This research was supported by the “Human Resources Program in Energy. Technology” ... 카메룬의 기후위험성을 고려한다면, 소작농을 위한 지속가능한 농업관리는 기 .... access to capital, and weak infrastructure and technology (Houghton,.
연구논문
｢환경정책｣ 제25권 제4호 2017. 12: 107-138
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.15301/jepa.2017.25.4.107 ISSN 1598-835X
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon* 카메룬의 기후 적응 역량 제고를 위한 정책 제안 1)
Ji Young Jung**ㆍJi Ae Kim***ㆍ Benyoh Emmanuel Kigha Nsafon****ㆍJeung Soo Huh***** 정지영ㆍ김지애ㆍBenyoh Emmanuel Kigha Nsafonㆍ허증수
Abstract: In the 2015 Paris Agreement by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), all parties around the world agreed to promote interactive technology transfer, and adaptation and mitigation support for developing countries. Against this backdrop, this paper presents climate change adaptation and mitigation measures specifically intended for smallholder farmers in Cameroon working in partnership with local NGOs and civil society organizations (CSOs). Smallholder farmers are the most vulnerable group to the impacts of climate change. Considering the high climate risks in Cameroon, sustainable farming management by smallholder farmers will be an essential part of climate change adaptation and mitigation. The key to the effective implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation policies is comprehensive and concerted partnership with the public and private sector in Cameroon. This paper suggests an efficient climate collaboration model which connects KOICA, Cameroon Climate Change Focal Team, local NGOs and CSOs, and smallholder farmers. Key Words: Climate Change, Sustainable Farming, Smallholder Farmers, Partnership with NGOs and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
*****.This research was supported by the “Human Resources Program in Energy Technology” of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP), and granted financial resources from the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy of the Republic of Korea (No. 20174010201420). *****.Main author, Kyungpook National University, Climate Change Department, PhD researcher *****.Second author, Kyungpook National University, Climate Change Department, MA researcher *****.Second author, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Cameroon *****.Corresponding author, Kyungpook National University, Head of Climate Change Department
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요약: 유엔기후변화협약의 2015년 파리협정 이후로, 모든 당사국들은 개도국을 위한 보다 적극적인 기술 이전 및 적응-완화 지원을 촉진하기로 합의했다. 이를 배경으로, 이 논문은 아프리카 카메룬의 소작농들을 대상으로 지역 시민기관과 협력한 기후변화 적응-완화조치를 제시하고자 한다. 소작농들은 기후변화의 영 향에 가장 취약한 그룹이다. 카메룬의 기후위험성을 고려한다면, 소작농을 위한 지속가능한 농업관리는 기 후변화 적응 및 완화정책의 중요한 요소가 아닐 수 없다. 이와 더불어 효율적인 환경정책 실행을 위해 정부 및 민간기관의 통합적인 협력체계는 핵심적인 부분이다. 이 논문은 한국측 개도국 무상원조기관인 KOICA 와 카메룬 정부 Climate Change Focal Team, 시민기관, 소작농을 연계한 효율적 기후 협력 모델을 제 안한다. 핵심주제어: 기후변화, 지속가능한 농업, 소작농, NGO/시민기관 협력
I. Background The 2015 Paris Agreement, adopted by the Conference of the Parties (COP) 21, took a landmark step in combating climate change. All parties agreed to promote and facilitate interactive technology transfer and support for developing countries in the Paris Agreement. This agreement reemphasized the importance of climate cooperation at the global level. Each country’s contribution to building climate adaptive capacity of developing countries is now inevitable. In the Paris Agreement, the Conference of the Parties has agreed as follows in the Article 7: Parties recognize the importance of support for and international cooperation on adaptation efforts and the importance of taking into account the needs of developing country Parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Parties should strengthen their cooperation on enhancing action on adaptation, taking into account the Cancun Adaptation Framework (UNFCCC, 2016).
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 109
Cameroon map of Koppen climate classification
Modified from World Koppen Classification by Ali Zifan
For this research, we have selected Cameroon, located in Central Africa, as a potential global partner for climate cooperation. Cameroon is often considered a miniature of Africa because it has great cultural diversity and climatological variety. The map in the
shows that Cameroon includes regions of arid, semi-arid, tropical, monsoon, and equatorial climate. Due to this climatological diversity, Cameroon has a wide range of application feasibility for future climate modeling. It is also noticeable that Cameroon has great potential for food production and resource development. Audrey Ball notes that Cameroon has 15% of its entire land as arable land with its four ecological zones and fertile soils. She further indicates that Cameroon has great potential for food sovereignty (Ball, 2016). The agricultural sector and food production activities account for about 50% of its export earnings and employ almost 70-80% of the population (DSCN, 2002).
