Microbial Pathogenesis 117 (2018) 259–264
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Post-weaning piglets fed with different levels of fungal mycotoxins and spray-dried porcine plasma have improved weight gain, feed intake and reduced diarrhea incidence
T
Lucieli Kamila Focht Müllera, Diovani Paianoa,b,∗, Jeferson Gugelb, William Raphael Lorenzettia, Janio Morais Santurioc, Fernando de Castro Tavernarid, Eduardo Micotti da Gloriae, Matheus D. Baldisserac, Aleksandro Schafer Da Silvaa,b,∗∗ Graduate Program of Animal Sciences – Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Chapecó, Santa Catarina, Brazil Department of Animal Sciences - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Chapecó, Santa Catarina, Brazil Department of Microbiology and Parasiotology, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil d EMBRAPA Swine and Poultry, Concórdia, SC, Brazil e Laboratório de Micologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil a
b c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Aflatoxins Functional feedstuffs Nursery Fumonisins Swine Production Pathogenesis
Mycotoxins are responsible for economic losses in the swine production industry, especially during postweaning, when piglets are physiologically immature. Spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP), added to pig diets, may help reduce losses due to mycotoxins. This work investigates the effects of SDPP in post-weaning piglets fed with diets containing natural contaminants or with more contaminants (co-contamination by mycotoxins). Fiftysix castrated weaned piglets were used in a randomized 2 (0 and 6% of SDPP) x 2 (natural contamination or cocontamination with mycotoxin) factorial design, with seven experimental units of two piglets each. The natural contaminants were 0.95 μg/kg aflatoxins +450 μg/kg fumonisins. The co-contaminated diet contained 300 μg/ kg aflatoxins +8000 μg/kg fumonisins. Animals were fed 15 days with experimental diets. Feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, diarrhea incidence, and economic feasibility of SDPP treatement were evaluated in three periods of five days each. There was no interaction (P < 0.05) between mycotoxins levels and SDPP. Feed intake, weight gain and feed efficiency were higher (P < 0.05) in diets supplemented with SDPP. Animals fed with SDPP showed lower (P < 0.05) diarrhea incidence in the 1–10 day and 1–15 day periods. The experimental dose of mycotoxins reduced (P < 0.05) weight gain at 11–15 days. SDPP proved to be economical feasible over the total experimental period (1–15 days). Spray-dried plasma improved weight gain, feed intake and reduced diarrhea incidence in piglets post-weaning, but did not correlate with various levels of mycotoxins.
1. Introduction
[4]. Mycotoxins are naturally-occurring toxic secondary metabolities, produced by various species of filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium [5]. They contaminate agricultural crops prior to harvest or during post-harvest storage [6]. They represent a substantial source of environmental toxins for both humans and animals, including pigs [7]. In pigs, a diet containing aflatoxins and fumonisins is associated with reduced weight gain, pulmonary, hepatic and cardiovascular injuries, and increased inflammatory markers, suggesting impairment of the immune system [7,8]. According to Mehrzad et al. [9], dysregulation in the antigen-presenting capacity of dendritic cells is linked to the mechanism of immune system impairment during aflatoxin poisoning.
The weaning period is critical for swine production, as it represents the culmination of several stress factors for piglets, including: removal from their mothers; grouping with unknown individuals; change of environment; and transition from liquid to solid feeding [1]. The change of feeding leads to a decrease in feed intake, decreased rate of weight gain, and increase diarrhea incidence [2] and the inclusion of ingredients in the diet that will be a part of their feed throughout the entire cycle, such as corn and soybean meal. These ingredients represent over 50% of the total production cost [3]. Nevertheless, these important dietary ingredients are often contaminated with mycotoxins
∗
Corresponding author. Graduate Program of Animal Sciences – Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Chapecó, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Corresponding author. Graduate Program of Animal Sciences – Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Chapecó, Santa Catarina, Brazil. E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (D. Paiano),
[email protected] (A.S. Da Silva).
∗∗
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2018.02.035 Received 13 August 2017; Received in revised form 17 February 2018; Accepted 17 February 2018 Available online 19 February 2018 0882-4010/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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visualize the incidence of diarrhea directly. The nursery room was equipped with double curtains, with an automated system for the activation of heaters, programmed for activation at a minimum temperature of 23 °C and shut-off at 25 °C. To record room temperature, minimum and maximum thermometers were used, a dry bulb and wet bulb, with two daily recordings (8:00 AM and 4:00 PM). Average temperatures were minimum 22.1 °C ± 1.9 °C, maximum 25.8 °C ± 1.1 °C. Relative humidity was 77.4 ± 6.7%. Feed intake, weight gain and feed efficiency (gain/consumption) were assessed every five days in three sequential periods from weaning: 1–5, 6–10, and 11–15 days, as well as in combinations of 1–10 and 1–15 days. These variables were obtained by weighing the animals on the first day of each experiment period (prior to feeding), and at the end of the experiment. On the same days, feed intake was calculated in order to determine feed waste. Diarrhea incidence was obtained from direct observation at the time of feeding. When diarrhea was observed, a positive occurrence was recorded in the experimental unit for that day, without identification of individual piglet or of diarrhea intensity. At the end of each five-day period, the total number of days with diarrhea per pen was calculated for the respective periods.
