Phytoremediation in Thailand

Phytoremediation in Thailand: A Summary of Selected Research and Case Histories*

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E. Suchart Upatham, Maleeya Kruatrachue, Prayad Pokethitiyook, Thanawan Panich-Pat, and Guy R. Lanza

24.1

Historical Overview

24.1.1 Collaborative Research on Inorganic Contaminants Research on the potential use of phytoremediation to remediate or to repair damaged habitat in Thailand and the surrounding region began in 1999. The initial research projects were planned as a collaborative effort between the Department of Biology at Mahidol University in Bangkok and the Environmental Science Program at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Collaborating faculty at the partner institutions recognized the many advantages to developing phytoremediation applications in tropical and semitropical ecosystems because of their high diversity of plant species and a favorable growing climate. Funding for the new program came from the Royal Golden Jubilee Scholarship Program of the Thailand Research Fund and the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management. We dedicate this chapter to Alice and Larry Shepard (Rhode Island) to honor their generous support for global environmental research and education.

*

E.S. Upatham Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Bang Saen, Thailand M. Kruatrachue Faculty of Science, Mahidol University International College, Bangkok, Thailand P. Pokethitiyook Department of Biology, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand T. Panich-Pat Department of Biology, Kasetsart University, Nakorn Prathom, Thailand G.R. Lanza, Ph.D. (*) Aquatic Ecology and Microbiology, Department of Environmental and Forest Biology, SUNY - College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA e-mail: [email protected]

The initial goals of the research program focused on studying inorganic contaminants and plants with the potential to remediate or partially remediate damaged habitat by extracting metal and metalloid contaminants from soil, water, and sediments. Collaborative phytoextraction studies done by Thai scientists in the USA used plant species found in both Thailand and the USA.

24.1.2 Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization Because metal contaminants do not biodegrade, the basic strategy was to use native plants or plant communities to gradually phytoextract or phytostabilize contaminants by successive uptake and plant harvesting. The approach offered a relatively low-cost solar-driven biotechnology that provided the removal of contaminants with minimum disruption to the habitat under remediation. An ideal plant for metal phytoextraction or phytostabilization has to be tolerant to high levels of the metal and must accumulate high metal concentrations in its harvestable parts. Additional favorable traits are fast growth, easy propagation, and a profuse root system (Garbisu and Alkorta 2001; Vassilev et al. 2002). The phytoremediation of soils and sediments contaminated with heavy metals/metalloids basically includes: (1) phytoextraction, which uses metal-accumulating plants to extract metals from soils and concentrate them in the harvestable parts, and (2) phytostabilization, which uses metal-/ metalloid-tolerant plants to reduce the mobility of metals/ metalloids by accumulating them in their roots, adsorbing them on root surface, and decreasing mobility through changes in soil chemistry, thereby reducing risks of further environmental degradation by leaching metals/metalloids into groundwater (Salt et al. 1995; Vangronsveld et al. 1995; Dahmani-Müller et al. 2000). Phytoextraction is a long-term remediation effort, requiring many cycles to reduce metal concentrations to acceptable levels, and the approach is far from being considered a mature technology (Luca et al. 2007). Most of data published

A.A. Ansari et al. (eds.), Phytoremediation: Management of Environmental Contaminants, Volume 1, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10395-2_24, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

