(possibly) Uranus occurred and provided a number of important new results. To review such an abundance of material with the imposed tight page restrictuion.
the
rotation
Pacific,
of
Neptune,
Publ.
Astron.
Murphy, R. E., and L. M. Trafton, Evidence for an internal heat source in Neptune, Astro?hys. J., 193,
253-255,
Rose, L. E.,
P. K.,
Klepczynski,
Anderson,
its
of Nereid and the mass of
J., 79, 489-490,
1974.
The mass of Neptune and the orbit
Trafton, L., The source of Neptune's internal heat and the value of Neptunes tidal dissipa-
REVIEWS
phenomena of Pluto
and
Amer. Astron. Soc., 10, of
D. P., C. B. Pilcher, and D. Pluto: evidence for methane frost,
Science, 194, 835-837, 1976.
OF GEOPHYSICS
PLANETARY
Bull.
Cruikshank, Morrison,
Astrophys. J., 193, 477-480, 1974.
NO. 7
Eclipse
rotation, Icarus, 20, 279-283, 1973. Christy, J. W., and R. S. Harrington, The satellite of Pluto, Astron. J., 83, 1005-1008, 1978.
R. L. Duncombe, and W. J.
of Uranus, Astron. J., 74, 776-778, 1969. tion factor,
L. E.,
satellite,
586, 1978. Anderson, L. E., and J. D. Fix, Pluto: new photometry and a determination of the axis
1974.
Orbit
Neptune, Astro. Seidelmann,
VOL. 17,
Pluto
Soc.
4__0,234-237, 1928.
AND
SPACE
OCTOBER
PHYSICS
1979
MAGNETO SPHERES
George L. Siscoeland James A. Slavin2 Department of Atmospheric Sciences 1 Department of Earth and SpaceSciences 2 The Institute of Geophysics and Planetary University of California Los Angeles, California 90024
INTRODUCTION
Physics
magnetosphere with magnetic flux densities as great as 400¾ (l¾=10-=Tesla)
(possibly)
Uranus occurred and provided
of important To
review
(1Rm=2439km) did not observe a bow shock or magnetopause,
an
meter experiment (Ness et al, 1974), electron plasma instrument (Ogilvie et al, 1974), and charged particle telescopes (Simpson et al, 1974).
a number
When scaled
abundance
of
material
the authors'
interests,
with
magnetosphere
course starts
Z=+3Re and goes to X=+0.5Re,
the
at X=-8Re,
Z=+10Re all
netospheric coordinates (Ogilvie et al, Similarly, the radius of Mercury scales
in mag-
1977). to •SRe
in relation to the terrestrial magnetosphere. The orientation of Mercury with respect to the sun
was
details
the of
same the
for
each
mission
views by Ness (1978; The determinations
encounter.
can
be
found
Additional in
the
re-
1979). of
the Hermaean magnetic
moment has been the subject
of many papers (Ness
et al, 1974; Ness et al, 1975; Ness et al, 1976; Whang, 1977; Jackson and Beard, 1977; Ng and Beard, 1979; Ness, 1978; Walker, 1979; Slavin and Holzer, 1979; Whang, 1979; Ness, 1979ab) and are considered in the accompanying review by Russell on planetary magnetism. Analyses of the Mariner 10 data have produced intrinsic fields
MERCURY
Mariner 10 passed near the nightside of the planet Mercury on March 29, 19 74 and March 16, 1975 and encountered a small terrestrial-type
Paper number 9R1096. 0034-6853/79 / 009R-1096506.00
terrestrial
+3.4R e while the MIII
and we
1979 by the American Geophysical
to the
MI trajectory corresponds to a nightside entry at X=-13Re, Z=-7R e and an exit at X---6Re, Z=
apologize to the many unreferenced. The bibliography, however, should be complete, and is divided into sections devoted to each planet. Figure 1 illustrates the scope of the subject under review. The large range of planetary sizes and magnetospheric sizes, some of which engulf large satellites, indicates the rich var • ty of the phenomena that the subject covers.
