the shells. Wood charcoal and carbonized nut shells were found throughout the fill. The semi-flexed skeleton of an adult individual had been placed on its right side in the bottom of the pit parallel with the river with its head pointing upstream. The skeleton had been badly crushed by the weight of the shells and could not be reliably sexed in the field. An AMS date on charred material from the feature fill had a calibrated intercept of AD 1010. The shell features suggest warm season habitation since shellfish are much more easily gathered in warm weather, but the presence of nut shells in the 1Ma1177 shell pit could indicate late autumn occupation. That being said, nut meats can be stored in their shells for extended periods and were not necessarily consumed immediately after they were gathered. The fairly vertical sides and flat bottom of the pit at 1Ma1177 suggests an original function as a storage pit. Groups aggregating at the site during the warm season may have stored grains, nuts, or other goods there for use during the cold months. They could have also stored tools, raw materials, or site furniture there while they dispersed into the uplands during the late fall. Burials on these sites and on sites like Ditto Landing (1Ma307) where three burials attributed to the Flint River culture were excavated (Betterton 1994) suggest a degree of geographical circumscription and may have served as focal points for Flint River macroband territories. Similar riverbank aggregation sites have been recorded throughout the Guntersville Basin, and several including the Deposit Landing Site (1Ms14), the Harris Site (1Ms80), the Cartwright Site (1Ms109), the Hardin Site (1Ja27), the Sauty Site (1Ja28), and the Sublet Ferry Site (1Ja102) were investigated during the TVA Guntersville Basin survey (Webb and Wilder 1951). All of these sites included thick dark earth middens and shell features. Some, like the Hardin Site included numerous post molds suggesting the presence of structures, although no post patterns were distinguished. 149

Site 1Ma1180 represents another site type in the Flint River settlement pattern. Sites like this are located on alluvial terraces some distance up small tributaries. Assemblages at these sites include a moderate amount of ceramics and a variety of lithic tools representing a diverse array of activities and indicating fairly long term residential habitation. Other sites of this type include 1Ma133 located just upstream and on the opposite bank of Huntsville Spring Branch from 1Ma1180 and 1Ma164 on Indian Creek. A Phase II investigation on 1Ma164 identified a large post hole containing Mulberry Creek Plain and Flint River Brushed sherds (Alexander and Thomson 1998). No other Flint River material was found during the small excavation, but the post hole suggests that Flint River people may have built a structure on the site. Beartail Rockshelter on lower Indian Creek may represent another example of a Flint River cold season residential camp. Extensive excavations at Beartail Rockshelter yielded 28 Hamilton Incurvate points, more than any other type (Hubbert 1997). The assemblage also included 1146 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherds and 27 sherds of Flint River Brushed (Meyer 1997). Only one of this type of Flint River site was sampled in the Guntersville survey. One of the Dispennet Caves, 1Ms142, yielded a ceramic assemblage dominated by Flint River Brushed sherds. This cave is located in the uplands around 15m below the bluffline above Brown's Creek, a tributary of the Tennessee River. The third type of site in the Flint River settlement pattern is represented by sites in the uplands and up tributaries where small numbers of Hamilton Incurvate points have been recovered, but which have not yielded any ceramics. These sites likely represent small logistical camps for upland hunting groups. Based on the deer bones in the shell pit at 1Ma1177, Flint River people likely exploited large game year-round, and small logistical groups probably split off of extended family or macroband groups throughout the year to procure specific game or other resources. The fourth type of site includes sites along the Tennessee River which have yielded a diffuse scatter of Flint River ceramics and Hamilton Incurvate points. These probably represent small logistical camps as well, with a special focus on riverine and floodplain resources.

150

Figure 42. Sites with Flint River components on Redstone Arsenal. Pink = warm season base camps, Yellow = cold season residential camps, Orange = Upland logistical camps, Green = Riverine logistical camps.