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For this research, a strategic analysis and assessment for Cameroon as a potential global partner for climate cooperation is given below. This is based on the main criteria specified by the Korean government in selecting key cooperative partners for ODA (Korea Global Development Consulting Center, 2013).
Main criteria in selecting key cooperative partners Climate Risk Factor ▘One of the most vulnerable countries to the projected damaging climate risks for 2030 by DARA analysis (Hong, 2014).
Development Potential Factor ▘Strategic cooperation potential in energy, agriculture green technology, investment etc.
▘More often floods and droughts
Implementation Ability ▘Government-level growing awareness of reinforcing climate adaptive capacity and climate cooperation ▘Poor Governance and infrastructure ▘ Long period of dictatorship
▘Declining agricultural yields ▘High dependence on hydropower energy ▘Water stress ▘Poverty level exacerbated by climate risks Modified from Korea Global Development Consulting Center
In sum, Cameroon has great potential to become a potential global partner for climate cooperation in that it has high climate risks associated with climatological diversity and high development potential. In terms of implementation ability, Cameroon is known for poor governance and infrastructure. The country must improve its governance system. Innovation and capacity building in governance is much needed for this country. To accomplish it, comprehensive and concerted partnership is required from the public sector and the
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 111
private sector like civil societies (Forje, 2008). Against this backdrop, this paper attempts to present strategic partnerships between government and civil society organizations to close this loophole.
Ⅱ. Main Objective and Methodology The main objective of this research is to present climate change adaptation measures for small farming communities in Cameroon in partnership with civil societies. This research paper attempts to figure out the real needs of small farming communities in Cameroon and demands of international climate cooperation. This analysis will give a boost to develop an effective international cooperation model for developing countries. Specific objectives of this research are as follows; •.To analyze key climate risks that smallholder farmers in Cameroon are facing •.To present partnership strategies in order to promote sustainable farming for smallholder farmers in response to climate change •.To boost an effective international cooperation to enhance climate adaptive capacity of developing countries The methodology of the research is first based on a review of literature and data which deals with our core interest areas. This research data covers country reports from international organizations, such as World Bank, Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and so on. Second, we utilized key materials produced by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in Cameroon (MINADER). This
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was supported by the direct communication with government officials in MINADER in Cameroon. Third, we used the extensive Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) database related to international cooperation history and country information.
Ⅲ. Preliminary Research 1. Korea’s ODA Current Situation for Cameroon Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) is a comprehensive package plan of assistance scale, partnership area, and implementation strategy within a specific period for each recipient country. In other words, it presents official development strategies (ODA) for respective countries (Korea Global Development Consulting Center, 2013). Korea selected 26 key cooperative partners, that is, priority countries, in 2010. Then, 24 priority countries were reconfirmed in the second period of 2015. East Timor, Congo, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Solomon Islands were excluded due to poor assistance performance and weak governance while Myanmar, Tanzania, and Senegal were newly added due to their development potential (21st Committee for International Development Cooperation, 2015). Taking a close look at the second CPS, it is notable that upper middle income countries such as Peru, Columbia, and Azerbaijan (GNI per capita above $12,000) were included (ODA KOREA, 2017). Specialists including civil society organizations raised their concern because the government’s decision was unilateral without public discussion. It is not too much to say that economic relations were put before the actual situation of a recipient country.
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 113
Looking at the real situation of Cameroon, we see that it still has hard time fighting against poverty even though Cameroon was excluded from the CPS list. Moreover, the impacts of climate change are exacerbating its agricultural production which Cameroon highly depends on for its economic development. Ghana, in the CPS list, has been categorized in the medium human development group because its Human Development Index (HDI1)) has been improving while Cameroon is still categorized as a low human development group (Selim, 2015). 2. The Scale of Korea’s Aid for Cameroon Korea’s aid for Cameroon showed a decreasing trend from 2005 to 2009 except for 2008. From 2010, the trend picked up due to the establishment of vocational training centers in Cameroon and expansion of other projects. However, it is projected that the assistance scale will be on the decline since Cameroon was excluded from the CPS list (see
).
