à Thomas Hobbes's 17th-century version of the social ... applicable to all under all circum- stances. .... codes of ethics contain a brief list of ... to state or federal regulations or best management prac- tices. ... 6 refer to these ideas about nature as well as diverse cul- ... tant concepts when considering philosophical founda-.
Philosophy
Ethics
Philosophical P'ofession! Envi'onment! Ethic An Overview
for Foresters
Theology subsequently dominated Adiscussion about ethics forprofessional forwrongandmoralduty,isoneof decisions ofgoodandbaduntilFrancis esters canbegin withthephilosophical founmanycomponents of bothtra- Bacon and Ren• Descartes built foundations. Ethics hasalong tradition inphilos- ditional andcontemporary philosophy. dations for the scientific method and ophy, andmany philosophers have addressedThe wordphilosophy is derivedfrom fact-based decisionmaking in the 16th Scottish philosothe Greekwordsphilia (friendship) and 17thcenturies. thesubject ingeneral andasit relates (wisdom). A basic Merriam- pherDavidHumelaterincreased this specifically toprofessionals andtotheenvi- andsophia between factandvalue,yet ronment. Acomprehensive system ofethical Websterdictionarydefinitionof phi- distinction losophyis "a criticalstudyof funda- unlikeDescartes he placedgreatimrules iselusive, however; professionals must on moralsentiments or intumentalbeliefsand the groundsfor portance recognize thecase-specific context ofethical them"(1997).The fieldis commonly itive values,aswell ason fact-baseddedecisions andgain experience inmaking criticized fordebating seemingly obvi- cisions.Hume'sthinkinginfluenced good ethical decisions. Ofspecial interest to of Darwin'stheoryof ous concepts.Yet Jenneth Parker development foresters are the roleof ethicsandsocial (1994) noteshow moralphilosophy evolution(Callicott 1999). groups ininfluencing objectivity ofscience, canhelpclarifyissues by promoting a Starting withDescartes in theearly andthe inclusion of nonutilitarian values framework for debate and reflection, 17thcenturyandcontinuing through in nature. ratherthanthrough mereadvocacy. the20thcentury(Soccio1998),"modern"Westernphilosophy hasempha-
thics, the defining of right and
The Tradition
ByWilliarnForbesand ChristopherLindquist
of Ethics
The historyof ethicsisdefinedbya tension between ethical theories and
sized rational truth and correlations with modern science. Some of the best known and most influential modern
includethefollowing appliedethics.Socrates andhissucces- ethicaltheories sors, Plato and Aristotle, formed the
(Abelsonand Nielsen 1967):
ß Thomas Hobbes's17th-century basis of Greekethicsthrough developtheory, mentandrefinement of prevailing eth- versionof the socialcontract ical codes of conduct in the fourth and whichemphasized regulation of our fifthcenturies BCE.All threephiloso- self-interests throughthestateandits phersemphasized virtuouscharacter laws. ßJohnLocke's17th-century theory traits,suchascourage, generosity, selfcontrol, and truthfulness (Rachels of individualrightsandprivateprop1999).
erty.
Aristotle's workisperhaps mostrelevantto forestryethics,ashisstudyof organisms providedfoundations for thefieldof biology(Hargrove1989). Aristode grounded hisethicsin a "nat-
ßImmanuelKant's18th-century deontology, emphasizing duty-based rationalethicsanda "categorical imperative"--a duty to followa setof rules applicableto all under all circum-
uralistic" combination of observable
stances.