151

Intercultural Contact The ceramic assemblage at 1Ma1180 is interesting in that it seems to document contact and exchange between the two cultures that occupied the Wheeler Basin of the Middle Tennessee River Valley during the Late Woodland. The Flint River culture seems to have been focused on the stretch of the Tennessee River that passes through the highlands of the Cumberland Plateau. As such, Redstone Arsenal marks the downriver terminus of this archaeological manifestation. In fact, according to TVA survey reports (Webb 1939, Shaw 2000) and the Alabama State Site Files, only six sites with possible Flint River components have been found downriver from Redstone Arsenal, and of those, only two are located downriver from the Madison-Limestone County line. The Late Woodland Period in the lower Wheeler Basin and Pickwick Basin which are situated in the broad level Middle Tennessee Valley of the Highland Rim is represented by what has been termed the McKelvey Phase of the Baytown culture. The distinct geographical division between Flint River and Baytown corresponds roughly to the preceding division between eastern and western Copena as discussed by Knight (1990) (Figure 43). The Flint River culture seems to have developed directly out of the late Middle Woodland Bell Hill Phase. One site on Redstone Arsenal may have a component that is intermediate between the late Middle Woodland Bell Hill Phase and the Late Woodland Flint River culture. Excavations at Site 1Ma133 on Huntsville Spring Branch identified an apparent trash pit (Feature 1) at the site which contained a substantial ceramic assemblage composed of limestone-tempered ceramics dominated by plainware (Thomas 1980). A reanalysis of the ceramics by the author in 2009 identified 57 Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton sherds in the assemblage along with two Flint River Brushed sherds. Together, these made up almost 15% of the ceramic assemblage from Feature 1. Two triangular “Hamilton-like” points were also recovered from the pit (Thomas 1980). Significantly, six clay-tempered sherds were identified in the feature assemblage as well. This unusual assemblage could be considered a classic Bell Hill Phase assemblage if not for the clay-tempered sherds and triangular points. It may represent an example of early contact between transitional Middle Woodland people and Baytown groups. Likewise, the McKelvey Phase may be the result of the late Colbert culture of the Pickwick Basin adopting clay and grog tempered ceramic technology from the lower Mississippi River Baytown culture, possibly via the Tombigbee Basin (Walthall 1980, Jenkins 2003). As one would expect, McKelvey sites inter-finger with Flint River sites at the contact between the two cultural zones. Scattered clay-tempered ceramics frequently occur on sites along the Tennessee River on Redstone Arsenal. In a 100% collection of prehistoric ceramics conducted by the author in the winter of 2005 along the south boundary of the Arsenal on the exposed beach of the Wheeler Reservoir, around 27% of the sherds were clay or clay/grit tempered ware usually associated with the Baytown culture. Only around 13% were Flint River Brushed or Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton. This is in contrast with the Guntersville Basin upstream where only 0.13% of the ceramics were clay/grit tempered and 13% were Flint River Brushed or roughened Mulberry Creek Plain 152

(Heimlich 1952). Occasional clay-tempered sherds have also been recovered at various sites up Indian Creek and Huntsville Spring Branch. No sites on Redstone Arsenal have yielded substantial features or middens associated with McKelvey ceramic assemblages.

Figure 43. Geographical extent of the Flint River Culture (red) and the McKelvey Phase (yellow) with Representative Sites. Walthall (1980) divides the Pickwick and lower Wheeler Baytown manifestation into two phases which he terms McKelvey I and McKelvey II. According to this model, McKelvey I is marked by the appearance of clay and grog-tempered ceramics dominated by plain (McKelvey or Baytown Plain) and check-stamped (Wheeler Check-Stamped) wares. During the McKelvey II phase, check-stamping gave way to cord-marking (Mulberry Creek Cord Marked) as the second most-common surface treatment after plainware. Based on illustrations in Webb (1939) and Oakley and Futato (1975) small triangular arrow points have been recovered from McKelvey middens. Some of these points could be classified as the Hamilton Incurvate type, but generally, they appear to be more straight-sided and thick.