Korea's aid for Cameroon Year
2007
(Unit:Million $)
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Total 14.06
Implemented
-
-
-
0.53
0.56
10.03
2.94
Approved
-
35.0
-
-
-
-
-
35
Credit- Implemented based (KOICA) Assistance
0.27
0.74
0.18
2.03
3.74
5.48
4.24
16.34
0.24
0.59
0.15
1.86
2.42
4.68
4.14
14.08
Total
0.27
0.74
0.18
2.56
4.30
25.51
7.18
30.4
Grant Aid
Modified from OECD/DAC
1) Index designed by UNDP to evaluate the development level of a country, indicating life expectancy, adult literacy rate, and GNP per capita. ‘low human development’ (0-0.499), ‘medium human development’ (0.5-0.799), ‘high human development’ (0.8-1.0).
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3. Government-Level Development Assistance Situation The following governmental projects presented in
show project-based programs, development consulting and invitational training program. Due to a short history of government-level development assistance, it mainly centered on invitational training programs (Government Integrated Report, 2013).
Government-level development assistance (Unit:100 Million won) Department
Project name
Type
Total Total duration project of project budget
Ministry of Strategy Construction project of Garoua and Finance (EDCF) general hospital in Cameroon
Project
619
2013-2017
Construction project of Ministry of Strategy vocational training center in and Finance (EDCF) Cameroon
Project
401
2010-2015
The project for the national Ministry of Foreign institute of vocational trainers Affairs (KOICA) and program
Project
72.32
2013-2017
The project for the Ministry of Foreign implementation of the Affairs (KOICA) e-government master plan in Cameroon
Development consulting
20.6
2015-2017
The project for the Ministry of Foreign establishment of master plan Affairs (KOICA) for the development of Cameroon
Development consulting
22.4
2014-2015
Invitational training
0.81
2015-2017
Ministry of Foreign Cameroon public administration Invitational Affairs (KOICA) program training
0.81
2015-2017
30
2014-2018
Ministry of Foreign Rural area development Affairs (KOICA) program in Cameroon
The project for the Ministry of establishment of education Agriculture, Food, center by utilizing rice and Rural Affairs cultivation field Modified from ODA Korea
Project
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 115
It is notable that a mechanized model for rice production is being spread around the country to improve production efficiency and also research institutes with agricultural training are being established for customized seed production in Cameroon. Other assistance plans at the government level are currently on the way to reactivate the involvement of local communities as part of Cameroon’s rural development and improve their living conditions and income level (Government Integrated Report, 2013). However, as presented above, we can see that climate change adaptation measures especially to support smallholder farmers in Cameroon are non-existent. 4. Korea’s ODA Situation in Response to Climate Change According to KOICA’s analysis on climate change-related projects for each region throughout 2005 to 2015, 53% of climate change-related projects took place in Asia and only 18% in Africa. Hong Eun Kyung observes that core projects concentrated on low and middle income countries in Asia taking up 52% of climate change-related projects. 17% of projects took place in upper middle income countries. She notes that climate-related projects were not really evenly distributed in line with the climate vulnerability of each country. This analysis implies that countries most vulnerable to climate risks should take priority in the implementation of future ODA projects (Hong, 2016). In spite of Korea’s decreasing interest in Cameroon, the primary reason we selected Cameroon as a global potential partner is that the Cameroon government has been increasingly aware of the importance of strategically addressing climate change issues and agriculture and recently established Climate Change Focal Team within the Ministry
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of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER). This team will function as an effective channel to make a linkage between Korea and local partners in Cameroon. It implies that they have a preliminary governance that will promote active partnership with local NGOs and CSOs, thus enhancing efficiency of climate cooperation with Korea.