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have been extrapolated from experiments performed under conditions that are not adequate to give results applicable for the future cleanup of contaminated areas (Baker and Whiting 2002; McGrath et al. 2006; Luca et al. 2007). The potential to use phytoextraction and/or phytostabilization as a cleanup technology could be of particular value in mining areas where the soils are heavily contaminated with metals. The normal phytoremediation practice is to choose metal-tolerant, fast-growing plants with high biomass that can grow in metal-contaminated and nutrient-deficient soils. The establishment of a permanent cover of vegetation can fulfill the objectives of stabilization, pollution control, visual improvement, and removal of threats to humans (Wong 2003). The use of metal-tolerant plants in revegetation is not a new concept and was investigated in the 1960s in field trials (Tordoff et al. 2000). Plant species that may be considered suitable for revegetation on mine tailings should have evolved biological mechanisms to resist, tolerate, or thrive on the toxic metalliferous substrates (Whiting et al. 2004). These evolved species could be an ideal choice as pioneer species to remediate damaged habitat. Grasses and legumes are the favorable option because of their adaptation to deficiency of nutrients and fast-growing traits (Li 2006). In recent years Pb hyperaccumulators (Pb in shoot biomass >1,000 mg kg/1) have been identified. These plants are usually derived from Pb-contaminated areas and have the ability to tolerate high concentrations of Pb in the soil where they are grown. Many of these plants belong to the following families: Brassicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Scrophulariaceae (Kucharski et al. 2001). There are seven recognized plant species that are considered to be hyperaccumulators of Pb: Armeria maritima, Thlaspi rotundifolium, T. alpestre, Alyssum wulfenianum, Polycarpaea synandra (Piechalak et al. 2002), Hemidesmus indicus (Sekhar et al. 2005), and Sesbania drummondii (Barlow et al. 2000; Sahi et al. 2002).

24.2

Selected Examples of Phytoremediation Research

24.2.1 Phytoextraction of Inorganics from Water Table 24.1 summarizes selected initial studies of the removal by biosorption or phytoextraction of heavy metal contaminants from natural or synthetic water. The use of the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes for the phytoremediation of nutrients and heavy metal contaminants in various aquatic systems has become widespread in Thailand. Reoxygenation of water is an additional benefit of using Eichhornia sp. in phytoremediation applications. The potential utility of the water hyacinth for nutrient removal and biomass production, based on the continuous harvest at the maximum sustainable yield (MSY), was modeled using the Tha Chin River, a tribu-

tary of the Chao Phraya River (Mahujchariyawong and Ikeda 2001). Results indicated that nitrogen and phosphorus were reduced by maintaining maximum removal rates of 0.42 and 0.09 for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. Other phytoremediation research in Thailand focused on the sorption of metal contaminants from water using native species of bacteria and plants. Research indicated that most standard biological treatment processes for removing heavy metals from wastewater were maximized when contaminant concentrations were relatively high, i.e., above 100 mg/l. Applying live or dead cells of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis to phytoremediate Cd-contaminated water using the process of biosorption can play an important role in the treatment of wastewater with Cd concentrations below 100 mg/l (Rangsayatorn et al. 2002; Rangsayatorn et al. 2004). S. platensis removed up to 98 mg/l Cd from water in laboratory microcosms and between 36 and 71 mg Cd/g/cells immobilized in either silicate or alginate gels. Phytoextraction of Cd by 13 species of aquatic plants was studied in synthetic water lab microcosms amended with 0.1, 1.0, and 10 mg Cd/l (Bunluesin et al. 2004). Depending on species, total Cd was removed in a range of 23–7,942 mg/l. Lead removal from water with concentrations of 0.1, 1.0, and 10 mg/l in lab microcosms using the aquatic macrophytes Ceratophyllum demersum, Hygrophila difformis, Cabomba caroliniana, and Ludwigia hyssopifolia has been reported (Yaowakhan et al. 2005). They noted that 80–100 % Pb was removed. The interaction of metal/metalloid contaminants can influence uptake and sorption in aquatic systems. Information about the interaction of Cd and Zn as they affect phytoextraction by C. demersum in the presence of humic substances was studied (Bunluesin et al. 2007). In general, Cd decreased Zn accumulation in C. demersum except at the lowest concentration of Zn in which the Zn accumulation was similar to that without Cd. C. demersum could accumulate high concentrations of both Cd and Zn. Humic acid had a significant effect on total Zn accumulation in plants, and 2 mg/l of humic acid reduced total Zn accumulation at 1 mg/l levels in water from 2,167 to 803 mg/kg. Cd uptake by plant tissue and toxicity symptoms and accumulation at 0.25 and 0.5 mg/1 were reduced from 515 to 154 mg kg/1 and from 816 to 305 mg kg/1, respectively, by the addition of 2 mg/1 of humic acid. The hydroponic removal of Pb, Cd, and Zn using phytoextraction by Chromolaena odorata was studied in lab microcosms using synthetic water (Tanhan et al. 2007). Plants were collected from a field site at the Bo Ngam (Pb) lead mine site in Kanchanaburi Province in Thailand and exposed to Pb concentrations of 0.25 and 0.50 mg/l and Zn concentrations of 10 and 20 mg/l. Results indicated that bioconcentration factors (BCF) in the range of 2,131–6,362 Pb and 2,673–3,705 Cd were achieved. Another hydroponic study using Sonchus arvensis from the Bo Ngam lead mine site examined Pb extraction from water with concentrations

