Physical Activity and Exercise: Health Promotion and ...

Physical Activity and Exercise: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention

Edited by Pagiota (Nota) Klentrou

Athens Institute for Education and Research 2012


Edited by Panagiota (Nota) Klentrou

Athens Institute for Education and Research 2012

First Published in Athens, Greece by the Athens Institute for Education and Research. ISBN: 978-960-9549-62-2 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, retrieved system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the written permission of the publisher, otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover. Printed and bound in Athens, Greece by ATINER 8 Valaoritou Street, Kolonaki 10671 Athens, Greece www.atiner.gr ©Copyright 2012 by the Athens Institute for Education and Research. The individual essays remain the intellectual properties of the contributors.

Physical Activity and Exersice: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention

Economic Essays: An Introduction

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Table of Contents Physical Activity and Exercise: Health Promotion and Disease An Introduction Panagiota (Nota) Klentrou Part I: Health Promotion and Diesease Prevention A Profile of Women Aged between 25 and 65 Years, Consisting of their Status in Relation to Physical Activity, Overweight and Obesity, Smoking, and Knowledge and Perceptions of Cardiovascular Disease Ceinwen Beverley Sawyer Effect of Physical Activity on Emotions and Mood States of 50-65 Year Old Male and Female Participants Maria Konstantaki Environmental Sustainability: An Ethical Response to Teaching Sustainable Health and Wellness Srijana M. Bajracharya Environment Based Activity Adviser Yuzhong Lin, Bauke de Vries and Harry Timmermans Lose to Win: A School Employee Health Promotion Program Roberta Faust, Christine Karshin, Anna Michalakis, Jeffrey Schulz, Lydia Kret, Enos Massie and Ronald Gibbs Jr. Part II: Physical Activity, Fitness and Health during Chilhood and Adolescence The Effects of Physical Education on Aerobic Capacity and Body Composition of Sixth Grade Pupils Andy Mooneyhan and Lance G. Bryant FITNESSGRAM® Health-Related Physical Fitness in South African Children James R. Morrow Jr., Megan C. Self and Chris Erasmus Adolescent Obesity: Examining Students' Attitudes and Values toward Physical Activity Emilio Landolfi Internet Addiction and Chinese Adolescent Health Yi Lin Liu and Bill Altermatt Part III: Physical Activity and Fitness in College and University Effect of a 15-week Pilates Course on Fitness Components in University Students Kristine Noel Clark and Christopher Tad Clark The Gender Difference in Health Promotion among College Students Elizabeth S. Chong, Lorena Jung and Howard Lasus

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13. A Proposed College Undergraduate Strength and Conditioning Program Harry Theodorides 14. Secretory Immunity and Frequecy of Upper Respiratory Tract Infections in Relation to Salivary Cortisol and Physical Activity in University Students Panagiota Klentrou, Andreas D. Flouris, Jeffrey R. Aird and Thomas Cieslak Part IV: Exercise and Nutrition 15. Dietary Fiber Intake And Breast Cancer Risk Among the Romanian Females – Case-Control Study Bogdana Nasui, Daniela Curseu, Nina Ciuciuc, Monica Popa and Carmen Ionut 16. Effect of two Types of Vitamin C Supplementation on Exerciseinduced Lipid Peroxidation and Muscle Damage Babak Nakhostin-Roohi, Farhad Rahmani-Nia, Parvin Babaei and Shahb Bohlooli Part V: Exercise and Sport Bioscience 17. Close Relationship between Bone Strength and Mass in Jumping Exercised Rats Foong-Kiew Ooi, Rabindarjeet Singh, Harbindar Jeet Singh and Yoshihisa Umemura 18. Changes in Force at the Front and Rear Blocks during the Sprint Start Stephen Cousins 19. The Effect of Foot Placement on Height of Vertical Jump Azadeh Doroodgar, Khalil Khayambashi and Vahid Zolaktaf

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Economic Essays: An Introduction