Copyright
some upstream
of the Hermaean magnetosphere consists of •30 minutes of magnetospheric data gathered during two fly-bys with the Mariner 10 fluxgate magneto-
the imposed tight page restrictuion requires writing a little about everything, or writing something more substantial about selected things. We have chosen the second option, with its apparent weakness of unintentionally but also unavoid-
ably favoring
but may have encountered
disturbances associated with the shock (Ogilvie et al, 1977). Thus the total set of observations
new results. such
at the closest
approach altitude of 327 km. In addition to these encounters, labelled MI and MIII, a dayside pass on September 21, 1974 at a distance of •20R m
Although the Jupiter encounters of Pioneers 10 and 11 occurred in the previous quadrennium, the flood of new information that they released launched a wave of publications that crested in the present quadrennium. For completeness all of the magnetospheric literature relating to the two encounters is included in the bibliography. The present quadrennium also recorded one Venus encounter and three Mercury encounters by Mariner 10, as well as Soviet missions to both Venus and Mars. Earth based optical and radio exploration of the magnetospheres of Jupiter, Saturn and
ranging
from predominantly 22
3
of 6+2x10 G-cm (Slavin dipole-quadrupole-octupole
Union. 1677
dipolar
with
a moment
and Holzer, 1979b) to fields with the dipole
1678
O Outer
Satellites. Phoebe
I0,000
*Nereid
,:[apetus
a
I,OOO
i
,Moon
i
z
•
I00
z
,Deimos
IO
,Phobos
Figure
1.
Dimensions of the radii
and planets of the orbits and
their
the
of the sun
(cross-hatched), of their
characteristic
the radii
satellites
(dots)
dimensions
of
magnetospheres (bars)--defined
as the planetocentric distance to the subsolar stagnation point of the solar wind. The magnetospheric dimensions for Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and Jupiter are based on spaceprobe data. Those for Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are based on scaling relations for which there are some supporting radio
emission data (From Siscoe,
contribution as low as 2.4x1022G-cm 3 (Whang, 1977).
In configuration smaller
and more
Mercury's magnetosphere is a
distorted
version
of
the
terres-
1979).
that the dynamic pressure during MI and MIII may have been much larger than average with the value at MIII twice that of MI (Slavin and Holzer, 1979a). Assuming terrestrial shapes for the bow
shock and magnetopause Slavin and Holzer (1979a)
trial case. By scaling solar wind dynamic pressure at 1 AU to the orbit of Mercury and assum-
have
ing a dipolar intrinsic field of 5.1x1022G-cm 3
from the Mariner
Siscoe and Christopher (1975) predicted mean solar wind stand-off altitudes of 0.7R m at perihelion, 0.31AU, and 1.0Rm at aphelion, 0,47 AU, as compared with •10R•• at the earth and •50Rq at J Jupiter. It was also estimated that the solar wind would compress the magnetopause to the surface only on very rare occasions of exceptionally high velocity and/or density. The observed state of compression of the field
of Mercury
suggests
calculated
solar
wind
stand-off
distances
10 boundary crossings
and scaled
themto a single typical pressureof 6x10-Sdynes/ cm2.
In this way meanaltitudes for this pres-
sureof
the nose of
and MIIi
obtained. Holzer the lesser height tion transferring tail
as
the magnetopause
during
of 0.5 and 0.9Rm, respectively,
is
They also
MI
were
and Slavin (1978) attributed during MI to dayside reconnecmagnetic flux to the magneto-
observed
suggested
to
that
often
occur
dayside
at
the
earth.
reconnection
1679
could possibly expose the front surface of the planet to direct interaction with solar wind plasma a significant portion of the time. How-
ever, Hood and Schubert (1979) and Suess and Goldstein (1979) noted that planetary induction currents may inhibit the compression of the dayside magnetopause down to the planetary surface, requiring pressures of 25 to 150 times the mean to push the magnetopause to within an ion gyroradius of the surface, depending upon the actual electrical conductivity profile of the planet and the time scales of the pressure enhancements. The greater distortion of the planetary field at Mercury relative to the earth is also evident in the large amount of magnetic flux contained in t'he magnetotail. From observations during MI inbound the tail field near the planet is 30-40¾ which is larger than that at the earth by approximately a factor of the square root of the mean solar wind densities at their respective orbits
site situation cannot account
at Mars. While steady convection for the energetic particles re-
ported by Simpson et al (1974), Tsurutani et al (1976) have suggested large amplitude sporadic cross-tail
electric
plosive"
fields
reconnection
associated
with
in the magnetotail
"ex-
as the
source of very energetic particles in both the magnetospheres of the earth and Mercury by analogy with the results of laboratory experiments.
VENUS
Prior to the start of the last quandrenium the particle and field environment of Venus had been investigated by the U.S. spacecraft Mariners 2, 5, and 10 and the Soviet probes Venera 4 and 6.
Mariner
2 passed within
to observe in
the
6.6R v of Venus and failed
a bow shock or any other
solar
wind
that
could
be
perturbation
associated
with
(Ogilvie et al., 1977). Such tail fields require a polar cap of 18-26 ø degrees colatitude as com-
the planet (Smith et al, 1963). With a close approach distance of 1.7R v Mariner 5 crossed the
pared with a quiescent value around 10ø for the
bow shock of Venus both inbound and outbound, but did not enter into any regions of magnetic field
earth
(Ness et al,
1975b).
neutral sheet and plasma fied by the magnetometer
(Ness et al,
A terrestrial-type sheet were also identiand plasma experiments
1975b; Ogilvie
et al,
1977).