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Phytoremediation in Thailand: A Summary of Selected Research and Case Histories Table 24.1 Summary of selected studies of the phytoremediation of inorganic contaminants from water Plant species Eichhornia crassipes

Spirulina platensis

Pistia stratiotes Colocasia esculenta Lemna minor Azolla pinnata Ceratophyllum demersum Neptunia oleracea Typha angustifolia Hydrophila verticillata Hygrophila difformis Ipomoea aquatic Cyperus strigosus Trapa bispinosa Pandanus amaryllifolius Ceratophyllum demersum Hygrophila difformis Cabomba caroliniana Ludwigia hyssopifolia Ceratophyllum demersum

Chromolaena odoratum

Sonchus arvensis

Buddleja asiatica

Buddleja paniculata

Pteris vittata Pityrogramma calomelanos Nephrolepsis exaltata cv. Gracillimum N. exaltata cv. Smirha Synthetic water Immobilized cells c Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) d Translocation Factor (TF) e Bioaccumulation Coefficient (BC) a

b

Total contaminants removeda N and P reduced by maintaining maximum removal rates of 0.42.N and 0.09 P in a river water model Mahujchariyawong and Ikeda (2001) 98 mg Cd/g cells 36–71 mg Cd/g/cellsb Rangsayatorn et al. (2002; 2004) 23–7,942 mg Cd/1 from 0.1 to 10 mg/1 water by different species Bunluesin et al. (2004)

80–100 % Pb from water with Pb at 0.1–10 mg/1 water Yaowakhan et al. (2005)

92-587mg/kg dw Cd from water with 0.5–5.0 mg/l Zn and 0.05–0.25 Cd 464–765 mg/kg dw Zn from water with 0.05–0.25 mg/l Cd and 0.5–5.0 Zn Bunluesin et al. (2007) BCFc of 2,131–6,362 Pb, 2,673–3,705 Cd, 341–839 Zn from water Tanhan et al. (2007) 849 mg/kg Pb from water with 5 mg/kg Pb TFd Pb 0.24 BCe Pb 170.8 Surat et al. (2008) TF Pb 0.04 BC 1,308 TF Cd 0.02 BC 1,420 TF Zn 0.06 BC 193 TF Pb 0.01 BC 1,221 TF Cd 0.02 BC 1,253 TF Zn 0.05 BC 271 All plants in water for 15 days with Pb at 10–20 mg/l; Cd at 0.25–0.50; mg/1; Zn at 10–20 mg/1 Waranusantigul et al. (2008) TF 0.03 BCF 478–773 TF 0.03–0.04 BCF 728–773 TF 0.03–0.04 BCF 308–405 TF 0.04 BCF 205–243 All ferns in water for 15 days with 10–20 mg/1 Pb Soongsombat et al. (2009)

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in the range of 5–20 mg/l (Surat et al. 2008). Results indicated that S. arvensis could remove up to 849 mg/kg Pb from water with 5 mg/kg and had a transformation factor (TF) of 0.24 and a bioaccumulation coefficient (BC) of 170.8. The phytoextraction potential of Buddleja asiatica and B. paniculata to remove Pb, Zn, and Cd from synthetic water was also investigated in laboratory hydroponic studies (Waranusantigul et al. 2008). Both species of Buddleja were collected from the Bo Ngam Pb mine site, and results indicated that B. asiatica had maximum TF values of 0.04, 0.02, and 0.06 for Pb, Cd, and Zn, respectively. Maximum BC values for B. asiatica were 1,308, 1,420, and 193 for Pb, Cd, and Zn, respectively. Maximum TF values noted for B. paniculata were 0.01, 0.02, and 0.05, respectively, and maximum BC values were 1,221, 1,253, and 271 for Pb, Cd, and Zn, respectively. Lead tolerance and hydroponic accumulation in the ferns Pteris vittata, Pityrogramma calomelanos, and Nephrolepis exaltata cv. gracillimum collected from the Bo Ngam lead mine site were studied with a view toward potential Pb phytoremediation applications. The ferns tested had TF values in the range of 0.3–0.4, and both P. vittata and P. calomelanos had bioconcentration factors (BCF) of 773 (Soongsombat et al. 2009).