ßJeremyBentham's19th-century facts,individualhappiness, andsocial basedon the greatest welfare.He sawmanyformsof good, utilitarianism, eachof whichmustbe definedsepa- goodfor thegreatest numberof indiratelyfor itsscientific area:economics, viduals. ßJohnRawls's recenttheoryof jusmedicine,politics,etc.Aristotlealso emphasized theimportance oftraining, tice, linked to a notion of fairness orpractice, in ethicaldecisionmaking.based onobjectivity. 4
July2000
Arrivingat a comprehensivesystem of ethicsis difficult.TherigidityofHobbes's socialcontracttheory and Kant'sdeontology did not
Kant, Lyotard,RawIs);and inspiringtheprofessional to achievehigherethicalstan-
allow for critical reflection,
tionalsoasguidelines fornew membersand the publicat large.Someprofessional orga-
such as in caseswhen break-
ingthelaworlyingmightbe necessary to achievesome greatergoodor honorsome greaterduty.Locke's private propertyrightsoccasionally needto beinclusive ofpublic values (Freyfogle 1996). Bentham discovered that his
utilitariangoal of greatest happiness forthegreatest numberdoes not providelimitson how the end is achieved.Although Rawls's(1971) contemporary versionof socialcontracttheoryis influential andappears
JudithButler(1996) seesa proper universal framework asonedefinedby continualchallenges to its accepted meaning.Thusa goodmoralsystem wouldattemptto beinclusive of, but more flexiblethan Hobbess,somecritnotcompletely succumb to, challengicsfindtheverynotionof "objective"ingtheories or circumstances. The histenethicalsystems problematic orperhaps toryof ethicsexhibitsthiscreative
daMs. Professional codes func-
nizations focus on the useful-
ness of codes in expelling undesirable members from their
respective societies. Yet a recentsurvey revealed thatmost professional andscientific organizations do not haveenforcement
mechanisms
in
place(Jorgensen 1995). A limitedsurvey of formats revealed that mostbusiness and professional codes of ethics contain a brief list of
ethicalstatements(Olson 1998). The
othertwomainformats are:(1) preamble,principles, andcanons (SAF'scurrentformat); and(2) identifying a proeven undesirable. sion between absolute and relative fession's obligations byeachsector with Frenchphilosophers Michel Fou- principles andthetheoretical andap- whichit hasprimaryrelations, suchas cault(1984) andJean-Francois Lyotard pliedaspects of ethicalsystems. clients, employers, andthepublic. (1979)providenotable"postmodern" Somefirmsprovidefurtherethical critiques ofoverriding, prescriptive sys- Professional Ethics guidance through whistleblower protoPaul Camenisch(1983) noteshow cols,prescribing tems.Ethicalproblems, according to thata whistleblower: them, should be understoodwithin theoriginaldefinition of "profession,"mustbe actingin goodfaith;must theircontextor situation. In response, arising outof religion, involved anex- havereasonable grounds forbelieving another contemporary philosopher, the ceptional commitment. Thewordpro- the informationsuppliedis accurate; GermanJuergenHabermas(1987), fession is derived from the Latin word mustnot be motivatedby moneyor contends that some retention of for "publicdeclaration" of thatwhich personal gainin makingthedisclosure; modernityis important,that at least one believed,or that to which one was and must have raised the concerns insomesortof universally agreed frame- committed. Thusa profession wasde- ternally, unless nopurpose wouldhave workis possible andnecessary, if not fined by its specificcommitment beenservedby doingso.The firm specitic principles. within society.Camenischdefinesa shouldencouragegenuinewhistlePostmodern, used to describevaricurrentprofession by the natureand blowers, discourage malicious whisdeouslate-20th-century movements, in valueof its goals,its specialized skills blowers, protect confidentiality, andfathis contextrefersto contemporary andknowledge, thecontrolof itsedu- cilitateproperinvestigation of allegations (British Medical Association philosophy thatquestions modernem- cation and standards,and its moral di1996). phasison bias-free,absolutetruths mension-the character of its mem(Soccio1998).Examples of scientific bersandtheprofession's commitment Research practiceis anothertopic references supporting postmodern phi- toa larger goodbeyond itsself-interest.addressedby professionalethics. Professional codes of ethics have losophy areHeisenberg's uncertainty "Sound" science canbeassisted byconprinciplein quantumphysicsand multiplefunctionsthat relateto the sideringethicalissues suchashiding Botkin's "discordant harmonies" in history of ethics: identifying "core" be- biases in methods; falsifying data;misecology. Postmodern skeptidsm of eth- liefs,orvalues, thatclarifytheroleand representing research credit;hoarding icalsystems is similarto emphasis on objectives ofa profession withinsociety dataandfindings priorto publication; sitespecitics in silviculmretheavoid- (Aristote, Bentham,Hobbes,Locke); submitring manuscripts to morethan ance of generalmethodssuch as identifying desired character virtuesof one journal; "turf-guarding"; and clearcutting orsingle-tree selection har- theprofessional of results (Horten (Aristotle); clarifying timelydissemination vestwithoutdueregardfor localcon- ethicalobligations to guideactionin 1997). Geologist Daniel Sarawitz ditions. perplexing cases(Butler,Habermas, (2000) concisely illustrates prevalent, Journalof Forestry
5
We hopeour articlecanhelpreadersinterpretthe Society ofAmericanForesters'proposedCode of Ethicsrevision(seepage19).We encourageSAFmembersto test the proposedlanguagewith both clear and perplexing ethicalexamples,basedon experienceand hypothetical situations.Suchan exercise,we hope,will stimulatediscussionsof traditional,professional, and environmental ethicswell intothe 21stcentury. The italicizedwords below refer to conceptspre-
Utilitarian andnonutilitarian values.PrinciplesI, 2, 4, and 6 refer to these ideas about nature as well as diverse cul-
tural values.Intrinsicandnonutilitarian valuesare important conceptswhen consideringphilosophical foundationsfor laws(Principle6), suchas endangeredspecies protection.