Plasma
electron observations showed energies very similar to the earth's plasma sheet, but with higher number densities (Ogilvie et al, 1974; 1977). In considering particle orbits within the magnetosphere Ogilvie et al. (1977) have excluded the possibility of a stably trapped plasmasphere or particle belts as found at the earth due to the large size of Mercury relative to its magnetospheric cavity and its slow rate of rotation. In addition due to the expected dominance of azimuthal drifts Ogilvie et al concluded that the plasma sheet particles will approach no closer
than 1.4Rm to the planet in the equatorial plane.
The region of precipitation on the surface was estimated to be a ring similar, but wider than, the
terrestrial
auroral
oval
with
colatitudes
of 30-40 ø in the dayside meridian and 55-65 ø at midnight. During the outbound portion of MI large amplitude variations in the magnitude field were observed and the plasma experiment indicated the
presence of a "hot" plasma sheet by comparison with MI inbound and all of MIII (Ness et al, 1975b; Ogilvie et al., 1977). In addition, the energetic
large
particle
fluxes
experiment
(Simpson et al,
recorded
1974),
sporadic
which indi-
cate the presence of magnetospheric particle acceleration. Finally, the interplanetary magnetic field was northward in the magnetosheath prior to MI, but southward upon exiting the magnetosphere. Siscoe et al (1975) have found the above
observations
expected
properties
to
be
consistent
of terrestrial
with
the
sub storms
that appeared intrinsic to the planet (Bridge et al, 1967). On its way to the already discussed encounters with Mercury Mariner 10 spent 47 days within a cone of 8.5 ø semiangle centered on the
sun-Venus
line,
prior
to a close
approach
of •2R v and an outbound bow shock encounter, but did not enter into the wake itself (Ness et al, 1974; Ogilvie et al, 1974). Venera 4 arrived at Venus a day before Mariner 5 and crossed the bow shock once before entry into the Venusian atmosphere during which magnetic field observations
were
made
down
to
an
altitude
of
200km
and an upper limit on theplanetary moment of . 10 22 G-cm3 determined (Dolginov et al, 1969). Venera
6 also
recorded
an
inbound
bow
shock
be-
fore entering the atmosphere (Gringauz et al, 1970). A comprehensive discussion of both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. missions and their impact on the determination of the planetary field at Venus can be found in a recent paper by Russell (1979) and in the review of planetary magnetism accompanying this report. The average position and shape of the bow shock has been the subject of several studies with the purpose of gaining information on the nature of the magnetosheath flow and the obstacle at Venus as well as at i•fercury and Mars. Russell
(1977a) fitted
the 6 shock crossings then avail-
able with a conic specifying the planetary center as one foci and found the least squares eccentricity to be 0.92+0.03 (where a value of 1 cor-
responds to a parabola), and 0.2+0.07Rv as the altitude of the nose of the shock. In that study it was also concluded that the shape of the shocks
at
Mars
other while
and
that
Venus
were
similar
to
of Mercury was different
each
and
scaled to the Hermaean magnetosphere. In particular, they showed that the substorm time scale for conditions at Mercury to be on the order of 1 minute as compared with 1 hour at the earth and that the amplitude of the observed fluctuations were indeed reasonable on energy grounds.
nearly the same as the terrestrial case. The finding of blunter shock shapes at Venus and Mars as compared with the earth and Mercury was attributed to differences in shape between ionospheric and magnetic obstacles. In a second
Hill
of the shock observed by Mariner
et al (1976) have concluded that the mag-
netosphere of Mercury can support steady state convection capable of accelerating particles up to •13keV due to a relative lack of line-typing effects at Mercury as contrasted with the oppo-
paper Russell
(1977b) argues that the position 10 is
too close
to the planet to be consistent with a non-absorbing ionosphere. It as suggested that for this apparently anamalous event about one third of the
incident
flow was being
absorped by the iono-
1680
sphere and resulted in the shock becomimg "attached" to the obstacle. Ness (1977) has expressed reservations concerning both the method employed by Russell and the statistical validity of his conclusion. Preliminary analysis of the Pioneer-Venus orbiter bow shock crossings during the first 24 orbits by Russell et al (1979) has produced a best fit conic to the average shape of eccentricity 0.92+0.06 with a nose altitude
of 0.23+0.05R v in agreement with earlier
findings
(Russell, 1977a) o In addition it has been found that the position of the Venusian bow shock is more variable than would be expected for a "hard" spherical object from studies of the position of the terrestrial shock. This conclusion by Russell et al suggests that influence of solar wind conditions on magnetosheath flow at Venus is more by means other than simple changing of obstacle height than is the case at the earth. On such mechanism is mass loading of the magnetosheath flow by the pick up of photoions as proposed by Cloutier et al. (1974). This process will be dependent on-VxB in the magnetosheath in that
more
mass
will
be
transferred
to
regions where the electric field opposed to into the ionosphere.