24.2.2 Phytoextraction/Phytostabilization of Inorganics from Soils/Sediments Table 24.2 summarizes selected studies of the phytoextraction/phytostabilization of heavy metal/metalloid contaminants from soils and sediments. The data represent a diverse array of soil or sediment types with different chemical and physical characteristics studied in laboratories, greenhouses, and field sites including standardized potting soils, soils from field sites, and mining waste soils and sediments. In Thailand, vetiver grass is found widely distributed naturally in all parts of the country and has been used for erosion control and slope stabilization. The phytoremediation potential of Vetiveria zizanioides and V. nemoralis growing in field plots treated with Pb at concentrations of 5–11 g/l has been studied (Chantachon et al. 2003). Results indicated that phytoextraction coefficients (PC) fell in the desirable range of 0.5–10.0 with reported values of 2.7 and 1.3 in V. zizanioides and V. nemoralis, respectively. The phytoremediation potential of Chrysopogon nemoralis and Chrysopogon zizanioides to treat wastewaters with Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Pb contaminants from dairy, battery, ink, and electric bulb facilities was reported by Roongtanakiat (2009). They reported average TF values of 0.67 (Mn), 0.07 (Fe), 0.41 (Cu), 0.19 (Zn), and 0.07 (Pb). Studies using electron microscopic surveys (Panich-Pat et al. 2005) revealed that most of the Pb phytoextracted from soil by Typha angustifolia was in the root biomass with most

E.S. Upatham et al.

of the contaminant in the rhizome near the cell wall. Most Pb transported to the above ground biomass was deposited in the leaf chloroplasts. The interaction of Pb and Cd in greenhouse lab soil-water microcosms at contaminant concentrations of 1,666 mg/l Pb and 38.5 mg/l Cd was also examined (Panich-Pat et al. 2010). They reported total plant biomass accumulations of Pb and Cd as 14,675 and 390 mg/l, respectively. Several soil and/or sediment studies focused on the heavily contaminated Bo Ngam lead mine site in Kanchanaburi Province in Thailand. A survey of the uptake and accumulation of Pb contaminants by the plant community growing at the Bo Ngam Pb mine site identified 48 plant species in 14 families (Rotkittikhun et al. 2006). Microstegium ciliatum, Polygala umbonata, and Spermacoce mauritiana were noted as the most efficient phytoextractors in soil with Pb concentrations up to 164,333 mg/kg dw Pb. Other studies examined the extraction of Pb, Cd, and Zn by Chromolaena odorata from soils collected from different areas of the Bo Ngam Pb mine site (Tanhan et al. 2007). Values reported indicate that TFs were 1.69, 2.25, and 1.00 for Pb, Cd, and Zn, respectively, and BC values were 6,243, 3,705, and 787 for Pb, Cd, and Zn, respectively. The phytoextraction potential of Sonchus arvensis collected at the Bo Ngam lead mine site growing in pots with mine site soils amended with organic fertilizer and the chelator EDTA was also examined (Surat et al. 2008). They reported Pb TF and BC values of 2.19 and 2.38, respectively. The phytoremediation potential of Buddleja asiatica and B. paniculata using hydroponic and pot studies in laboratory and field studies was also estimated using materials from the Bo Ngam lead mine site. Plants were exposed to Pb concentrations up to 20 mg/l in water and 101,405 mg/kg dw in soils (Waranusantigul et al. 2008). Results indicated that Pb TF values of 1.1 and 0.9 were achieved in pot studies with B. asiatica and B. paniculata, respectively, and TF values up to 5.0 and 2.2 for B. asiatica and B. paniculata, respectively. Studies of Cr removal from tannery industry soils by six plant species considered to be weeds was examined to determine their potential applications in phytoremediation (Sampanpanish et al. 2006). Pluchea indica and Cynodon dactylon phytoextracted 152 mg/kg Cr from the soils used in pot studies. The effects of phosphorus fertilizer and rhizosphere microbe amendments on arsenic accumulation by the silverback fern, Pityrogramma calomelanos, were investigated in both greenhouse and field experiments (Jankong et al. 2007). Field experiments were conducted on site and in greenhouse experiments using contaminated soils from Ron Phibun District of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province in Thailand with As concentrations of 136–269 mg/kg. The results showed that phosphorus significantly increased plant biomass, rhizosphere microbes, and As accumulation in P. calomelanos. Phosphorus and rhizosphere bacteria enhanced As phytoextraction, while rhizofungi