List of Contributors Jeffrey R. Aird, Brock University, Canada Bill Altermatt, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Hanover College, USA Parvin Babaei, Physiology Department of Guilan Medical University. Iran Srijana M. Bajracharya, Associate Professor, Ithaca College, Ithaca, USA Shahb Bohlooli, Ardebil University of Medical Sciences, Iran Lance G. Bryant, Assistant Professor, Arkansas State University, USA Elizabeth S. Chong, Associate Professor, College of Health and Human Services, George Mason University Thomas Cieslak, Brock University, Canada Nina Ciuciuc, Departament of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Kristine Noel Clark, Lecturer, North Carolina State University, USA Christopher Tad Clark, MEd Candidate in Community Counseling, North Carolina State University Stephen Cousins, Graduate Teaching Assistant, University of East London, UK Daniela Curseu, Departament of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Azadeh Doroodgar, Instructor, Islamic Azad university Mobarakeh branch, Isfahan, Iran Chris Erasmus, Community College, Centurion, South Africa Roberta Faust, Professor of Physical Education, Eastern Michigan University, USA Andreas D. Flouris, Brock University, Canada Ronald Gibbs Jr., Health Education Research Assistant, Eastern Michigan University, USA Carmen Ionut, Departament of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lorena Jung, Doctoral Student Christine Karshin, Interim Director, School of Health Promotion and Human Performance, Eastern Michigan University, USA Khalil Khayambashi, Associate Professor, University of Isfahan, Iran Panagiota (Nota) Klentrou, Professor and Associate Dean, Brock University Wollongong, Canada Maria Konstantaki, Senior Lecturer in Sports Science, School of Sport, Leisure and Travel, Faculty of Design, Media and Management, Buckinghamshire New University, UK Lydia Kret, Interim Director, Dietetics and Human Nutrition, Eastern Michigan University, USA Emilio Landolfi, Professor, University of the Fraser Valley, Canada Howard Lasus, Yuzhong Lin, PhD Candidate, Department of Architecture, Building and Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands

Yi Lin Liu, Assistant Professor of Health and Fitness, Hanover College, USA Enos Massie, Professor of Social Work, Eastern Michigan University, USA Anna Michalakis, Health Education Research Assistant, Eastern Michigan University, USA Andy Mooneyhan, Assistant Professor, Arkansas State University, USA James R. Morrow Jr., Regents Professor, University of North Texas, USA Bogdana Nasui, Assistant Professor, Departament of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Babak Nakhostin-Roohi, Islamic Azad University, Ardebil Branch, Iran Foong-Kiew Ooi, Sports Science Unit, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Monica Popa, Departament of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Farhad Rahmani-Nia, Exercise Physiology Department of Guilan University, Iran Ceinwen Beverley Sawyer, Senior Lecturer, Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, Wales, UK Jeffrey Schulz, Professor of Health Education, Eastern Michigan University, USA Megan C. Self, University of North Texas, USA Harbindar Jeet Singh, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Technologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Rabindarjeet Singh, Advance Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Harry Theodorides, Assistant Professor, Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, California State University, USA Harry Timmermans, Professor, Department of Architecture, Building and Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands Yoshihisa Umemura, School of Health and Sports Science, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan Bauke de Vries, Professor, Department of Architecture, Building and Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands Vahid Zolaktaf, Associate Professor, University of Isfahan, Iran

Close Relationship between Bone Strength and Mass in Jumping Exercised Rats

Chapter 17 Close Relationship between Bone Strength and Mass in Jumping Exercised Rats Foong-Kiew Ooi, Sports Science Unit and Advance Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Rabindarjeet Singh, Advance Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Harbindar Jeet Singh, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Technologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia Yoshihisa Umemura, School of Health and Sports Science, Chukyo University, Japan The recognition of osteoporosis as a major health problem among the growing number of elderly people around the world has resulted in widespread efforts to determine the etiology of the disease and how it might be delayed or prevented. One strategy is to increase bone mass during the formative years of life and then subsequently either try to maintain the gain or reduce the rate of bone loss, which could be achieved through adequate nutritional intake and regular weight bearing exercises. Physical activity during the growing period in children and adolescents enhances bone health (Slemenda et al., 1991; Boot et al., 1997; MacKelvie et al., 2001), and exercise during this growth period leads to long lasting adaptations in bone geometry and architecture (Kontulainen et al., 1999). Gravitational and/or mechanical loading of the skeleton is a prerequisite for developing and maintaining bone mass and strength (Dalsky, 1987; Riggs and Melton, 1992; Kanis, 1996; Sinaki, 1996). In the absence of weight bearing physical activity or other forms of mechanical stress on the skeleton, there occurs a rapid decrease in bone mineral density and strength (Dalsky, 1987; Drinkwater, 1994; Miller, 2000). Among all types of weight-bearing exercises, high impact jumping exercises, which create high rate of dynamic loading and high peak strains on skeleton are believed to be extremely effective in stimulating osteogenesis in young rats, as well as in young and aged ovariectomised rats (Umemura et al. 1995, Honda et al., 2001; Honda et al, 2003). Compared to other forms of exercises, the advantage of jumping exercise is that it only requires a short training period daily to induce significant bone benefits in animals. Although 157