this
mechanism and the greater
of flow with B parallel
than
this
distance
an asymmetry in
in
found by Romanov et al the
Venera
the
the Venusian
9 and
10
flow
in
compressibility
to V, y--5/3,
as com-
pared with B perpendicular to V, ¾ = (1976) predicted as asymmetry in the shock with the distance to the shock of the terminator perpendicular to B er
the
is out of as On the basis of
direciton
2, Cloutier Venusian in the plane being greatof
B.
Such
bow shock was later
(1977) during analysis
orbiter
observations.
of
Perez
de Tejada and Dryer (1976) have extended with work by formulating a one fluid viscous interaction model of the Venusian magnetosheath and found signatures of viscous interaction with the ionopause in the Venera 6 data that are consistent with model predictions. In addition, Mariner 10 magnetic field and electron plasma observations made during its extended pass through the Venusian magnetosheath also found evidence for planetary ion pick up and a viscous solar wind interaction with the ionosphere
(Yeates
et al.
Preliminary Pioneer
1978; Lepping and Behannon, 1978).
findings
Venus
orbiter
of experiments have
shown
that
onboard the the
iono-
pause structure and height to be variable and dependent upon interplanetary conditions with dawn sector ionopause altitudes ranging from
about 200 to 2000 km (e.g. Brace et al, 1979). In addition, the magnetometer experiment has confirmed that the average ionospheric magnetic field that
is the
small on obstacle
the order of to the solar
Venusian ionosphere
(Russell
lnT and hence wind flow is the
et al,
1979).
How-
ever, bundles of twisted magnetic flux 10 to 100 km in diameter with magnetic flux densities of up to 90nT have been observed on numerous orbits down to the altitude of periapsis (Russell and
in the magnetotail, or plasma wake, of Venus are Mariner 5, Venera 9, and 10. Russell (1976) has conducted a detailed Mariner 5 observations
examination on the and found evidence for
a
boundary layer and terrestrial-type magnetotail with the flux in the northern lobe pointing in the
antisolar
direction•
In
addition
Goldstein
and Wolff (1978) have found that the Soviet observations show more magnetic flux in the Venusian magnetotail than can be accounted for by induction models such as that of Daniell and Cloutlet (19 77). MARS
With the exception
of a distant
crossing by Mariner 4 (Smith et al,
bow shock
1965) and
ionospheric particle data from the Viking mission (Hanson et al, 1976) the only source of experimental observations on the particle and magnetic field
environment
of
Mars
continues
to
be
the
Soviet orbiter missions Mars 2, 3, and 5 which were conducted during the previous quadrenium, 1971-1974 (Gringauz, 1976; Dolginov, 197•; Vaisberg, 1976). While the Soviet experinents revealed a strong interaction between Mar• and the solar wind with a permanent bow shock, it is not yet possible to state conclusively whether the magnetosphere of Mars is associated wi•h an induced or intrinsic magnetic field• This uncertainty is due principally to the orbital parameters of the Soviet satellites whose periapses apparently did not go below an altitude of 1100km and did not provide observations of the region directly behind the planet (Russell, 1979a). By comparison the orbit of the Pioneer Venus satellite and the two low altitude nightside passes by Mercury of Mariner 10 are near optimum for initial exploration of an induced or small intrinsic magnetosphere. A comprehensive review of the Soviet findings can be found in a recent
article
by Russell
(1979b),
If the solar wind at Mars is stood off predominantly by the ionosphere, then the Martian magnetosphere is the second example of such an interaction with the solar wind which may then be studied in comparison with the induced magnetosphere of Venus (Cloutier, 1976), In this eventuality the differences between the interactions
at
Venus
and
Mars
associated
with
their
respective ionospheric scale heights, ionospheric compositions, exospheres, and solar wind environments will be of major interest. A significant intrinsic magnetic field at Mars would provide a limiting case of a small terrestrial-type magnetosphere similar in size to Mercury, but with a relatively high contact conductivity due to the expected low magnetic field in the ionosphere
(Dessler, 1976; Bauer, 1976). As first suggested by Rassbach et al (1974) the presence of a high Pedersen conductivity at the foot of magnetic field lines may be expected to lead to a strong coupling between the ionosphere and magnetosphere•
Elphic, 1979). The continued study of the occurrence probability and physical characteris-
This work has been extended by Hill
et al (1976)
as
Hermaean
tics
magnetosphere. They concluded that this situation might lead to merging and convection rates slow enough to create a magnetosphere with a nightside magnetotail and a predominantly ionospheric obstacle to the solar wind flow on the dayside. In addition, Hill et al offer large contact conduc-