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A possible isolated McKelvey component was identified at Site 1Ma1082 based on an artifact scatter along the shoreline of Wheeler Lake (the Tennessee River). Two separate surface collections of all exposed prehistoric ceramics and diagnostic lithics at this site yielded a total of seven McKelvey/Baytown Plain sherds along with two Mulberry Creek Plain sherds. Two Jacks Reef Pentagonal points were also recovered, and all lithic material observed on the site was the same alluvial pebble chert as the points were manufactured from, suggesting that the Jacks Reef types may be affiliated with at least one phase of the Baytown culture in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Wheeler Check Stamped sherds are vastly more common (~34 to 1) along Redstone Arsenal than Mulberry Creek Cord Marked sherds. If Walthall’s model is correct, this suggests that McKelvey I spread farther upriver than McKelvey II. There is not an abundance of dates on Tennessee Valley Baytown components. A McKelvey II component at the Champion Site along Bear Creek yielded a date of AD 685(1006)1327 (Oakley and Futato 1975). Walthall (1980) estimates McKelvey I to date roughly from AD 500-700 and McKelvey II from AD 700-1000. The dates of the McKelvey II Phase correspond nicely to the dates of the Flint River culture, and with ranges overlapping in the section of river adjacent to Redstone Arsenal, one would expect to find signs of cultural contact. If the ceramic assemblage from the feature at 1Ma133 represents cultural contact during the late Middle Woodland between the Bell Hill Phase and the McKelvey I Phase, the assemblage at 1Ma1180 represents contact between the Flint River culture and the McKelvey II Phase. The presence of a minority of McKelvey Plain sherds and inclusion of some possible clay tempering in some of the otherwise limestone-tempered sherds at 1Ma1180 indicate the exchange of both goods and ideas. If there was contact between these two cultural groups, how did they relate to one another? So far, the contact between the two Late Woodland groups seems to have been fairly amiable. Only a small sample of burials has been examined from each culture. The Flint River sample includes the burial from 1Ma1177 and three burials from Ditto Landing (Betteron 1994). None of these burials exhibited any obvious signs of violent trauma. A few sites like the Deposit Landing Site, the Hardin Site, and the Sauty Site from the Guntersville Basin survey had burials that can probably be assigned to the Flint River culture, but data on these burials is limited. Recently, 284 burials were excavated as part of a data recovery at the Spirit Hill Site (1Ja642). Many of these may be attributed to the Flint River culture, and several showed signs of violence (Hockersmith and Norris 2009), but the results of the investigation are not yet published. The site also included a log palisade, a post mold from which returned a radiocarbon date of AD 590 suggesting that it was constructed during the Late Woodland occupation of the site (Stanyard 2009), although additional radiocarbon dates are needed for confirmation. The palisade would also suggest a need for community 154

defense implying intergroup conflict. Even if the Flint River occupation at the Spirit Hill Site does include signs of conflict, the site is located at the far upriver end of the Flint River cultural area placing it around 100 river miles upstream from the core McKelvey area. McKelvey II burials include a bundle burial in the Red Fox Mound (Allsbrook et al. 1997) and several burials at the Robinson Site (Walthall 1973). Based on the information available, none of these burials exhibited signs of violent trauma either. The Red Fox Mound and surrounding village area just downstream from Redstone Arsenal makes for an interesting case for peaceful coexistence at the interface between the Flint River culture and the McKelvey Phase. While not previously assigned to a culture or phase, the Red Fox site can probably best be attributed to the end of the McKelvey II Phase. Of the ceramics recovered from the mound fill, only 36.60% were clay-tempered as opposed to 44.49% limestone-tempered and 17.02% shell-tempered (Allsbrook et al. 1997). In the village area, however, over 64% of the ceramics were clay-tempered while limestone-tempered and shell-tempered each accounted for less than 18% of the ceramic assemblage (Krause 2007). This suggests that much of the limestone-tempered ceramics in the mound were brought in with the fill which was borrowed from older deposits in the area. Of the clay-tempered ceramics in the village deposits, McKelvey Plain and Mulberry Creek Cord Marked were by far the dominant types. Interestingly, 18 of the clay-tempered sherds in the village deposits exhibited brushing as a surface treatment, and 4% of the limestone-tempered sherds (n=6) were typed as Flint River Brushed. These ceramics suggest contact with Flint River groups upstream. A series of radiocarbon dates from the village (Krause 2007) range from AD 700-1200 and include a date of 1070±70 BP (cal. AD 778(910)1042) from Feature 2, a hearth in the center of an oval single-set post house. A second date from material scattered around the hearth returned a date of 1080±60 BP (cal. AD778(915)1051). This structure was overlapped by a later but almost identical house pattern. These dates and stratigraphy indicate that the Red Fox village was occupied less than 100 years prior to the date of the burial in the Flint River base camp at 1Ma1177. The two sites are separated by only 23 river miles. Additional excavations at both sites could determine whether there are any signs of intergroup conflict, but so far, none have been found. Anthropologists have long recognized varying ways hunter-gatherer groups regulate use of the land and resources in relation to other groups. This has commonly been referred to as "territoriality", but "land tenure" might be a more accurate term since not all groups regulate land use by defending a rigidly-defined territory (Kelly 1995). While on one end of the spectrum, some groups maintain rigid territorial boundaries which they violently defend against interlopers, other groups openly share the landscape with neighboring groups. In general, as cultures increase in complexity, territorial boundaries become more well-defined, and in the case of agricultural societies, groups often become separated by a mutually respected "buffer zone" which acts as a "no man's land" between culture groups(LeBlanc 2003). There is no archaeological evidence for such a buffer area between the Flint River culture and the McKelvey Phase. Rather, the interface between the two seems to have fit somewhere near the middle of the land tenure spectrum. Based 155