Landethic.Reviewerssearchingfor elementsof Leopold'slandethic maybe disappointed. SAF'sproposed coderevisionmentionsLeopoldand"lovefor the land"in
sented in the main text.
the preamble,but notionsof ecocentrism,intrinsicvalue
Theoretical versusappliedethics.Given the need for flexibilitybetweentheoreticalandappliedaspectsof ethicalsystems, readersdesiringclear,concreteethicalrules to fit eachsituationmaybe disappointed. In Principle2, "professional standards" doesnot implystrictadherence to stateor federalregulations or bestmanagement practices.Standards mayneedto vary by region,or by managementor researchobjective.Case-specific deviations maybe allowedif proper procedureis followed,suchas nationalforest plan amendments,or if the deviation is necessary to meetapprovedadaptivemanagement objectivesor other principles in the code. Desirableprofessional charactertraits.In the Preamble andPrinciples 3,4, 5, and6 the proposedrevisionfollows bothAristotleandthe GeologicalSocietyof Americaby definingdesirableprofessionalcharactertraits and by
in nature, or extension of ethics to the land could be clas-
sifiedasweakinthe principles. PrincipleI, presentlymodeled after the standard,anthropocentricBrundtlandReport goalof sustainability--meet the needsof the present withoutcompromising the abilityof futuregenerations to meettheir own needs--mightbe wordedmorefaithfully to Leopoldby clarifying"a responsibility to manageland for both currentandfuture generationsof societyand nature."Yet elementsof the landethic are present. Landhealth.PrincipleI canbe directlyrelatedto Leopold'scentralgoalof landhealththroughits"pledgeto practiceandadvocatemanagement that will maintainthe long-termcapacityof the land..." Commitment to the largergoalsof society.Principle2 statesthat"landownershavea landstewardshipresponsibilityto society."This wasalsoa centralconcerndriving defining the natureandvalueof the forestryprofession's the developmentof Leopold'slandethic,the ideathat goalswithinsociety. landownersshoulddevelopresponsibility beyondecoFormalThe proposedrevisioncombinesprofessional nomics. codeformats,includingthe list format for conciseness, Ecocentrism. Additionally,the proposedlanguageinandthe preamble-principle formatfor substance.The for- cludesthe term "land"insteadof forests,implyingbroad mat draws on Daryl Koehn'swork by using"pledge" concernfor not onlyforestsbut Leopold'slandcommustatements withinthe principles. Koehn's intentof publicly nity.Sinceintrinsicvalueisan ideaultimatelyconstructed pledging, not necessarily in a code format,was to both byhumans, PrincipleI's callto"maintainthe long-termcabuildtrust in the professional's charactertraitsandsensi- pacityof the landto providethe varietyof materials, uses, tivityto case-specifics of a client(landowner). andvaluesdesiredby landowners andsociety"couldbe Common morality. Principles 5 and6 followphilosopher considered to be inclusive of intrinsic values, or ethical BernardGert'selementsof commonmorality.Principles extension to the land. I through4 alsoaddresshisnotionof duty. The proposedrevisionalso incorporatesthe conEthicalworksettings. MichaelBayles's emphasis on ethi- cepts and languageof SAF'smissionstatement,as excalwork settingsis supportedin Principles 5 and6. pressedin its ConstitutionandBylaws: "The missionof Factandvalue.Reviewers mayconsiderboththe ethics the Societyof AmericanForestersisto advancethe sciof scientificpracticeandthe role of socialgroupsin influ- ence,education,technology, and practiceof forestry" encingobjectivityof scientificgoalsand methodswhen (Preamble,Principle3);"to enhancethe competencyof referring to the terms "sound science"and "scientific its members"(Preamble,Principle3);"to establishproprinciples"as statedin Principles3 and4. Sciencewas an fessional excellence"(Preamble,Principles 2 through6); importantfoundationfor both PinchotandLeopold,for- "andto usethe knowledge,skills,and conservationethic estryleaderswith bothsimilaranddifferingperspectives. of the professionto ensurethe continuedhealthanduse Hume'sdistinction betweenfactandvalue,not universally of forest ecosystemsand the presentand future availemphasizing oneoverthe other,issupportedbyinclusion abilityof forestresourcesto benefitsociety"(Preamble, of both scienceandvaluesin Principle4. PrinciplesI and 2).