Ⅳ. Climate risks in Cameroon 1. Key Climate Risks in Cameroon and Food Insecurity Africa is often considered one of the most vulnerable continents to the impacts of climate change. The intensity and frequency of climate disasters such as floods and droughts has gone up in recent years. Little resilience of this continent to the impacts of climate change is due to various reasons such as poverty, poor governance, limited access to capital, and weak infrastructure and technology (Houghton, 2015). Temperature and precipitation alteration in the coming decades is likely to have negative effects on the agricultural sector. Potential negative effects can be more intense and frequent floods and droughts, increased outbreaks of disease and pests, shortening crop growing periods and so on (Rosenzweig et al., 2005). Warming temperature is highly likely to put a negative pressure on agricultural production especially in African continent. Moreover, Africa has fewer resources and weaker infrastructure to take climate adaptation measures in order to live up to challenging agricultural conditions. With further effects of climate change in the
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 117
coming decades, smallholder farming communities will be even more vulnerable to a number of climate risks and eventually food security. A European nonprofit organization, DARA, analyzed projected climate risks for 2030 in each country. DARA analyzed climate risks in terms of sea-level rise, storm, flood, drought, biodiversity, health, mortality, economic loss, and others and marked the number for the level of climate risks. The bigger the number the more the risks are damaging. From their data, Hong Eun Kyung excerpts the climate
Climate risks index for KOICA’s key partners for international cooperation2) Sea level rise
Storm
Flood
Forest fires
Drought
Biodiver sity
Health
DR Congo
2
1
2
2
7
7
8
8
7
Ghana
2
1
2
1
4
3
5
5
8
Nigeria
2
1
2
1
4
3
7
7
7
Nepal
1
1
8
8
4
3
5
5
4
East Timor
6
1
8
1
3
8
3
3
8
Laos
1
1
7
1
5
5
3
3
6
Rwanda
1
1
2
1
4
2
6
6
5
Mozambique
8
3
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
Mongolia
1
2
3
8
2
8
2
2
7
Bangladesh
3
8
8
1
5
2
5
6
6
Vietnam
4
2
8
1
8
2
2
2
8
Bolivia
1
2
8
1
8
8
5
5
7
Solomon
8
1
7
1
3
8
3
3
8
Sri Lanka
2
2
4
1
4
2
2
2
7
Azerbaijan
1
2
3
1
5
6
2
2
2
Ethiopia
1
1
2
1
5
6
7
7
4
Uganda
1
1
2
1
4
3
6
6
5
Uzbekistan
1
2
3
1
6
5
2
2
2
Indonesia
2
1
3
1
3
3
3
3
6
Cameroon
2
1
2
1
4
6
8
8
8
Cambodia
2
1
4
1
4
5
2
2
5
Paraguay
1
2
2
5
4
8
2
2
4
Pakistan
2
3
8
1
6
3
7
7
5
Peru
2
2
3
1
7
8
3
3
4
Philippines
2
2
4
2
4
2
2
2
6
Nation
Modified from KOICA
Number of Economic deaths damage
2)
2) In Table 4, the number (1-8) indicates the level of climate risks. The bigger number means more risks in each area which will bring more damage.
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risks of KOICA’s key partners for international cooperation in Table 4. She observes that Cameroon is one of the most vulnerable countries in Africa to the projected damaging climate risks for 2030. In particular, Cameroon is presenting the highest risks in mortality and economic damage. She also points out that these data can be used as a basic reference in selecting KOICA’s key destination for ODA project in the area of climate adaptation support (Hong, 2014). 2. How Climate Risks Impact Smallholder Farms in Cameroon Agriculture in the early 1990s in Cameroon was mainly characterized by Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) that made a number of negative impacts on the agricultural sector. SAPs encouraged the withdrawal of most forms of support given to farmers in Cameroon (Yengoh et al., 2014). Later, the National Strategy for the Development of Agriculture and the Rural Sector was launched in 2005 to provide a renewed support for agricultural development (MINADER, 2005). About 80% of all farms in Africa are smallholder farmers. Smallholder farming production contributes to food security, livelihood, and local and even national economic development (Altieri〮 et al., 2012). The agricultural sector in Cameroon accounts for 45% of its GDP and takes up about 80% of its labour force. The majority of poor smallholder farmers live in rural areas (Lauxa et al., 2010). In other words, given that smallholder farming communities are the most vulnerable group to the negative impacts of climate change, it is very significant to promote climate adaptation measures for smallholder farming communities. Genesis Tambang Yengoh et al. recently attempted to analyze
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 119
farmers’ perception of reasons behind low food production in Cameroon. Farmers in three different local areas (Fundong/Belo/ Njinikom)
identified
14
socio-economic
factors
and
10
agro-ecological factors as presented in Figure 2 and 3. According to his analysis, the most important socio-economic factors perceived by farmers are land scarcity, farmer-grazer problems, and financial pressure to invest in agriculture
. He also observes that the key agro-ecological factors perceived by farmers are the late start of the rainy season, prolonged dry spells, and soil fertility decline
(Yengoh〮 et al., 2014).