on the distribution of components of each group, there seems to have been a clear albeit overlapping geographical division between the two, but there is no indication that this division acted as a buffer area or was the scene of intergroup conflict. Flint River and McKelvey people may have maintained a peaceful coexistence through trade, reciprocal exchange, or inter-marriage. The presence of McKelvey ceramics in Flint River assemblages and vice-versa could be explained by any of these mechanisms. Pottery vessels could have been directly traded or given as gifts. Also, since production of ceramic vessels is most commonly associated with women in the ethnographic literature, brides could be expected to bring cultural norms of ceramic manufacture with them when marrying into a different group. Whatever the mechanism, the occurrence of a minority of ceramic types associated with other cultural groups is not isolated to 1Ma1180 or the other sites discussed. Small numbers of clay-tempered sherds have been recovered from Flint River sites throughout the Guntersville Basin. Rarely do the clay-tempered sherds represent more than one percent of the Late Woodland assemblages on these sites, and the frequency does not seem to be correlated with distance from the McKelvey heartland. Further examination of sites like 1Ma1180 with discreet single-component ceramic assemblages can shed light on the relationships between the Late Woodland populations in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Defining these relationships can in turn increase our understanding of the spread of Mississippian cultural traits into the Southeast during the end of the Late Woodland period. Recommendation Site 1Ma1180 is a high density scatter of prehistoric artifacts with components ranging from the transitional Paleoindian period through the Late Woodland. The site is situated on a low alluvial terrace remnant located in the Byrd Spring wetland complex near the confluence of Huntsville Spring Branch and Byrd Spring Branch. Eleven 1m by 1m test units were excavated across the site. Intact cultural deposits were identified, but with one possible exception, all investigated soil stains appeared to be noncultural. A total of 2349 artifacts were recovered from Site 1Ma1180 including lithic debitage, fire-cracked rock, hafted bifaces, and prehistoric ceramics. The frequencies of ceramic types indicates an association with the Late Woodland Flint River culture which has been tentatively dated to between AD 500 and 1000 (Walthall 1980). Despite the presence of undisturbed prehistoric deposits and the relatively high density of artifacts, only one possible cultural feature was identified in the Phase II investigation. Nonetheless, significant information was gained by the investigation, and there is a potential for the tested portion of the site to yield additional important data relevant to the cultural periods represented. As a result, the portion of 1Ma1180 located on Redstone 156

Arsenal is now considered eligible for NRHP nomination. For the eastern portion of the site that is not located on Army property, the extent and integrity of the cultural deposits are still unknown. Impacts to all of Site 1Ma1180 should be avoided pending further testing.