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Phytoremediation in Thailand: A Summary of Selected Research and Case Histories

Table 24.2 Summary of selected studies of the phytoextraction/phytostablization of inorganic contaminants from soils/sediments Plant species Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiveria nemoralis Chrysopogon nemoralis Chrysopogon zizanioides

Typha angustifolia Microstegium cilatum Polygala umbonata Spermacoce mauritiana Chromolaena odorata

Sonchus avensis

Buddleja asiatica Buddleja paniculata B. asiatica B. paniculata Cynodon dactylon Pluchea indica Phyllanthus reticulatus Vetiveria nemoralis Amaranthus viridis Pityrogramma calomelanos

Pteris vittata Pityrogramma calomelanos Nephrolepsis exaltat cv. Gracillium

Contaminant removed PCa 2.7 PC 1.3 In soil plots treated with PB at 5-11g/l for 3 months Chantachon et al. (2003) TFb Mn 0.67 Fe 0.07 Cu 0.41 Zn 0.19 Pb 0.07 Average values Roongtanakiat (2009) Up to 14,675 mg/1Pb In soil-water lab microcosms with Pb at 1,666 mg/1 and Cd at 38.5 mg/1 Panich-pat et al. (2005; 2010) 12,200–28,370 mg/kg Pb in shoots of 3 species of 48 species examined from Bo Ngam Pb mine site Rotkittikhun et al. (2006) TF 1.69 Pb TF 2.25 Cd TF 1.00 Zn BCc 6,243 Pb BC 3.705 Cd BC 787 Zn In soils with 117,728 mg/kg dw Pb; 1.6 mg/kg 261 Mg/kg dw Zn Tanhan et al. (2007) TF Pb 2.19 BFd Pb 2.38 Studies in mine site soils amended with EDTA and organic fertilizer Surat et al. (2008) TF Pb 1.1 TF Pb 0.9 In pot studies with mine soils at Pb concentrations up to 89,084 mg/kw dw TF Pb 0–5.0 TF Pb 0–5.0 101,405 mg/kg dw In mine site soils with Pb concentrations up to 101,405 mg/kg dw Waranusantigul et al (2008) Total Cr accumulation of 152 mg/kg dw in Cynodon dactylon and Pluchea reticulatus Sampanpanish et al. (2006)

In pot studies with tannery site soils with 100 mg Cr (VI)/mg TF 7.6 in greenhouse TF 86.6 in field 8 weeks With P fertilizer inoculated with rhizosphere microbes TF 17.8 bacteria in greenhouse TF 14.9 fungi in greenhouse TF 59.0 bacteria in field Tf 70.4 fungi in field Jankong et al. (2007) TF 0.29–0.86 BCFe 0.17–2.83 TF 0.09–0.26 BCF 0.12–1.40 TF 0.10–0.72 BCF 0.12–0.44 In pot studies with soil with various Pb Concentrations in the range of 52–103,065 mg/kg Soongsombat et al. (2009) (continued)

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Table 24.2 (continued) Plant species Pteris vittata Pityrogramma calomelanos