Rank of Socio-economic Factors3)
Modified from Genesis Tambang Yengoh, 〮Sara Brogaard
3) In Figure 2, 14 factors are identified and ranked by farmers in focus groups. The highest rank(14) indicates the most important factor perceived by farmers.
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Rank of Agro-ecological Factors4)
Modified from Genesis Tambang Yengoh〮,Sara Brogaard
Ⅴ. Policy Recommendations 1. Sustainable Farming Sustainable farming is essential to attain the goal of sustainable development. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2008), sustainable agriculture means successful resource management to meet human needs and at the same time maintain the quality of the environment and conserve natural resources (Lee et al., 2015). Modern
agricultural
practices
have
been well
criticized
for
anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adverse effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Therefore, agricultural production practices can be a problem or a solution in combating climate change (El-Hage et al., 2010). 4) In Figure 3, 10 factors are identified and ranked by farmers in focus groups. The highest rank(10) indicates the most important factor perceived by farmers.
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 121
Sustainable farming such as organic agriculture is an adaptation strategy that aims to improve the livelihoods of small farmers and at the same time a mitigation measure that reduces GHG emissions (Roychowdhury et al., 2013). Generally, key components of sustainable farming in combating climate change are organic manure, crop diversification, soil fertility restoration, and integrated livestock production (El-Hage et al., 2010). Also these are the components most needed by local farmers in the context of climate change. see
. The first component is organic manure. It has been widely recognized that chemical fertilizers cause numerous side effects on food, water, soil, and environment. The largest emission of N2O to the atmosphere is associated with agricultural activities, especially increasing fertilizer use (Houghton, 2015). N2O is one of the most significant GHGs along with CO2 and CH4. Cameroon is well known for a large portion of organic waste production. The high percentage of organic waste can be effectively used as organic manure through composting (Mbue et al., 2015). In the long run, the use of organic manure is beneficial in terms of food security and environmental aspect. Furthermore, the price of nitrogen fertilizers is likely to soar along with climate change and rising energy prices, which will aggravate food security of smallholder farmers (El-Hage et al., 2010). The second component is crop diversification. It can be related to the production of quality seeds that are more resistant to extreme climates. Farmers with uniform crops can be highly vulnerable to climate change and price fluctuation. Crop diversification should go together with quality seed production. Smallholder farmers have a limited access to quality seeds due to the insufficient support from
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governments. Crop diversification and quality seed production are beneficial to local food security in the era of climate change (Guei et al., 2011). The third component is soil fertility restoration. Soil carbon stocks are the basis of soil nutrition and agricultural production because it significantly affects soil fertility. Various technological methods of increasing soil carbon stocks are needed to tackle climate change and maintain biodiversity. Especially, increased soil carbon stocks through no-tillage in arid areas will scale up resilience to extreme climate such as droughts. In Korea, further research and development is under way to improve soil fertility for agricultural activity (Kim et al., 2005). In this sense, global cooperation between Korea and Cameroon in soil fertility restoration has great potential to tackle climate change. The fourth component is integrated livestock production. Through grazing management, the activation of fertilization increases soil carbon stocks and enhances air quality. Mixed crop-livestock system also gives a boost to resource circulation mechanism that has a huge mitigation and adaptation potential for climate change. Major contributions of aforementioned key components to combat climate change are summarized in
;
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 123
Key components of sustainable farming and its contribution to combating climate change Key Components of Sustainable Farming Management for Smallholder Farmers Organic Manure
Crop Diversification Soil Fertility Restoration Integrated Livestock Production
Major contributions to combating climate change
⦁ Reduction of GHG emission ⦁ Sustainable waste management ⦁ Low chemical input and higher crop yields ⦁ More resilience and resistance to extreme climates and food price fluctuation ⦁ Improving soil fertility to well adapt to climate change ⦁ Increase soil biodiversity ⦁ Prevention of soil erosion and soil loss ⦁ Boosting eco-friendly resource circulation
2. Limitations of the Current System (MINADER-RDAs-SHFs) It is evident that there is urgent need for sustainable farming management as climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in Cameroon. All the previous data and research substantiate this position. Especially, close collaboration between government bodies and local agencies is a top priority for small scale farmers to get a benefit. But before we move on to an effective collaboration model, we should critically review the existing system in Cameroon where sustainable farming at the local level is promoted. In Cameroon, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) is a state body that organizes and supervises government-level activities relating to agriculture and rural development. At the regional level, there are local authorities in 10 regions called Regional Delegation Agriculture (RDAs). Under RDAs, there are divisional and sub-divisional delegations that are in charge of local farming issues. The existing system between the central government and local authorities is already known to be very complicated and bureaucratic.