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Alabama. Submitted to Shaw Corporation, Knoxville, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia. Alexander, Lawrence S., Benjamin J. Hoksbergen, and Dale E. Wolke 2006 2001 Archaeological Survey, Testing and Monitoring and 2005 Phase II Investigation of Groundwater Testing Well Clusters on the Tennessee River Bank, Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Shaw Corporation, Knoxville, Tennessee by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Wildwood, Georgia. Alexander, Lawrence S., and J. Scott Jones 2011 Phase II Archaeological Investigation of Site 1MA269 on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Environmental Management Division, Redstone Arsenal, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Wildwood, Georgia. Alexander, Lawrence S., Daniel J. Minnich, and H. Russell Campbell 1998 The Phase I Archaeological Survey of 75 Acres on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning, Redstone Arsenal, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia. Alexander, Lawrence S., Daniel J. Minnich, H. Russell Campbell, and William D. Stevens 1998aPhase I Archaeological Survey of 1052 Hectares on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning, Redstone Arsenal, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia. 1998bPhase I Archaeological Survey of a Proposed Hazardous Devices Training Area on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Vista Technologies, Inc., Huntsville, Alabama, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia. Alexander, Lawrence S., Daniel J. Minnich, Jeff M. Thomson, and Emily J. Williams 1999 The Phase I Archaeological Survey of 189 Hectares (466 Acres) for Timber Management on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning, Redstone Arsenal, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia. 2000 The Phase I Archaeological Survey of 2023 Hectares (5000 Acres) on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Submitted to Directorate of Environmental Management and Planning, Redstone Arsenal, by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Wildwood, Georgia.

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Richardson, R. Lance 2003 1Je20, Pinson Cave, and Bone Hair Pins. Journal of Alabama Archaeology 49(1,2): 84-92. Rivals, Florent, Nikos Solounias, and Matthew C. Mihlbachler 2007 Evidence for Geographic Variation in the Diets of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Bison in North America, and Differences from the Diets of Recent Bison. Quaternary Research 68: 338-346. Rogers, Pam 1995a Volunteer Finds Satisfaction During Archaeological Dig. The Redstone Rocket. July 19. Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. 1995bArchaeological Dig Finds Rare tool Kit at Redstone. The Redstone Rocket. August 23. Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. Rostlund, Erhard 1960 The Geographic Range of the Historic Bison in the Southeast. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 50(4): 395-407. Sassaman, Kenneth E. 2004 Common Origins and Divergent Histories in the Early Pottery Traditions of the American Southeast. In Early Pottery: Technology, Function, Style, and Interaction in the Lower Southeast Ed. by Rebecca Saunders and Christopher T. Hays. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. Scarry, C. Margaret 1990 Plant Remains from the Walling Truncated Mound: Evidence for Middle Woodland Horticultural Activities. In Excavation of the Truncated Mound at the Walling Site: Middle Woodland Culture and Copena in the Tennessee Valley by Vernon James Knight, Jr. Report of investigations 56. Alabama State Museum of Natural History, Division of Archaeology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. Schroder, M. William 1983 Archaeological Survey Report, Site 1MA142-C. Facilities Engineers, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. Scully, Edward G. 1951 Some Central Mississippi Valley Projectile Point Types. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Shaw, Scott 2000 Cultural Resources in the Wheeler Reservoir. Submitted to Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Tennessee, by University of Alabama Museums, Office of Archaeological Services, Moundville. 183

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Watts, William A. 1970 The Full-Glacial Vegetation of Northwestern Georgia. Ecology 51(1): 17-33. Webb, S. David, Jerald T. Milanich, Roger Alexon, and James S. Dunber 1984 A Bison antiquus Kill Site. Wacissa River, Jefferson County, Florida. American Antiquity 49(2):384-392. Webb, Clarence H. 1971 Archaic and Poverty Point Zoomorphic Locust Beads. American Antiquity 36(1): 105-114. Webb, William S. 1939 An Archaeological Survey of Wheeler Basin on the Tennessee River in Northern Alabama. Bulletin 122. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington. Webb, William S., and David L. DeJarnette 1942 An Archaeological Survey of Pickwick Basin in the Adjacent Portions of the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee. Bulletin 129. Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. Webb, William S., and Charles G. Wilder 1951 An Archaeological Survey of Guntersville Basin on the Tennessee River in Northern Alabama. University of Kentucky Press, Lexington. Wilmsen, Edwin N. 1968 Lithic Analysis in Paleoanthropology. Science. 161(3845): 982-987. Wolke, Dale, and Lawrence S. Alexander 2006 Phase II Archaeological Testing of Site 1MA713 and Site 1MA1167 on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Report submitted to Environmental Management Division, Redstone Arsenal by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Wildwood, Georgia. 2007 Phase II Archaeological Testing of Sites 1MA483, 1MA1014, and 1MA1050 on Redstone Arsenal, Madison County, Alabama. Report submitted to Environmental Management Division, Redstone Arsenal by Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Wildwood, Georgia. Wright, Amos J., Jr. 2003 Historic Indian Towns in Alabama, 1540-1838. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. Yerkes, Richard W. 1989 Mississippian Craft Specialization on the American Bottom. Southeeastern 188