several animal exercise studies had reported improvements both in the morphometry and functional properties of bone (Holy and Zerath, 2000; Notomi et al., 2000; Huang et al. 2003; Joo et al. 2003), none, however, have studied the relationship between the various morphometry and functional properties of bone following jumping exercise. This is important to see if changes in any one parameter are related to similar changes in other parameters and if measurement of just one of any of these parameters is adequate to provide information on bone strength or other properties. Additionally, information on which is a better predictor for bone strength among bone mass and morphometry properties is lacking in the exercise and bone health research. The present study was therefore carried out to investigate the effects of 32 weeks of long term jumping exercise on bone in young female rats, and subsequently to determine the relationships between bone strength, mass and morphology in rats following 32 weeks of jumping exercise, and to determine the best predictor of bone strength among all the measured parameters. It is generally accepted that the impact of jumping exercise on bone is similar in mammalian quadrupeds and bipeds. It is hoped that results obtained from this study can then be extrapolated to humans to develop age-specific exercise programmes, by formulating guidelines for the maintenance of bone health. This will be useful in planning exercise related bone health promotion programmes.

Material and Methods Animal Grouping and Exercise Regimen Twenty, 12-week old Wistar-Kyoto female rats were divided into a sedentary control group (n=10) and an exercised group (n=10), where the sedentary control group (C) was given no exercise for 32 weeks, and the exercised group (Ex) performed 32 weeks of jumping exercise, which consisted of 40 jumps.day-1 for 5 days.week-1 at a jumping height of 40cm. All the animals were housed in cages (55cm x 33 cm x 19cm) with five animals per cage. They were exposed to a constant 12:12 light/dark cycle and had ad libitum access to water and chow (Gold Coin, Port Klang, Malaysia) throughout the study. The rats were sacrificed at the end of the thirty-second week. On the day of sacrifice, the rats were weighed (Ohaus NavigatorTM Balance, U.S.A.) to obtain the final body weight before being lightly anaesthetised with diethyl ether for decapitation using an animal guillotine (Scientific Research Instrument, U.K.). Bone harvesting was then carried out for subsequent analysis. The study and experimental protocol was approved by the Animal Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia. Jump Training The intensity and frequency of the exercise consisted of 40 jumps.day-1, 5 days. week-1 for 32 weeks, using a previously described protocol (Umemura et 158