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It is hardly possible that they efficiently transfer appropriate technology and information to smallholder farming communities at grassroots level. In other words, local officials have poor accessibility to the most vulnerable group who urgently demands climate change adaptation support and capacity building. Furthermore, RDAs’ officials at the regional level have weak adaptive capacity in response to climate change which is further constrained by weak linkages between government institutions, agencies, and local communities (Brown et al., 2010). In order to overcome this drawback at the government level and limitation of the current governance system, innovation and capacity building in governance at all levels is much needed for this country. To accomplish it, comprehensive and concerted partnership from the private sector as well as the public sector will be an essential prerequisite (Kang et al., 2016) In recent years, there has been a steady growth in non-governmental organizations at the local, national, and international level in Cameroon. Emmanuel Neba observes that the Cameroon government started to recognize NGOs as partners in natural resource management and rural development. Transparent assessment of financial means and sustainability of NGOs and the cooperation between NGOs and governmental organizations are the keys to efficient performance of NGOs (Neba, 2008). In other words, the key role for civil society institutions and communities to enhance community resilience to climate change has been recognized (Niang, et al., 2014). Partnership with NGOs, CSOs, and community-based organizations by enhancing government capacity is particularly crucial to catalyze climate adaptation and mitigation measures in
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 125
Cameroon. 3. Effective Policy Network Korea, together with Climate Change Focal Team in the Cameroon Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) and local NGOs, can construct a more effective policy network. In our collaboration model, Korea will play a key role in providing technical support and capacity building inputs to MINADER and local NGOs/CSOs in Cameroon. Climate Change Focal Team from MINADER will take initiatives in planning, supervising, and monitoring sustainable farming management in collaboration with local NGOs/CSOs, which will in return enable the government to enhance its capacity. Local NGOs/CSOs are the key organizations which make direct contact with smallholder farmers in local areas. Through various sustainable farming programs, local NGOs/CSOs will directly benefit smallholder farmers to help them better adapt to the impacts of climate change. To sum up, top-down approach and bottom-up approach will go hand in hand in processing this multi-level partnership. The basic framework for this partnership is presented below in the .
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Global collaboration model between KOICA5) and counterparts in Cameroon, climate change focal team and local NGOs
In Cameroon, a national focus on environmental conservation issues has increased since the early 1990s. However, according to the report of Cameroon case study, government officials engaging in climate change were mostly confined to a climate change unit within Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection (MINEP) (Gemma, 2011). With a growing awareness of climate change issues at the government level, the Cameroon government established the Climate Change Focal Team within the MINADER in 2016. This Climate Change Focal Team is designed to facilitate climate adaptation and mitigation measures
in a context
of
agriculture and
rural
development.
5) In this collaboration model, KOICA, a Korean government agency for grant-type international cooperation, is mentioned.
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 127
Key role of local NGOs in Cameroon and capacity building Since there are so many small-scale local NGOs and CSOs supporting environment issues and agriculture, selecting a key group of local NGOs and CSOs is inevitable. Ndenecho Emmanuel Neba identifies different types of NGOs according to their characteristics and functions (Neba, 2008). The NGOs suggested in the collaborative model of this research will be limited to community-based CSOs which are mainly involved in climate change and agriculture in their respective regions. In implementing Sustainable Farming Management for smallholder farmers presented in , the role of local environmental NGOs in Cameroon is crucial. The following areas are the key components for local NGO capacity building. Specific strategies are also elaborated along with the key components. First, if projects are to attain long-term sustainability, local communities must be actively involved
in
program
design
and
implementation.