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189

APPENDIX A: FIELD SPECIMEN LIST FS Number 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1

Provenience Surface Collection S-60/W-8 Surface Collection S-121/W-0 Surface Collection S-72/W-6 General Surface Collection Surface Collection S-57/W-9 T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

Count 1 1 1 5 1 24

2.2

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

2.3 2.4 3.1

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

67 10 12 29 2

3.2

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

3.3

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 1 21

3.4

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1

3.5

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

3.6 3.7

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

3.8 4.1

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd

5.5 5.6

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd central root mold T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd central root mold

2 1 1 85 6 15 59 14 16 1 1 1 53 15 6 1

Artifacts/Sample Dalton point proximal Kirk/Lost Lake drill stemmed point (Benton?) proximal bifaces retouched blade fragment eroded limestone-tempered sherds (8 w/ ~20% clay, 2 w/ some sand) flakes blocky shatter fcr (36.1g) tin can fragments Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherd (scraped ext.) Mulberry Creek Plain rim sherd Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds Eroded limestone-tempered sherds (5 w/ ~5% clay) McKelvey Plain body sherd (Mn concretions) Hamilton Incurvate points thin point distal microlith drill/burin flakes blocky shatter fcr (146.5g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (104.8g) Stanley/Benton Cluster point stemmed point medial fragment preform distal fragment flakes blocky shatter fcr (25.3g) eroded limestone-tempered body sherd

7

flakes

2 3

blocky shatter fcr (40.3g)

24 4 4 22 1 4 1

flakes blocky shatter fcr (58.2g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (30.0g) iron concretion

5.7 5.8 6.1

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd central root mold T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 5:40-50 cmbd

6.2 7.1

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 5:40-50 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 6:50-60 cmbd

7.2

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 6:50-60 cmbd

190

8.1 8.2

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 7:60-70 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 7:60-70 cmbd

8.3 9.1 9.2

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 7:60-70 cmbd Feature 1 (T.U. N-0/W-25) Feature 1 (T.U. N-0/W-25) flotation sample ≥1/4” fraction

9.2 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Feature 1 (T.U. N-0/W-25) flotation sample heavy fraction T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

10.5 10.6 10.7

T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

10.8 11.1

T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

1 1 27 8 7 1

11.2 11.3 12.1

T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd Feature 4 (T.U. N-10/W-25)

5 1 1

12.2 12.3

Feature 4 (T.U. N-10/W-25) Feature 4 (T.U. N-10/W-25)

12.4

Feature 4 (T.U. N-10/W-25) flotation sample heavy fraction

1 6 6 14

13.1 13.2 13.3

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

13.4 14.1

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 1 60 6 27 3

14.2

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 1

14.3

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

14.4

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

14.5 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

191

1 42 9 1 1 7

12 1 11 4 6

1 2 56 9 20 1 2 1 1 50 14

biface distal flakes blocky shatter fcr (6.4g) carbon sample 3 eroded limestone-tempered sherds 3 flakes 1 blocky shatter 0.2g wood charcoal 12 flakes 1.9g wood charcoal point stem (Benton?) flakes fcr (56.0g) eroded limestone/clay-tempered body sherds (~30% clay and Mn) point medial utilized flake flakes blocky shatter fcr (111.9g) eroded limestone-tempered body sherd (˂5% clay) flakes fcr (67.3g) eroded clay/limestone-tempered body sherd (˂10% clay) burned biface fragment flakes blocky shatter 12 flakes 2 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.4g wood charcoal eroded limestone-tempered body sherd unid. corner-notched point flakes blocky shatter fcr (94.1g) Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds (~5% clay) eroded limestone-tempered body sherd Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton rim sherd (scraped ext.; some sand) biface distal biface medial fragments flakes blocky shatter fcr (93.5g) Swan Lake point biface medial fragments preform core flakes blocky shatter