of these "flux
ropes" as a function
of posi-
tion in the ionosphere and solar wind conditions may provide important information on conditions at the ionopause where they are expected to originate. Presently, the only sources of observations
discussed
in
connection
with
the
1681
tivities
as the ultimate
explanation
paucity of energetic particles
for
the
at Mars (Vaisberg,
1976) as compared with the earth or Mercury. JUPITER
In the four years since the last quadrennial report, literature on Jupiter's magnetosphere has been dominated largely by the profusion of new observations provided by the very successful Pioneer 10 and 11 encounters with Jupiter; and by the many attempts to understand these mostly unanticipated results in terms of definite physical models. In addition, ground based spectroscopic observations of emissions from magnetospheric clouds associated with Io have given important new information and raised intriguing questions about the composition and dynamics of the inner magnetosphere. The reader interested in learning about the Pioneer observations and their implications is fortunate. Many excellent, comprehensive collections of articles have appeared beginning with the first reports in Science and Journal of
Geophysical Research and including
the published
proceedings of symposia held in Frascati in 1974 (Formisano, 1975) and in Tucson in 1975 (Gehrels, 1976). For convenience in identifying these general sources, they are listed separately in the bibliography. The excellent review articles by Kennel and Coroniti (1975, 1977a), Goertz (1976a), and Schulz (1978) should be mentioned here also as sources providing broad coverage of Jovian magnetospheric topics with emphasis on interpretations of the observations. At Jupiter the Pioneers encountered a magnetosphere markedly larger and more variable than predicted by scaling the terrestrial example to Jovian dimensions. The increased variability results in part, but apparently not totally, because the variability of the solar wind ram pressure, which confines the magnetosphere, increases
dramatically
between Earth's
orbit
and Jupiter's
orbit, owing to the progressive amplification with heliocentric distance of compression and rarefaction regions in the solar wind associated with interacting solar wind streams (Smith et al,
1978). In addition there may be a component to the variability driven by some process within the magnetosphere, which manifests itself in a roughly 10 hour periodicity seemingly locked to the
planet' s rotation
(Dessler,
1978).
Although particle and field measurements of the bow shock and in the magnetosheath yielded no surprises, the interior of the magnetosphere was found to be rich in particle populations, some of ø which were directly observed while others were inferred, for example, to account for a discovered disc-like distortion of the interior magnetic
field (e,g., Van Allen et al, 1974a), The particles that produce the disc-like distortion might
analytically
the magnetic
configuration
of the
disc (Beard and Jackson, 1976; Barish and Smith, 1975 - Pioneer 10 inbound; Goertz et al, 1976 Pioneer 10 outbound). Other investigations were directed at determining the forces producing the disc. The data appear to favor a model in which the magnetic distortion, viewed as a magnetic stress, acts to balance a pressure stress, rather like the situa-
tion
characterizing
the plasma sheet of Earth's
magnetotail, in contrast to pre-encounter expectations that the particle stress would be dominated by the centrifugal force of corotating plasma. In the second instance the disc is predicted to extend parallel to the rotational equator and in the first instance to the magnetic equator, which conforms more closely to the ob-
servations
(Goertz,
1976b).
Evidence was indeed
presented that the disc is formed by a high 8 plasma sheet with the particle pressure supplied primarily by ions with energies exceeding 60 keV
(Walker et al,
1978).
The particle-free
magnetic
field outside of the disc is very possibly open (Goertz et al, 1976). Self-consistent high 8 models reproducing some of the observed features have been presented by Goldstein (1977) and Vickers (1977). A parallel development has occurred for disc models in which a centrifugal force balances the magnetic tension. The general structure of such a disc in the case of equatorially confined particles was explored in a semi-empirical
and analytical (1976) and its current
sheet
analysis by Gleeson and Axford similarities to an azimuthal demonstrated.
A more
self-
consistent calculation of this type in which equatorial confinement results naturally from near equatorial injection of the ions at the Jovian satellites was subsequently performed by
Hill
and Carbary (1979).