Second,
accountability and transparency should be promoted in a context of monitoring and evaluating the functions of local NGOs by KOICA, MINADER, and peer NGO groups. Third, capacity building for local NGOs must contribute to good governance which can be achieved by the cooperation with Cameroon government organization and KOICA: Sustainability: •.Develop local institutions: formation of farmers’ groups or federations in each region •.Establish local and international researcher – farmer partnership •.Promote training, technical assistance, and networking to benefit
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smallholder farmers •.Encourage active participation by smallholder farmers Accountability and transparency: •.Reinforce the monitoring and evaluation of local NGOs and programs by Climate Change Focal Team (MINADER) and KOICA •.Create a mechanism for peer group reviews which enable local NGOs to evaluate other NGOs and promote accountability and transparency Good governance •.Create a good governance culture and system by Climate Change Focal Team at the government level in collaboration with KOICA Sustainable farming management system for smallholder farmers On the basis of the basic framework of , we have designed Sustainable Farming Management System for smallholder farmers (SHFs) below where concerted partnership between Korea and counterparts in Cameroon, Climate Change Focal Team and local NGOs/CSOs will ultimately benefit SHFs in Cameroon to help them better adapt to the impacts of climate change. 4 key components of sustainable farming management have been identified based on specific needs of local farmers in Cameroon . Under those key elements, 7 possible measures have been derived here on the basis of implementation feasibility in partnership with local CSO and NGOs and the future potential of collaboration with
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 129
Korea. Considering smallholder farmers are facing similar problems in Africa, the following 7 measures can be adapted to similar conditions in other countries (Guei et al., 2011). However, more field-oriented measures specific to smallholder farmers in Cameroon need to be developed further as there haven't been many researches on that area.
Sustainable farming management system for SHFs
1) Organic manure:
Implementation of on-farm demonstrations and training In order to raise awareness among local farmers about the use of organic manure, on-farm demonstrations should be implemented among selected groups of smallholder farmers. Farmers need to be
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keenly aware of the potential negative impacts from the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In collaboration with the central government, local NGOs can select a specific group of local farmers for on-farm demonstration and hold training seminars on a regular basis to promote the use of organic manure as a climate change mitigation measure. 2) Crop diversification and quality seed production:
Boosting the involvement of smallholder seed producers By adopting different kinds of crops, farmers can enhance their resilience to external risks such as extreme climates. In reality, small farming communities often do not have access to seeds of the crop varieties. Farmers’ group of federations can produce and manage the distribution of quality seeds and local varieties (Guei et al., 2011). Above all, they should be given technical training on quality seed production in collaboration with civil society organizations and other research institutes. The focus of technical training is processing, harvesting,
and
storage
techniques.
Especially,
civil
society
organizations can take initiatives in stimulating smallholder seed producers and encouraging their involvement.
Government’s efficient processing of quality seed approval If seeds developed by local farmers meet the high quality requirement of MINADER, they receive quality approval and are widely distributed for local use. Usually this process is often delayed due to poor communication between government agencies and local
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 131
farmers. Civil society organizations and local NGOs in each region can efficiently mediate this communication network between Climate Change Focal Team and smallholder farmers. If smallholder farmers stick to uniform crops in a context of high climate variability, they are highly vulnerable to extreme weather events. Moreover, many of them rely on food crops for their household consumption. Extreme climate and food price fluctuation will negatively affect their food security (El-Hage et al., 2010). In this vein, crop diversification and quality seed production are the key survival tools for smallholder farmers to better adapt to climate change. 3) Soil fertility restoration:
The introduction of no-tillage farming Agricultural productivity is enhanced by soil fertility management, which will positively affect the income of smallholder farmers. The no-tillage farming method cultivates crops without overtaking soil. It is known that tillage of the soil has the advantage of cleaning up the agricultural land and promoting the movement of water. On the other hand, it causes more soil loss and erosion and destroys the habitat of living organisms in the soil. This accelerates the decomposition of organic carbon stored in the soil and the release of greenhouse gases through the soil (Rural Development Administration, 2013). However, no-tillage agriculture has a huge mitigation potential because it does not need large farm machinery. It reduces moisture loss and increases activity of living organisms in the soil (Lal, 2004). In practice, this no-tillage farming method can be tailored specific to
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the situation of small-scale farmers. Also it can be utilized side by side with the improvement of tillage farming in developing countries.