July2000
falsenotionsof scientific objectivity. fessional ethics. He notes discriminaphilosopher workingon professional Oneof themorecomprehensive ef- tion againstminoritiesand women ethics,pointsout that someof the fortstoaddress ethics in a resource pro- seeking entryintoprofessions untilthe uniquequalities ofprofessions arethat Bayles sees anethical theyoperate fession wasthe1997Geological Soci- late20thcentury. on thebasisof involved, etyofAmerica's five-day conference on climatein the work settingas a far case-specific discussions with clients, ethicsin the geosciences. Geologists more effective deterrent to misconduct referto awidebodyof knowledge, and sawgreatvaluein theprocess of devel- thanenforcement ofprofessional codes includea societal goallargerthanthe opingtheircodes,asit helpedthem or educational programs, butsuggestsclient or profession(suchas forest identifythecorevalues ofprofessional-implementing allthreemethods. healthorproductivity). Thetraditional ismin thegeosciences (Horten1997). A favorable worksettinggenerally professional-client model, however, Liketheforestry profession, geology provides end peerpressure toadhere to eth- maybebiasedtowardthe desired can be artificiallydividedinto two icalnorms.Byindicating thatethics is of the client, with little clarificationof "camps": production geologists work- important--by,for example, issuing largersocietal goals. _As an expert,the •ngfor theminingandoil industries, policystatements mayalsobebiased toward andrewarding valid professional andpublic-interest geologists working whistleblowing--leaders alsocreatea perfecting hisor hertechnique at the on hazard reduction and more acadedeterrent. Bayles suggests independent expense oftheclient's needs. The"conmicaspects of thefield.Despitetheir ethicalreviewby laypersons to avoid tract" model does not build trust in the differentbackgrounds, the twomain biaswithina firmorprofession. profession andrestricts operations to groups agreed onthecorevalues ofgeDaryl Koehn (1994), another contractual language. Koehntherefore ologists: scientific studyof theearth; d•scovery, development andproductionof resources; identifying hazards (earthquakes, floods,etc.);applying knowledgeto environmental issues; andproviding education to thepublic, newgeoscientists, andtheprofession. Popularintroductions to philosophy for nonphilosophers includethe folAttendeesagreedon ideal character lowing: traits--suchashonesty,trustworthißDurant,W.1927,196I. Thestoryofphilosophy: Thelivesandopinions ofthe ness, open-mindedness, clarity,compegreater philosophers. Garden City, NY: Garden City Press. tence,andperseverance--and theneed ßGaarder,J. 1991.Sophie's world:A novelaboutthe historyof philosophy. forteaching ethics in geosciences. New York: Berkley Books. DartmouthphilosopherBernard For further discussions of postmodernism as it relatesto natureandsciGertwasamong those at thegeologists' ence, including thoughts on reconstructive postmodernism, see Callicott,J.B. conference. Gert (1998) alignswith 1999,chapter 15,and especiallyHaraway,D.J.199I, chapter9, in Simians, KantandRawIsin seeking a codeexcyborgs, andwomen:Thereinvention of nature.New York:Routledge. hibitingelementary basics of rational, Regardingbusiness ethics,seeVelasquez, M.G. 1992.Business ethics: Concommonmorality.His examples of ceptsandcases. 3rd ed. New York:PrenticeHall. commonmoralityare socialnorms A nonprofitorganization calledthe International Business EthicsInstitute, that reject deceiving,breakinga based in Washington, DC, with offices in Europe and South America,seeks promise,cheating, breaking thelaw, to "foster global business practices that promote equitable economic develdeprivingfreedom,and neglecting one's duties.