Chromolaena odoratum Gynura pseudochina Justicia procumbens Impatien violaeflora

Leucaena leucocephala Acacia mangium Peltophorum pterocarpum Pterocarpus macrocarpus Lagerstroemia floribunda Eucalyptus camaldulensis Thysanolaena maxima Vetiveriia zizanioides

T. maxima V. zizanioides

Contaminant removed TF 0.12–0.52 BCF 0.20–0.88 TF 0.06–0.28 BCF 0.07–0.31 Studies at the Bo Ngam mine site with soil concentrations in the range of 269–97,995 mg/kg Soongsombat et al. (2009) TF 1.5 BAFc 1.33 ECf 0.13 TF 6.00 BAF 20.48 EC 2.48 TF 1.04 BAF 3.15 EC 0.71 TF 1.15 BAF 1.29 EC 0.61 Cd removal from studies at the Padaeng Zn mine site with soil and sediment concentrations of Cd in the range of 596–1,458 and Zn in the range of 2,733–57,012 mg/k Phaenark et al. (2009) TF ranged between 0.00 and 1.09 ECRg ranged between 0.00 and 0.44 Pb uptake in field studies ranged between 0.00 and 812 ug/plant. A. mangium plus organic fertilizer was the best option for phytostabilization of Pb-contaminated mine tailing. Meeinkuirt et al. (2012) TF 0.79 BCFRh 8.30 TR 0.45 BCFR 6.46 Pot studies for 3 months with Pb mine tailings up To 15,597 mg/kg and various fertilizer amendments Meeinkuirt et al. (2013) TF 0.88 BCRF 23.80 TF 23.40 BCFR 11/15 In field studies for 12 months with Pb mine tailings Up to 19,234 mg/kg and various fertilizers amendments Meeinkuirt et al. (2013)

Phytoextration Coefficient (PC1) Translocation Factor (TF) c Bioaccumulation Coefficient (BC) d Bioaccumulatation Factor (BF or BAF) e Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) f Extraction Coefficient (EC) g Enrichment Coefficient of Roots (ECR) h Bioconcentrations Factor For Root (BCFR) a

b

significantly reduced total As concentration in plants but increased plant biomass providing soil phytostabilization. Lead tolerance and accumulation in the ferns Pteris vittata and Pityrogramma calomelanos were studied to estimate the potential for the phytoremediation of Pb-contaminated soils (Soongsombat et al. 2009). Plants were exposed to Pb concentrations in the range of 50–103,065 mg/kg in soil at the Bo Ngam lead mine site and in laboratory pot studies. In the pot studies, P. vittata achieved a range of Pb TF values of 0.29–0.86 and BCF values of 0.17–2.83, P. calomelanos achieved a range of TF values of 0.09–0.26 and BCF values in the range of 0.12–0.44, and N.

exaltata cv. gracillimum achieved values of 0.10–0.72 and BCF values of 0.12–0.44. Additional studies done at the Bo Ngam lead mine site with P. vittata and P. calomelanos produced TF and BCF values in the range of 0.12–0.52 and 0.20–0.88, respectively, for P. vittata and 0.06–0.28 and 0.07–0.31 for P. calomelanos, respectively. Significant Cd contamination in soil and rice was reported in 2003 in Mae Sot, Tak Province, Thailand, where rice-based agricultural systems were established in the vicinity of the Padaeng Zn mine. The prolonged consumption of Cd-contaminated rice poses risks to public health, and the health impacts of Cd-exposed populations in Mae Sot have