This led to the predic-
tion of a cusp-like structure which the authors interpreted to be the theoretical counterpart of the magnetodisc inferred from observations. A similar type of self-consistent calculation for the case of a Jovian ionospheric source of the ions failed to produce a disc-like structure
(Carbary and Hill, 1979). Spacecraft encounters with the postulated disc were announced by large increases in the observed particle
intensities
and by a decrease
magnetic field strength 1974). Such encounters
in the
(McKibben and Simpson, recurred with a roughly
10 hr periodicity approximately with Jupiter's rotation period.
commensurate The disc model
'interprets the observed recurrence in terms of the misalignment of the plane of the disc with the rotational equator of Jupiter. Planetary rotation then sweeps the disc past the spacecraft
once
each
rotation.
1976).
All observers noted a progressive lag in the disc-encounter signatures with distance from the planet on the Pioneer 10 outbound leg compared to encouner times expected for a rigidly rotating tilted plane. Such behavior might be explained
The evident disc-like distortion of the magnetosphere, which was most clearly defined and most
by slippage relative to Jupiter of the high latitude field lines that connect to the distant part
stably present when Pioneer 10 penetrated the mag-
of the disc (Northrup et al.,
netosphere while moving outward through its dawn flank, provoked many attempts to model theoretically such a feature. One class of investigations produced semi-empirical models to describe
ly, the disc may not be a rotating tilted plane, but a surface warped such that its topography changes with distance from Jupiter in a way to produce different encounter times while rigidly
also be able
to inflate
observed overly
large
the magneto sphere to its
size
(Beard and Jackson,
1974).
Alternative-
1682
rotating. The warping expected to result from the finite outward propagation speed of the signal carrying the information that the underlying tilted dipole is rotating with the planet can account for the observed lag if the propagation speed is 43 Jovian radii per hour (Kivelson et al• 1978).
Chenette et al. (1974) and Simpson and McKibben (1976) suggested that rather than being the result of the rotation of a purely spatial feature, the quasi-10 hour variations in particle intensities could be a purely temporal phenomenor•
something like
the beats of a Jovian magnetospher-
ic clock. They show that this hypothesis accords better with some of the data, especially data from Pioneer 11, which display marked 10 hour variations even at high latitudes where the influence
of
the
disc
should
be minimal.
Neither
the purely •.spatial nor the purely temporal hypothesis as presently conceived seems capable of ordering the full set of observations pertaining to the 10 hour periodicity. That there are 10 hr changes in the magnetospheric configuration, that is, temporal changes,
is strongly indicated by a 10 hr periodicity
in
the energetic particle that are released into the solar wind. Energetic electrons of Jovian origin observed in the interplanetary medium show minimum intensity and softest energy spectrum when a certain Jovian longitude region, the so-called active sector, faces away from the tail, which is
the exit
portal
for the electrons
earth.
However, Davis and Smith (1976) note that
a disc-like
magnetostatic
geometry
is
also
more
compressible than that of Earth's. Kennel and Coroniti (1977b) resurrected the possibility discarded by Brice and Ioannidis (1970) that merging with the interplanetary magnetic field can cause important magneto spheric variations
with
a time
scale
associated
with
sector boundary passages, or once again roughly a week. A third possibility for producing longer term variations of the Jovian magnetosphere emerged from the ground based observation of signifi-
cant long term changes in the sulfur associated sulfur
with
ions
can
importantly
Io,
and the
diffuse
to the
outward
forces
ion cloud
speculation and
controlling
of the outer magnetosphere (Hill Eviatar et al., 1978).
that the
state
and Michel,
1976;
The question of the sources of the particles that populate the interior plasma structures of the Jovian magnetosphere received much attention. Low energy ion sources include the ionosphere of Jupiter, the satellites, and the interstellar
medium (e.g., Goertz, 1976c; Neugebauer and Eviatar, 1976; Hill and Michel, 1976; Siscoe and Chen, 1977; Siscoe, 1978). Pioneer 10 discovered a low energy
plasma
feature
sphere (Frank et al.,
in the
inner
magneto-
1976) which may or may not
be associated with Io, but if so, then it is most likely composed primarily of energetic, possibly heavy, ions derived from neutral particle clouds
(see above plus Goertz and Thomsen, 1979).
(Vasyliunas,
these
contribute
In
1975). A mechanism has been suggested by which a longitudinal asymmetry in the magnetic field near the planet leads to differential mass loading of magnetic flux tubes which communicates the asymmetry to the outer magnetosphere and
addition, a sulfur ion nebula associated with has been discovered with ground based spectro-
might thus account for the longitude-related, 10 hour variations there (Dessler and Hill, 1975; Hill and Dessler, 1976).
nebula (Brown, 1976, 1979; Meckler and Eviatar, 1978) which may be resolved by the Voyager fly-
Pioneer 10 and 11 experimenters agree that the outer magnetosphere is highly variable, even apart from the 10 hour variations. The observed change in character of the particle and field observations
between
the
inbound
and
o•utbound
scopic observations
(Kupo et al.,
1976).