Gertwouldallowa person toviolate normsof commonmoralityif it is rational to allow everyoneto violate common morality undertheparticular circumstances, and suchallowancebe-
comespublic knowledge.Gert acknowledges thereare usuallyseveral "right"answers, butcommon morality canput limitson whattheseare.He findsconsiderable agreement onmoral matters and thinks controversies are
overplayed because theyaremoreinteresting--something foresters cancertainlyunderstand. PhilosopherMichael D. Bayles (1989)provides a criticallookat pro-
opment,resourcesustainability, andjustformsof government." Nationalleadersin the ethicsof scientificpracticeincludethe Office of
ResearchIntegrity, a branchof the USDepartmentof Healthand Human Services,and the American Associationfor the Advancement of Science,
whichjointlyconvenedanApril 2000 conference,"The RoleandActivitiesof
Scientific Societies in Promoting Research Integrity."The Officeof Research Integrityis alsocosponsoring a practicumon responding to allegations of researchmisconduct and plansa conferenceon researchintegrityin November(website: www.aaas.org/spp/dspp/sfrl/projects/integrity. htm). To learn more about environmentalcitizenship,environmentalethics, and professional ethics(respectively), go to www.efec.unt.edu/citizen.htm; www.cep.unt.edu; www.iit.edu/departments/csep/. On the effectiveness of trainingin ethics,see King,S.A.,and R.C.Field. 1998.Ethicstrainingworkshops. In Proceedings of the 1997Society ofAmericanForesters NationalConvention, Memphis, Tennessee. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters.
Journalof Forestry
?
proposes grounding professional ethics concisely captured public,nonutilitarin a trust-building publicpledgebe- ianvalues thatwerealready present in tweenprofessional andclientthat ac- thelonghistoryof ideas,butwerehidknowledges bothcase specifics andthe denthroughrecentphilosophical deprofession's largersocietal role.Likethe velopments in utilitarianism, pragmahistorical traditionofethics in philoso- tism,andpositivistic science. Leopold phy,professional ethicsalsoillustrates saw an evolution of ethics in human the needfor flexibilitybetween theo- history,from individualto familyto reticalandapplied systems. community, andthelogicalnextstep
ronmentalphilosophy (Minteerand Manning1999).Thus,BryanNorton (1991)suggests thatmostof Leopold's goals,includingpreservation of key (but not all) species, canbe reached through apragmatic, weakened version of anthropocentrism that includes nonutilitarian values. Analyzing a specificcasestudy,IreneKlaveret al. 0n
wasto extendethicsto the biotic(land) community.His land ethiccalledfor Foresters' 20th-centuryconserva- putting humansin a less-dominant tion ethichasbeenlargelyutilitarian rolein nature,asplain"bioticcitizens."
review) come to the conclusionthat
Environmental
Ethics
ethicsshouldbe dealtwith in a dynamicandpluralistic wayin orderto adequatelyaddressenvironmental (use-based), resulting fromthePinchot Somereferto Leopold's landethicas problems. legacyandtheirpredominant societal biocentric (biologicallycentered),as EvenLeopold's reveredlandethic roleasgrowers of treesforwoodprod- opposedto anthropocentric (human- mayneedto be dynamic.It is often ucts(Pinchot 1947). Pinchotechoed centered). by his moralmaxim,"A Because Leopoldprioritized summarized utilitarian philosopherBentham species andecosystems overindividual thingisrightwhenit tendsto preserve throughhis famouscall, in a letter animals orplants, ecocentric mightbea the integrity,stability,and beautyof datedFebruary1, 1905--the daythe betterterm;heemphasized ecological the biotic community.It is wrong forest reserves were transferred from relationships of bioticcomponents that when it tends otherwise." Recent sciInteriortoAgriculture--for the"great- providelandhealth,not equalityof entificemphasis onecosystem dynamestgoodforthegreatest numberin the otherspecies withhumans. icshascountered Leopold's notionsof long run." Pinchot'sconservation Many callfor implementing Leo- integrity andstability. Callicott(1999) ethic,thoughcriticized byproponents pold'slandethicthroughrecognizing therefore suggests an updated maxim of JohnMuir'spreservationist themes, the intrinsic value of nature: that na"Athingisrightwhenit tendsto diswasresponsible for protecting vast tureisgoodin andof itself,regardlessturbthebioticcommunity at normal tractsof land from exploitationby of its utilitarian value to humans. Strict spatial andtemporal scales. It iswrong lumber barons (Miller and Staebler interpretations of intrinsicvaluein na- when it tends otherwise." Callicott's 1999). turehavebeenmadebyphilosophers(1999,p. 136)example of anabnormal The broaderconceptof a "land PaulTaylor(1986) andHolmesRol- scaleis thepresent extinctionrate,the ethic"wasdefined byAldoLeopold in stonIII (1988).Rolstonalsoempha- first"geologically significant massextinctioneventin the 3.5 billionyear tenure of life on Planet Earth" to be
Like historical ethics
and professionalethics(andchess), environmental ethicsrequires adaptable,flexiblesystems.