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Phytoremediation in Thailand: A Summary of Selected Research and Case Histories

been demonstrated. The Thai government has prohibited rice cultivation in the area as an effort to prevent further exposure. To identify potential plants for phytoremediation, sampling sites at the Zn mine were selected to collect plant and soil samples. Total Cd and Zn concentrations in sediments or soils were approximately 596 and 20,673 mg/kg, respectively, in tailing pond area, 543 and 20,272 mg/kg in an open pit area, and 894 and 31,319 mg kg/kg in a stockpile area. Cadmium and Zn levels of 1,458 and 57,012 mg/kg, respectively, were noted in a forest area and 64 and 2,733 mg kg/l, respectively, in a Cd- and Zn-contaminated rice field. Samples of 36 plant species representing 16 families were collected at the study site along with soils and were analyzed in the laboratory (Phaenark et al. 2009). Four species (Chromolaena odorata, Gynura pseudochina, Impatiens violaeflora, and Justicia procumbens) could be considered as Cd hyperaccumulators since their shoot Cd concentrations exceeded 100 mg Cd kg/1 dry mass and they showed a translocation factor >1. Only Justicia procumbens could be considered as a Zn hyperaccumulator with a Zn concentration in its shoot of more than 10,000 mg Zn kg/1 dry mass with a translocation factor >1. The Pb phytostabilization potential of six tree species (Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia mangium, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Lagerstroemia floribunda, Eucalyptus camaldulensis) was examined at the KEMCO Pb mine in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand (Meeinkuirt et al. 2012). The studies included a pot experiment for 3 months and a field trial experiment for 12 months using soil with a Pb concentration greater than 9,850 mg/kg. In the pot study, E. camaldulensis treated with Osmocote fertilizer attained the highest total biomass (15.3 g plant/l) followed by P. pterocarpum (12.6 g plant/1) and A. mangium (10.8 g plant/1), both treated with cow manure. Cow manure application resulted in the highest root Pb accumulation (>10,000 mg kg/1) in L. floribunda and P. macrocarpus. These two species also exhibited the highest Pb uptake (85– 88 mg plant−1). Results from field trials also showed that Osmocote promoted the best growth performance in E. camaldulensis (biomass 385.7 g plant/1, height 141.7 cm) followed by A. mangium (biomass 215.9 g plant/1, height 102.7 cm). Total Pb accumulation in plants was 600 and 812 ug/plant in E. camaldulensis and A. mangium, respectively. A. mangium with the addition of organic fertilizer was the best option for the phytostabilization of Pb-contaminated mine soils and sediments. Additional research (Meeinkuirt et al. 2013) using pot studies of Thysanolaena maxima and Vetiveria zizanioides growing in Pb mine tailings as high as 15,597 mg/kg and various fertilizer amendments showed TF and BCFR values up to 0.79 and 8.30, respectively, in T. maxima and TF and BCFR values up to 0.45 and 6.46, respectively, in V. zizanioides. Field studies lasting up to 12

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months in Pb mine tailings up to concentrations of 19,234 mg/ kg with various fertilizer amendments from the same site showed TF and BCFR values of 0.88 and 23.80, respectively, for T. maxima and TF and BCFR values up to 23.40 and 6.46, respectively, for V. zizanioides.

24.2.3 Selected Studies of the Phytoextraction/Conversion of Organic Contaminants Table 24.3 summarizes selected studies of the phytoremediation of organic contaminants from soils, sediments, and water. Organic chemicals as soil and sediment contaminants have received increased interest by researchers in Thailand in recent years. Phytoremediation approaches to remediate or restore industrial and agricultural sites contaminated with xenobiotic compounds have been studied by universities, private companies, and research institutes. Early research on the phytoremediation of organic contaminants in Thailand noted that vetiver hedges can play an important role in the processes of captivity and decontamination of pesticides, preventing them from contaminating and accumulating in crops (Pinthong et al. 1998). Another study described the potential to use either individual agricultural plants (Zea sp., Cucumis sp., and Psophocarpus sp.) or mixtures of the plants to remove polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil (Somtrakoon et al. 2014). Results indicated that the most effective plant community to remove anthracene and fluorine contaminants at concentrations of 138.9 and 95.9 mg/kg was a mixture of Zea sp. and Psophocarpus sp. The use of nanotechnology coupled with phytotechnology to treat soils contaminated with 100 mg/kg trinitrotoluene (TNT) was the subject of a recent research project (Jiamjitrpanich et al. 2012). The investigators used pot studies to examine the potential of combining phytoremediation and nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) for the removal of TNT from contaminated soil. Panicum maximum was chosen and used as a hyperaccumulator plant for this study. The results indicated that nano-phytoremediation was more effective than either nano-remediation or phytoremediation alone as a method for the degradation and removal of TNTcontaminated soil. Overall, the highest removal efficiency of nano-phytoremediation (100 %) was found in soil with the TNT/nZVI ratio of 1/10 (100 mg/kg initial TNT concentration). Pot studies were also used to estimate the removal potential of trichloroethylene (TCE) from contaminated soils by several ecotypes of Vetiveria zizanioides (Janngam et al. 2010). Two ecotypes (Sri Lanka and Songkhla) were seen to remove more than 98 % TCE in 1 month, and the Sri Lanka

