Policing America: Challenges and Best Practices, 7/e

POLICING AMERICA: CHALLENGES AND BEST PRACTICES Seventh Edition By Kenneth J. Peak

Pearson Education, Inc.

POLICING AMERICA: CHALLENGES AND BEST PRACTICES Seventh Edition By Kenneth J. Peak

Chapter 1 History: Coming to America

Pearson Education, Inc.

English and Colonial Officers of the Law • Sheriff • Constable • Coroner • Justice of the peace

Policing America: Challenges and Best Practices, 7/e Kenneth J. Peak

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Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved

Sheriff • From the term shire reeve

• Maintained law and order in the tithings • Basic source of rural crime control in the U.S.

• Posse comitatus Policing America: Challenges and Best Practices, 7/e Kenneth J. Peak

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Constable • Traced back to Anglo-Saxon times • Unspecialized –duties included collecting taxes, supervising highways, and serving as magistrate

• Constable faced disintegration in the colonies • Untrained, believed to be inadequate as officials of the law


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Coroner • Many different roles throughout history • Coroner’s inquest determined cause of death and part responsible for it • Today has single function: determine cause of all deaths by violence or under suspicious circumstances

• Debate over qualifications Policing America: Challenges and Best Practices, 7/e Kenneth J. Peak

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Justice of the Peace (JP) • Appeared as early as 1195 • Presided over criminal trials, issued warrants for arrest • American JPs have limited jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases • Lay and inexpert upholders of the law


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The Old English System of Policing •

American policing can be traced back to English heritage – Kin police – Frankpledge system

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Constable – many duties, unpaid, rotating job

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JPs paid based on convictions so extortion common

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Early system voluntary and informal

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Declined by 1800 due to – Collapse of two primary offices – Growth of large cities – Increase in crime and civil disobedience


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Policing in Colonial America • Early colonies were free of crime – settlers busy carving out a farm and a living • Two crime waves during the 1600s – Quaker/Puritan conflict – 1656-1665 – Salem witch trials – 1692

• Citizen-participation form of law enforcement began to break down in mid-18th century • Social and political unrest contributed to need for formal system of policing


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Legacies of the Colonial Period • Colonists’ commitment to local policing • Development of republicanism • Onset of theory of crime prevention


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New Experiments in London • Henry Fielding – Bow Street Magistrate – Thief takers

• John Fielding– Bow Street Magistrate – Bow Street Runners

• Patrick Colquhoun – London Magistrate – Focused on police reform – Police should maintain the public order, prevent and detect crime, and correct bad manners and morals – Notion of proactive policing


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Police Reform in England and America, 1829 -1860 • Urbanization and industrialization brought about changes in policing • Social change, increased crime, and social unrest made old system of policing obsolete


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Sir Robert Peel • Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 – Stressed crime prevention – London Metropolitan Police

• Not well received by the people of London • Peel’s nine principles of policing – Most still relevant to today’s police – Relate closely to tenets of modern community policing


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The Political Era – 1840s to 1930s • Americans observed Peel’s success • Less industrialization and social upheaval in US so less need for full-time policing • Eventually policing entrenched in America – evolved through three eras – Political – Reform – Community


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Imitating Peel • First move to improve policing began in New York, 1836 • Reform efforts were dormant until 1841 – “Mystery of Marie Roget” (Murder of Mary Rogers)

• NY State Legislature established full-time police force in 1844 – Very different form than found in Europe


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Key Issues • Police uniforms – American police did not want to wear uniforms – NYC refused to rehire any officer not wanting to wear a uniform

• Police officers carrying firearms – Public viewed armed police with suspicion – Armed police force seen as unavoidable

• Use of force – Necessary and commonplace for American officers


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Attempts at Reform in Difficult Times • Policing a popular job – steady work, high pay • Political patronage over merit • Tradition a key determinant of police behavior • Police dealt with riots, strikes, parades, fires – Much hostile interaction between citizens and police – Ethnic conflict, labor disputes, race riots all led to violence


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Increased Politics and Corruption • Ethnic, religious disputes common in police departments

• Political influences affected promotions, assignments, transfers • Police corruption surfaced


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Policing on the American Frontier • Absence of government affected law enforcement

• Many conflicts – – – –

Ethnic groups fought for resources and fought each other Economic conflicts between cattlemen and sheepherders Labor strife in mines Outlaws after Civil War

• Four groups assumed responsibility for law enforcement – – – –

Private citizens U. S. Marshals Businessmen Town police officers


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The Entrenchment of Political Influence • Early 20th century police provided wide variety of services to citizens • Decentralized organizational style – Officers recruited from ethnic groups in community – Officers integrated into neighborhoods – Lack of organizational control contributed to inefficiency and disorganization


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The Reform Era: 1930s to 1980s • Reformers sought to reject political involvement by the police • Civil service systems were created to eliminate political patronage • Focus on crime control over “social work” noncrime activities

• Scientific theory of administration – Frederick Taylor – Emphasis on production and unity of control


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The Era of August Vollmer • Key period in development of police professionalism

• Value of scientific knowledge in criminal investigations • Key innovations in Berkeley included – – – – – –

Police school – formal police training Criminal investigation lab with full-time criminalist Completely mobile patrol force College students as police recruits Selection criteria, applicant testing First radio car

• Leading proponent of police professionalism – also advocated police as social workers


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The Crime Fighter Image • O. W. Wilson – leading authority on police administration

• Police role was redefined, crime fighter image became more popular • Professionalism came to mean a combination of managerial efficiency and technological sophistication and an emphasis on crime fighting

• Social work aspects of policing disappearing – focus on crime fighting


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The Wickersham Commission • First national study of crime and criminal justice • Made many recommendations calling for increased police professionalism – – – – – –

Remove corrupting influence of politics from policing Merit selection of chief executives Testing of patrol officers, minimum physical standards Decent salaries, working conditions, benefits Adequate training Use of policewomen, crime prevention units, criminal investigation bureaus


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William H. Parker • Focus on police as professional crime fighters

• Transformed LAPD – Administrative reorganization, simplified command structure – Rigorous selection, training standards – Made LAPD model for reform

• Police as “thin blue line” • Opposed restrictions on police methods – Conflicts between effective police operations and individual rights should be resolved in favor of the police – Rights of society took precedence over rights of individual


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Civil Rights Movement • Predominated in late 1960s and 1970s – Social turbulence, civil disobedience, progress in civil rights – 1968 Democratic National Convention

• Police focused on professional model – Removed from personal contact with police – Failure of police-community relations


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A Retreat from the Professional Model • Prior to 1960s, few inquiries concerning police functions and methods – Police resisted outside scrutiny – No need to challenge traditional methods

• During 1960s and 1970s, five separate national commissions attempted to examine police methods


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President’s Crime Commission • National commission focusing on solutions to America’s internal crime problems • Many recommendations for police – – – –

Hiring more minority officers Better-educated officers College-educated supervisors Rigorous screening, intensive preservice training

• Brought policing full circle, back to principles laid out by Robert Peel


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The Community Era: 1980s to Present • Redesign patrol officers’ jobs based on motivators • Team policing – Poorly planned, hastily implemented – Mid-management personnel threatened

• Foot patrol became popular • Problem-oriented approach to policing


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Demise of Professional Era •

Narrowing of the police mission to crime fighting

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Increased cultural diversity

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Detachment of patrol officers in patrol vehicles

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Increased violence in society

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New scientific view of management

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Increased dependence on high-tech equipment rather than contact with public

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Isolation of police administration from community and officer input

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Increased concern about police violation of the civil rights of minorities

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New attempts by the police to adequately reach community


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