caused bya biological agent--humans. YetLeopold wasawareof ecosystem disturbance dynamics. Lawprofessor Eric Freyfogle seesthe land ethicas merelya tool,theoneLeopold sawas mostunderutilized,to reachan overar-
chinggoalof landhealth(Ness1999) Leopold(1949,p. 221; 1999)defined landhealthasthe "land'scapacity for A SandCounty Almanac (1949).It be- sizesmultiplevaluesfoundin nature. self-renewal." This conceptrecently camea keytextforthe1960secology Philosopher MarkSagoff (1988)thor- providedthe conceptual foundation movement. A SandCountyAlmanac oughlycritiquesvaluationmethods for a ForestService agency-wide land was also the most cited book in three basedpurelyon economics. Philoso- ethic statement(USDA-FS 1994). annualJournalof Forestry readership phersJ. Baird Callicott(1989) and A contentious aspect of Leopold's polls,somuchsothateditorseventu- Sagoff(1996) acknowledge the diffi- land ethic resultsfrom one of his methallyrequested pollrespondents to omit cultyin findingintrinsic valuein na- odsof retaininglandhealth:keeping it sootherprominentauthorswould ture, sinceit is ultimatelya concept allthe"cogs andwheels," or bioticinemerge in thesurvey(Society ofAmer- constructed by humans.Yet Callicott tegrity. TheAmerican Instituteof Cerican Foresters1992). The land ethic stillthinksretaining a "truncated" no- tified Planners states in its code of has also been the focus of considerable tionof intrinsic valueisimportant. ethicsthat "a plannermuststriveto In recent times the theoretical dediscussion for inclusion in theSociety protecttheintegrity of thenaturalenof American Foresters' Code of Ethics
bate over intrinsic value has moved to
vironment" (Wachs 1985). Philoso-
(Smyth1995). thebackground anda morepragmatic pher LauraWestra(1994) promotes Hargrove(1989) thinksLeopold ethicalapproach hassurfaced in envi- the conceptof integrityin environ8
July2000
mental ethics.Yet the field of conserva-
of sciencerelatedto conservation,em-
canhelppreventundesirable consenonbiology hasdeveloped a strictdef- phasizing generalizing andsite-specificquencesof poor or hastydecisions (Pickett and andpromotehealthyworksettings. tnitionof bioticintegrity thatrequires concepts,respectively a full historical (pre-European) com- Ostfeld 1995; Shrader-Frechetteand Ethicalanalysis canbea positive, edualso cationalopportunity positionand structureof species McCoy 1993).Shrader-Frechette to criticallyex(Angermeier and Karr 1994). Deep stresses consideration of thevalidityof amineassumptions underlying pracecologist Bill Devall(1988)sees valu- publicvalues, despite theirsupposedlytice.Such"friendship withwisdom" nature,in environmental candevelop able,creative tension through tryingto "subjective" understanding andpride •mplement sucha strictdefinition. riskassessment andpolicy.Thiswas oftheforestry profession's unique role Thetermstewardship, oftenattrib- also a concernof Pinchot (2000). in Americansociety.
The term stewardshipimplies that naturerequires care by wiser humans.
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