Io
There
is at present a controversy about the densities and relative composition of the Io-related ion
bys.
Radial
transport
of these
ions is believed
to be by diffusion (see above plus Machida and Nishida, 1978; Nishida, 1978) and to result in a thin, flat disc distribution (Hill and Michel, 1976; Siscoe, 1977). Although the pre-Pioneer encounter predictions
legs of the Pioneer 10 encounters might reflect a true temporal change in the global state of the magneto sphere or merely a local time variation. However, the inbound passes of the two
of energetic particle intensities in the inner and middle magnetosphere based on physical princi-
Pioneers although relative sphere. idea that
also differed markedly in character, they were nearly spatially coincident to the configuration of the magneto-
es of theoretical space physics (Coroniti, 1975; Goertz, 1976a; Scarf, 1976), it is not clear whether the particles originate in the solar wind,
Such long term variability leads to the there may be more than one state o• the
as is believed
magnetosphere (Kennel and Coroniti, an example, model
in
it
which
1977a).
was noted that
a radial
the
was
anced by a planetary
solar
wind
met
As
outflow and
bal-
wind could have two states
that depended on whether the planetary wind was super-Alfvenic or sub-Alfvenic. Which state existed at any given time could depend on the ram pressure of the solar wind, which controls the fetch of the planetary wind and hence its
access to the super-Alfvenic regime (Coroniti and Kennel, 1977). Thus variations related to solar
wind
streams
could
oscillate
the
state
of
the Jovian magnetosphere on a time scale of rough-
ly one week.
The existence of hydrodynamic rath-
er than magnetostatic balance with the solar wind might account for the larger range of magnetopause distances compared to the situation at
ples developed in studies sphere
are
acknowledged
some internal
of the earth's
magneto-
to be one of the success-
to be the case for
source (e.g.,
Earth,
Van Allen,
or from
1976).
Energetic particles in the Jovian magnetosphere exhibit some distinctly non-terrestrial aspects such as satellite absorption features which were expected and which were reported by all particle
detector
teams.
In addition,
anomalous (dumbbell)
pitch angle distribution and field-aligned streaming in the middle magnetosphere were observed
(Van Allen,
1976; McDonald and Trainor:
Sentman and Van Allen, 1976). concepts proposed in response
1976;
New theoretical to these observa-
tions included recyling of the particles (Nishida, 1976; Carbary et al., 1976; Sentman et al, 1975) and a novel form of non-adiabatic, magnetic pumping (Goertz, 1978). Many attempts were made to use the satelliteabsorption signatures in the data to determine the radial diffusion coefficient for the particles
1683
(Mogro-Campero and Fillius, 1974, 1976; MogroCampero, 1976; Thomsenet al., 1977a,b)• It was found to be generally
consistent
driven by winds in Jupiter's
with
diffusion
upper atmosphere,
larities in magnetospheres. Important differences, however, may result from the different arrangements of satellites and rings in the two magnetospheres. Whereas Io is a source of ions for
than by the solar wind as is the case for however its exact form could not be determined because of uncertainties in the absorption efficiencies of the satellites and the presence
Jupiter's inner magnetosphere, Titan may be a copious supplier of ions to Saturn's outer mag-
of other non-adiabatic loss processes (e.g., Schulz and Eviatar, 1977; Goertz et al., 1979)
Titan's
rather earth,
The problems of the electrodynamic coupling between Io and Jupiter and of Io-related radio emissions (see R.A. Smith, 1976) continued to be studied. At present there is a controversy whether the magnetic flux tube is frozen to Io as proposed in early theories, for example, by Pi-dington and Drake (1968) and Goldreich and
Lynden-Bell (1969) or whether Io slips through the Jovian magnetic field, being decoupled from it by strong electric fields parallel to the magnetic field as might result from the presence of plasma sheaths around Io (Gurnett, 1972; Shawhan et al., 1975; Shawhan, 1976) or potential
netosphere through ionization of the neutral particle torus fed by the escape of hydrogen
atmosphere (McDonoughand Brice,
from
1973a,b;
Hunten, 1977). Also, whereas the Jovian satellites do not completely absorb the inward difusing energetic particles, Saturn's rings should, thus extending the inner boundary of the trapped radiation domain out into the magnetosphere to a distance of more than one planetary radius beyond the planet's atmosphere. Cheng and Lanzerotti (1978) note that the sputtering of water ice products off of the rings, which will accompany the absorption of the energetic particle radiation, can produce a much denser ring "atmosphere"
(unbound) than had been predicted previsouly lecting this process. drogen in the vicinity
neg-
The amount of neutral hyof the rings produced this
double layers (R.A. Smith and Goertz, 1978), (For
way can account for the "anomalous" Lymane in-
a discussion
see Piddington,
tensities
of a decoupled Io
the rings (Weiser et al.,
1977).