Close Relationship between Bone Strength and Mass in Jumping Exercised Rats

al., 1995; Umemura et al., 1997; Ooi et al., 2009). Briefly, each rat in the jumping exercise group was placed at the bottom of a specially designed wooden box, measuring 30.5 cm x 30.5 cm and 40 cm in length, width and height respectively. The jumping exercise was initiated by applying an electrical current to the wired floor (electrical grid) of the box through a stimulator. When stimulated, each rat jumped from the floor of the box to catch the top edge of the box with its forepaws. The rat was then immediately returned to the floor of the box to repeat the procedure. The time required per jump was about 4 seconds. After a few days of training, the rats jumped without electrical stimulation. Rats in the sedentary groups were not given any electrical stimulus but to mimic the stress induced by handling, before and after jumping exercise, the sedentary rats were also handled for 5 days. week -1. Measurements of Bone Diaphysis Maximum Diameter Immediately after the rats were sacrificed, the tibias and fibulas were dissected from the right hind limbs. After careful removal of the soft tissue, the length and maximum diameter of the tibia were measured with a digital sliding caliper (ASM, Series 600. Germany). The tibial length was measured from the top of the tibial head (medial condyle) to the distal point of the tibia (medial malleolus) using a digital sliding caliper (A.S.M., Germany). At the mid-point of the tibial length, tibial maximum diameter to the nearest 0.01 mm was then measured. The tibial maximum diameter was measured from the anterior to the posterior region of the bone. The bones (tibias and fibulas) were then wrapped in saline-soaked gauze pads, to prevent dehydration, and put into labeled plastic bags and stored at -80o C (Heto Ultra Freezer 3410, Denmark) for the measurement of mechanical property and morphological characteristics at a later date. This method of storing has been shown not to affect the bone’s biomechanical properties (Joo et al., 2003). Measurement of Bone Mechanical Property On the day of mechanical testing, the stored tibias were thawed for approximately 1 hour at room temperature, and then soaked in 0.9% saline as described earlier (Bennell et al., 2000). The tibias were then wiped dried and each tibia was loaded onto an electromechanical testing system (Bone Strength Tester; TK-252C; Muromachi Kikai Co. Ltd, Japan), and subjected to a threepoint bending until fracture for the determination of bone ultimate bending force as described previously (Umemura et al., 1995; Umemura et al., 1997). The distance between the two bottom supports of the tester was set 16 mm apart, and the cross-head speed was set at 10 mm. min-1. After positioning each bone on the support, a force was applied to the tibial mid shaft from lateral to the medial surface. The ultimate bending force was then obtained from the load-deformation curves that were continuously recorded by a computer linked to the load tester.

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Bone Mass and Morphometric Properties Measurements After the estimation of mechanical properties, the broken tibias together with the fibulas were then immersed in chloroform: methanol solvent (2:1 by volume respectively) for one week to remove the fat from the bones (Umemura et al., 1995; Umemura et al., 1997). Following which, the bones were removed from the solvent and were then oven dried at 80 oC for 24 hours (Isuzu Model 2-2020, Isuzu Seisakusho Co., Ltd., Japan). After drying, the fat free dry weight to the nearest 0.01 mg was determined on an electronic balance (ER180A, A&D Company, Japan). For mid shaft cross-sectional morphometry measurements, the broken tibias were then bonded at the site of breakage with bonding glue, and were then embedded in synthetic resins (Rigolac 2004, Promoter E and Permeck N hardeners, Okenshoji Inc., Tokyo, Japan) by submersion at room temperature for 1 week. The mid shaft cross-section of each tibia in the resin-filled tube was then cut about 1 mm distal to the site of the fracture using an electrical rotary saw (Maruto, Japan) for obtaining a 1 mm thick bone segment. The bone segments were then magnified 50 times on a microscope projector (Nikon Profile Projector, V12, Japan) and the bone images were traced. A digitising pad (MyPad-A3 Logitec Digitiser, Model K510mk2, Japan) connected to a computer was then used to measure the tibial mid shaft cross-sectional periosteal and endosteal perimeters, cortical and medullary areas using a previously installed software [NECN-88 Basic (86) Version 6.0]. These were made by tracking a digitising pen over the magnified bone tracings of the outer and inner bone perimeters. Statistical Analysis All data are reported as mean  standard deviation (SD). Independent ‘t’ test was performed to determine the significance of the differences between groups. Pearson correlation coefficient was performed to explore the relationship between the various measured parameters. A p 0.05

r =0.996 p < 0.001

r = 0.510 p > 0.05

r =0.907 p < 0.001

r = 0.120 p > 0.05

r=1

r = 0.154 p > 0.05

r = 0.825 p < 0.01

r =0.472 p > 0.05

r =0.996 p < 0.001

r =0.154 p > 0.05

Maximum r = 0.741 diameter p < 0.05 Periosteal r = 0.720 perimeter p < 0.05 Endosteal r = 0.516 perimeter p > 0.05 Cortical area

r = 0.549 p > 0.05

Medullary r = 0.513 area p > 0.05

r =0.779 p < 0.01 r =0.668 p < 0.05 r =0.523 p > 0.05 r =0.660 p < 0.05

r =0.456 r =0.907 p > 0.05 p 0.05

r=1

Discussion The findings of the present study confirm the beneficial effects of a long term jumping exercise on bone. It was found that tibial diaphysis maximum diameter, ultimate bending load, fat free dry weight, cortical area and periosteal perimeter were significantly (p