15.6 16.1 16.2

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd

16.3 17.1

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 5:40-50 cmbd

17.2

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 5:40-50 cmbd

17.3 18.1

T.U. N-5/W-25 Level 5:40-50 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

5 2 2 7

18.2

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

4

18.3

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

1 9

18.4

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

4

18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

18.9 19.1

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 1 2 44 11 9 11

19.2

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

6

19.3

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

4

19.4

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

17

19.5

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1

19.6 19.7

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

19.8 20.1

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

20.2 21.1

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd

21.2 22.1

T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

22.2 23.1 23.2

T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 2:10-19 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 2:10-19 cmbd

2 59 8 29 37 6 4 8 3 3 28 5 5 1 21

192

9 1 15 5 10 1

fcr (284.7g) point distal flakes blocky shatter fcr (69.5g) unidentified limestone-tempered body sherd (possible roughening; ~10% clay, some sand and Mn) flakes blocky shatter fcr (8.3g) eroded limestone-tempered body sherds 5 w/ some sand) Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds (3 w/ some sand) Mulberry Creek Plain rim sherd Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherds (8 scraped ext., 1 scraped int.) unidentified clay/limestone-tempered body sherds Big Sandy proximal Benton proximal preform fragments flakes blocky shatter fcr (32.4g) eroded limestone-tempered body sherds (1 w/ possible smoothed-over checkstamping; 1 w/ some clay) Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds (4 w/ some sand) Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton rim sherds (scraped ext.) Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherds (scraped ext.; 2 w/ ~5% clay, some sand in all) McKelvey Plain body sherd (some sand and Mn) cores flakes blocky shatter fcr (188.0g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (49.9g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (32.2g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (43.9g) core flakes

11 20 1 32 13 5 1 14 5 1 8 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 37

23.3 24.1 24.2

T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 2:10-19 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 3:19-29 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 3:19-29 cmbd

24.3 25.1 25.2

T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 3:19-29 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 4:29-39 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 4:29-39 cmbd

26.1 26.2

T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 5:49-54 cmbd T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 5:49-54 cmbd

27.1

T.U. S-10/W-25 Level 6:49-54 cmbd

28.1

Feature 2 (T.U. S-10/W-25)

28.2 28.3

Feature 2 (T.U. S-10/W-25 E. Wall) Feature 2 (T.U. S-10/W-25) flotation sample heavy fraction

29.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

2

29.2 29.3 29.4

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

29.5 30.1 30.2 30.3

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

30.4 30.5

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

30.6 31.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

31.2 32.1

T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 1 25 8 1 1 1 2 1 1 18 7 1 26 5 13 16

32.2 32.3

T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

32.4 33.1

T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

33.2 34.1

T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd Feature 3 (T.U. S-25/W-25)

34.2

Feature 3 (T.U. S-25/W-25) flotation sample ≥1/4” fraction Feature 3 (T.U. S-25/W-25) flotation

34.2

193

1 36 7 14 23 3 2 2 1 2 33

blocky shatter fcr (342.7g) endscraper flakes blocky shatter fcr (83.9g) core fragment flakes blocky shatter preform distal flakes fcr (7.3g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (14.3g) flakes blocky shatter carbon sample 31 flakes 1 small unidentified shell fragment 5 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.4g charcoal Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds (˂5% clay, some sand) thin biface fragment Pickwick point proximal flakes blocky shatter fcr (27.6g) Little Bear Creek point proximal stemmed point medial fragment preform proximal fragments preform distal fragment core flakes blocky shatter fcr (37.5g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (60.3g) Mulberry Creek Plain body sherds (refits) preform medial flakes blocky shatter fcr (173.0g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (54.4g) flakes blocky shatter 1 flake 1 blocky shatter 25 flakes

sample heavy fraction

40.2

T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1

40.3 40.4 40.5

T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

41.1 41.2

T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 3:20-30 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