of the controversy
Someof the predictions
observed in apparent
association
with
1977).
model have been verified by the Pioneer encounters, in particular the presence of a spike of energetic, i.e., accelerated, electrons at the orbit of Io (Fillius and McIlwain, 1974) and absorption signa-
With regard to Uranus and Neptune, radio signals from Uranus were tentatively identified (Brown, 1976; but see also Kaiser, 1977). The general question of whether radio signals of the
tures implying that energetic deflected around the Io flux
magnetospheric burst variety are able to be observed at Earth from those planets was raised
be
if
the
flux
tube
were
particles are not tube as they would
frozen
to
Io.
The
and answered in the affirmative
en-
counter of Voyager I with the Io flux tube may decide the question. The radio-occultation experiment on Pioneer 10
determined that Io has an ionosphere (Kliore 1974, 1975). It presented a marked entrance
et al limb-
(Kennel and Maggs,
1976). PALEO-EARTH
exit limb asymmetry, which provoked the interesting suggestion that the interaction between Io and the Jupiter-corotating magnetospheric wind could have aspects similar to the interaction between the solar wind and comets, including a long
The magnetic field of Earth is known to have changed its strength, direction, and its relative amounts of dipolar and non-dipolar components over geological ages. The changes in direction involve both a migration of the dipole axis about the rotational axis with a typical deviation of
ionic
about 10ø between the two axes, and full
tail,
and this
could be a significant
source of ions to the magnetosphere (Cloutier
et
al., 1978; Axford: comments in panel discussion, Chapman Conference on Jovian magnetospheresatellite interactions, UCLA, 1978). SATURN, URANUS,.NEPTUNE Saturn is inferred on the
basis
of
to possess a magnetic
received
radio
emissions
field
which
of the
direction
of
the
dipole
axis
reversals
relative
the rotational axis (magnetic reversals). dipole strength varies by about a factor
to
The of two
in both directions from an average value not much different than the present value, except during magnetic reversals when it might drop to 10 or 20
percent of its prereversal value (see, for example, the review by Kane, 1976). The magnetosphere of Earth than at present
has been different because of these
in the past long-term geo-
are interpreted as Saturnian analogs of the magnetospheric radio bursts generated at Earth and
magnetic variations
Jupiter (L.W. Brown, 1975; Kaiser and Stone, 1975•.
1976a).
Scaling based on the frequency of the sporadic radio bursts agrees with scaling based on an empirical relation between planetary magnetic dipoles and angular moments in assigning to Saturn a surface field strength oi about one gauss, a
Changes in the sizes and strengths of magnetospheric features and processes that correspond to changes in the strength of the dipole have been
value
also
consistent
with
the
observed
absence
of synchrotron radiation from Saturn (Kennel, 1973; Kaiser and Stone, 1975; Scarf, 1975). On the basis
of this
inferred
magnetic
field
and by analogy to the magnetospheres of Jupiter and Earth, attempts have been made to predict some of the properties of a Saturnian magneto-
sphere (Scarf, 1973, 1975; Siscoe, 1978). The similarity between the sizes and situations of Jupiter and Saturn suggests corresponding simi-
(see the review by Siscoe,
presented by Schulz (1975) (radiation belt intensities), Siscoe and Chen (1975) (sizes of magnetosphere,
plasmasphere,
magnetic activity)
polar
cap,
and the level
of
and Siscoe and Christopher
(1975) (size and extent of the auroral zone). The size of the magnetosphere and the distribution of auroral zones for the case of a purely non-dipolar geomagnetic field, perhaps representative of geo-
magnetic reversals, were illustrated (Siscoe et al, 1976; Siscoe and Crooker, 1976). However, Saito et al. (1978) note that even a dipole moment that
produces
a field
weaker
than that
of
1684
the non-dipole components at the earth's surface, where the paleomagnetic field is recorded, could dominate
the
altitudes
interaction
with
the
solar
of 2 or 3 earth radii.
wind
The •xis
at
of
such a residual dipole is a priori most likely to lie more toward the equator than toward the pole. As Saito et al (1978) describe, an equatorially
oriented dipole produces a new category of magnetosphere in the classification of magnetospheric types. References
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