Slurry composting and biofiltration (SCB) liquid fertilizer Slurry composting and biofiltration (SCB) liquid fertilizer is a microbial fermented fertilizer with a low solid content. Also it is an organic resource with high efficiency. Above all, this liquid fertilizer does not need a moisture controller. Livestock manure can be fermented without odor and has the advantage of improving soil fertility and preventing environmental pollution (Hapcheon-gun, 2014). In Korea, there has been increasing research and development activities on a SCB liquid fertilizer. In partnership with local NGOs in Cameroon and specialists from Korea, this soil fertility technique will efficiently support sustainable farming management for smallholder farmers in Cameroon. 4) Integrated livestock production:
Mixed crop-livestock farming Mixed crop-livestock farming integrates crop and livestock activities. Animals play a key role in tillage of land while animal manure fertilizes crops. In this vein, Wilkins observes that mixed crop-livestock farming is more cost-efficient due to mutually beneficial interaction between crop and livestock (Wilkins, 2008). Mixed crop-livestock farming showed a lower risk of nitrogen pollution and reduced farmers’ financial risks through minimizing production costs (Ryschawy et al., 2012). In response to climate
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 133
change, there will be a need for technical training and seminars on mixed crop-livestock farming among smallholder farmers.
Grazing management Livestock breeding causes many problems such as overspending of feedstuff costs and disease. Sustainable livestock management should be realized not only for the environment but also for the income of small-scale farmers. In this sense, grazing management can reduce feedstuff costs by utilizing further farmland and mountain area. Quality livestock products from grazing management will lead to income growth for local farmers. As this grazing management is less sensitive to extreme climates, sales are possible throughout the year. Local NGOs can recommend appropriate livestock in line with the local condition in Cameroon. In Korea, livestock industry accounts for 34.7% of total agricultural output and has become a representative industry in domestic agriculture. But Korea is currently facing major threats such as avian influenza and foot-and-mouth disease, which diverts people’s attention and interest to grazing management (Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, 2013). The demand for R&D in this area will increasingly grow.
Ⅵ. Conclusion Today, global cooperation for climate change mitigation and adaptation is inevitable. As a country which has pledged to be committed to the UNFCCC agreement, Korea must develop various channels of international cooperation to contribute to climate change
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mitigation and adaptation at the global level as well as the national level. In this research, we selected Cameroon as a potential global partner for climate cooperation considering climate risk factor, development potential factor, and implementation ability factor. Due to the well-known corruption and weak governance in Cameroon, we suggested comprehensive and concerted partnership from the public sector and the private sector in Cameroon in tackling climate change issues. Strategic partnerships between government and civil society organizations were presented here in this paper especially to help smallholder farmers better adapt to climate change. In particular, sustainable farming management for smallholder farmers in response to climate change was elaborated in terms of organic manure, crop diversification, soil fertility restoration, and integrated crop-livestock management. This paper focused on figuring out the real needs of small-farming communities in Cameroon in the face of a formidable environmental challenge, climate change. More detailed strategies for international climate cooperation remain to be explored further. Through this research, we have identified further research areas needed as follows; •.Identifying local environmental NGOs and CSOs in each region in Cameroon and their challenges and contributions •.Providing an effective model of self-sustaining local financing system to support smallholder farmers •.Assessing the suitability of the international collaboration model between Korea and Cameroon in other developing countries •.Developing effective irrigation scheme for sustainable farming management in response to climate change
Policy Recommendations on Capacity Building for Climate Adaptation in Sustainable Farming in Cameroon ▪ 135
We hope that this paper can serve as a catalyst for igniting further research on more effective international cooperation model to tackle climate change.
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6)
정지영: 한동대학교 통번역대학원을 졸업하고 경북대학교 기후변화학과에서 박사과정 중에 있다. 관심분야는 개도국을 위한 기후변화 적응/완화 정책 연구이다(kingdombuilder002@ gmail.com). 김지애: 영남대학교 화학과를 졸업하고 경북대학교 기후변화학과에서 석사과정 중에 있 다. 관심분야는 녹색기후기술 국제협력과 기후변화 적응/완화 기술과 정책 융합 분야이 다([email protected]). Benyoh Emmanuel Kigha Nsafon: 카메룬 정부 Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development에서 근무 중이며, Climate Change Focal Team에 소속되어 있다 ([email protected]). 허증수: 미국 MIT 대학에서 박사학위를 취득하고 현재 경북대학교 금속신소재공학과 교 수로 재직 중이다. 또한 기후변화학과 학과장이며 글로벌기후변화 및 에너지연구소 소 장을 겸임하고 있다([email protected]). 투 고 일: 2017년 11월 08일 심 사 일: 2017년 12월 03일 게재확정일: 2017년 12월 21일