42.1 43.1 44.1 44.2

T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-10/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 8:70-80 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 8:70-80 cmbd

44.3 45.1 45.2 45.3

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 8:70-80 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 9:80-90 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 9:80-90 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 9:80-90 cmbd

46.1 47.1

T.U. N-0/W-25 Level 10:90-100 cmbd T.U. S-5/W-25 Level 9:80-90 cmbd

1 2 37 2 1 17 2 3 1 1 15 1 2 1 1 9 3 1

3 small unidentified shell fragments 5 small unidentfied bone fragments 0.2g wood charcoal Little Bear Creek point proximal flakes blocky shatter fcr (39.0g) flakes blocky shatter fcr (39.0g) flakes blocky shatter flakes unid. corner-notched point blade unid. point stem core flakes blocky shatter Mulberry Creek Plain body sherd (˂5% clay) eroded limestone-tempered body sherds (1 w/ ˂5% clay) Mulberry Creek Plain var. Hamilton body sherd (scraped ext.) point distal fragment cores flakes blocky shatter preform distal fragment flakes blocky shatter flakes flake unid. stemmed point proximal fragment flakes blocky shatter fcr (13.6g) biface fragment utilized flake flakes blocky shatter flake

48.1 49.1

T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Floor Clean-up

50.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd

50.2 50.3 51.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd

3 1 2 7 1 10 3 1 1 3 5

flakes fcr (0.6g) flakes flakes blocky shatter flakes blocky shatter core biface blade flakes blocky shatter

35.1 35.2

T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

35.3 36.1

T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

36.2 37.1

T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 2:10-20 cmbd T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 3:20-30 cmbd

38.1 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4

T.U. S-30/W-25 Level 4:30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 1:0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 1:0-10 cmbd

40.1

T.U. N-0/W-30 Level 2:10-20 cmbd

1 23 7 4 11 1 2 9 6 7 1 1 1 74 4 1 2

194

52.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd

52.2 52.3 52.4 53.1 54.1

T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd T.U. S-15/W-25 Level 6: 50-60 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd

54.2 54.3 55.1

T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd T.U. S-25/W-25 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd

56.1 56.2

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd

56.3 57.1

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 2:1 0-20 cmbd

9 1 1 1 1 5 23 3 1 1 1 2 2 11 1 1 3 10

57.2

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 2:1 0-20 cmbd

57.3 57.4 58.1 58.2 58.3 58.4

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 2:1 0-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 2:1 0-20 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd

59.1 59.2

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd

60.1 61.1 61.2

T.U. N-0/W-35 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd T.U S-50/W-30 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd T.U S-50/W-30 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd

61.3 62.1 62.2

T.U S-50/W-30 Level 1: 0-10 cmbd T.U S-50/W-30 Level 2: 10-20 cmbd T.U S-50/W-30 Level 2: 10-20 cmbd

63.1

T.U S-50/W-30 Level 3: 20-30 cmbd

64.1

T.U S-50/W-30 Level 4: 30-40 cmbd

65.1 66.1

T.U S-50/W-30 Level 5: 40-50 cmbd T.U S-50/W-30 Level 6: 50-60 cmbd TOTAL

195

19 3 7 1 1 2 1 16 18 1 4 1 3 1 23 3 3 2 22 3 25 4 25 3 12 2 2349

flakes blocky shatter point distal fragment unidentified point fragment Hamilton Incurvate point proximal flakes flakes blocky shatter fcr (3.4g) uniface fragment flake blocky shatter eroded limestone-tempered body sherds flakes blocky shatter fcr (1.7g) unid. limestone-tempered body sherds (2 w/ ~10% clay) eroded limestone-tempered body sherds (3 w/ ~10% clay) flakes blocky shatter fcr (30.3g) retouched flake point distal fragment preform fragments tested tab flakes blocky shatter preform medial fragment flakes blocky shatter flakes preform proximal fragment flakes blocky shatter fcr (50.2g) amorphous cores flakes blocky shatter flakes blocky shatter flakes blocky shatter flakes flakes