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340 Table 24.3 Summary of selected studies of the phytoremediation of organic contaminants from soils/sediments/water Plant species Zea sp. Cucumis sp. Psophocarpus sp. Panicum maximum

Vetiveria zizanioides Ecotype Sri Lanka Ecotype Songkhla

Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiveria zizanioides Vetiveria zizanioides with fertilizer and Pseudomonas putida Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Contaminant removed 86–97 % reduction Pot studies with mixtures of 138.9 and 95.9 mg/kg anthracene and fluorine respectively for 1 month Somtrakoon et al. (2014) 100 % reduction Pot studies with 100 mg/kg Trinitrotoluene (TNT) and nanoscale zero valence Fe for 2 months Jiamjitrpanich et al. (2012) 98.39 % reduction TFa 2.32 TF 1.36 Pot studies with 549 mg/kg Trichloroethylene (TCE) for 1 month Janngam et al. (2010) 94 % degradation efficiency 91 % degradation efficiency Pot studies with 10,000 mg/kg diesel and 10,000 mg/kg lube oil mixture for 4 months Subba et al. (2012) 99 % reduction COD (from 15,408 mg/1) and 100 % reduction Bisphenol A at several concentrations Saiyood et al. (2013) b

Translocation Factor TF Wastewater

a

b

and Songkhla ecotypes had TF values of 2.32 and 1.36, respectively. The degradation efficiency of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in a two percent diesel and lubrication oil mixture using potential phytoremediation approaches was studied in a series of pot and landfarming experiments (Subba et al. 2012). Treatments included the use of Vetiveria zizanioides with and without amendments of fertilizer, aeration, and Pseudomonas putida inoculations. The highest degradation efficiencies of TPH (91–94 %) were noted in V. zizanioides alone and V. zizanioides with fertilizer and P. putida amendments. Other research demonstrated that Bruguiera gymnorrhiza reduced concentrations of COD (at 15,408 mg/l) and various concentrations of bisphenol A by 99 and 100 %, respectively, in contaminated wastewater (Saiyood et al. 2013).

24.2.3.1 Summary The collaborative studies completed in Thailand, Canada, and the USA generally indicate that practical applications of phytoextraction may be limited due to wide variation in contaminated sites and the requirement that multiple seasons and harvest sequences will be necessary for success. Currently phytoextraction is far from being considered a mature technology by others as well (Luca et al. 2007). Most of data published have been extrapolated from experiments performed under conditions that are not adequate to give results applicable for the future remediation of contaminated areas (Baker and Whiting 2002; McGrath et al. 2006; Luca

et al. 2007). However, marginally contaminated agricultural soils provide some opportunities where phytoextraction can be used as a polishing technology (Dickinson et al. 2009). There has been an increased interest in phytostabilization as a viable approach to phytoremediate contaminated soils and sediments in Thailand in recent years. Acacia mangium with the addition of organic fertilizer was reported as one option for the phytostabilization of Pb-contaminated mine tailings because it retained higher Pb concentrations in the roots than other trees tested (Meeinkuirit et al. 2012; 2013). Organic chemicals as soil and sediment contaminants have received increased interest by researchers in Thailand in recent years, and efforts to learn more about the phytoremediation of organic contaminants in water, soils, and sediments are expected to continue at an increased rate. Phytoremediation approaches to remediate or restore industrial and agricultural sites contaminated with xenobiotic compounds offer special challenges and will continue to be studied by universities, private companies, and research institutes.

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