Regarding fumonisin, studies conducted by Liu et al. [10] and Grenier et al. [11] showed that fumonisin B1 induces an inflammatory response through increases in pro-inflammatory mediators that contribute to cell death by apoptosis, as well as to pulmonary edema. Thus, treatments that may prevent or reduce these effects present compelling approaches to enhancing animal performance and productivity. One such approach is spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP). SDPP is considered a functional feed, due to its beneficial characteristics, as well as its nutritional benefits. It is a source of highquality protein and active immunoglobulins with good palatability for piglets [12]. All these attributes make SDPP a potential tool for enhancing piglet performance after weaning, increasing productivity, and for improving immune function [13,14]. In addition, piglet diet containing SDPP may help avoid reduction in weight gain and impairments in performance, may modulate the inflammatory process, and may improve the immune system [15]. This study was carried out to evaluate the effects and economic viability of spray-dried porcine plasma in enhancing performance and reducing the incidence of diarrhea in weaned piglets exposed to diets containing aflatoxins and fumonisins. 2. Materials and methods
2.4. Experimental design and diets This study was performed in accordance with the ethical principles in animal experimentation adopted by the Brazilian College of Animal Experimentation (BCAE), and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (Protocol number: 01.34.15).
The mycotoxin used in this study was previously detailed by Muller et al. [15]. Aflatoxins were obtained from Aspergillus parasiticus by the rice fermentation method, with controlled temperature and constant stirring. Fumonisins were obtained from fermentation of corn grains, using Fusarium verticillioides. The high mycotoxin contamination levels proposed in our study were achieved in the diets by adding these mycotoxins as concentrates. Low contamination levels (control diet) were obtained using naturally contaminated soybean and cornmeals. Verification and quantitation of alfatoxin and fumonisin were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Aflatoxin levels were 130,000 μg/kg of rice, containing 83% of aflatoxin B1, 9.5% of aflatoxin B2, 3.4% of aflatoxin G1, and 4.2% of aflatoxin G2. The levels obtained of fumonisins were, on average, 110,000 μg/kg of corn, with 92.5% corresponding to type B1.
The experimental design was a completely randomized 2 (levels of SDPP) x 2 (natural contamination or co-contamination by mycotoxin) factorial design with seven experimental units of two piglets. Animals were fed 15 days with experimental diets. Feed intake, weight gain, feed efficiency, diarrhea incidence and economic feasibility of SDPP were evaluated in three periods of five days. Experimental diets were four different mash diets (Table 1), based on corn and soybean meal, according to the minimum nutritional recommendations for the post-weaning phase [16]. Different levels of mycotoxins, as well as SDPP were as follows: A) 0% of SDPP and 0.95 μg/kg aflatoxins +450 μg/kg fumonisins; B) 6% of SDPP and 0.95 μg/kg aflatoxins +450 μg/kg fumonisins; C) 0% of SDPP and 300 μg/kg aflatoxins +8000 μg/kg fumonisins; and D) 6% od SDPP and 300 μg/kg aflatoxins +8000 μg/kg fumonisins. Treatments A and B aflatoxins and fumonisins levels were based on levels of naturallycontaminated corn and soybean meal obtained from local trade. Treatments C and D were formulated as naturally-contaminated corn and soybean meal plus isolated aflatoxins and fumonisins. Feedstuffs amino acids composition was estimated according to crude protein analysis and amino acid profile proposed by Rostagno et al. [16].
2.2. Spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP)
2.5. Economic analyses
Swine plasma was processed by a spray dryer process (min. 78% of crude protein, max. 10% of ash, min. 0.5% crude fat, and 92% dry matter). The SDPP used was AP920 from APC do Brasil.
The first economic analysis was a calculation of the bio-economic index, based on the results of weight gain and feed intake, obtained in diets with and without SPDD. The economic bio-index used for the elaboration of inequalities of prediction of maximum price for SDPP to justify feasibility, according to the expression adapted from Guidoni et al. [17] is as follows:
2.1. Mycotoxins
2.3. Animals We used a total of 56 castrated male piglets, crossbred commercial line, average weight 7.15 ± 0.61 kg, weaned at 24 ± 2 days. The experiment had two steps at intervals of one month, that is, it was first conducted with 28 animals, and later the experimental design was repeated with another 28 piglets. Results from Step 1 were as previously described by Muller et al. [15], i.e., body weight, hematological, and inflammatory variables. However, in order to increase the number of animals, and thus to increase the statistical test's ability to evaluate a difference in incidence of diarrhea, weight gain and food consumption, we chose to repeat the experiment (Step 2). Piglets were housed in experimental pens of 1.2 m × 0.5 m, with slatted plastic floor, equipped with round-bottom tube feeders and cuptype drinkers. Diet and water were given ad libitum. Feeding was manual, in order to avoid waste, to stimulate consumption, and to
⎡ MPSDPP ≤ ⎢PRP (Gaini − Gain 0) − ⎣ /(Cli × FIi )
N
∑ J ≠L=1
⎤ Pj (Cji × FIi − Cjo × FI0) ⎥ ⎦
where MPSDPP = maximum price for the SDPP, so that the diet used has the same economic efficiency as the control diet (without inclusion of SDPP); PRP = price per kg of piglet; Gaini = average weight gain of piglets from the treatment with i level of SDPP (6%); Gaino = average weight gain of piglets from the treatment without SDPP; Pj = price of the other ingredients in each diet; Cji = percentage of ingredient j in the diet i; FIi = average total feed intake per animal inherent to the diet i; Cjo = percentage of the ingredient j in the diet without SDPP; FIo = average total feed intake per animal on the diet without SDPP; 260
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Subsequently, the performance variables and the diarrhea incidence were submitted to the analysis of variance and to the F-test using the SAEG statistical package. For the performance variables, we considered initial weights. The following statistical model was used: Yijk = μ + Ai + Bj + (AB) + eijk, where Y = value of the variable tested under the i-th level of factor A and j-th level of factor B; μ = overall mean associated with all observations; Ai = effect of the ith level of factor A (natural or co-contamination by mycotoxin); Bj = effect of the j-th level of factor B (without or with inclusion of 6% of SDPP); Ai *Bj = effect of the A and B interaction; and eijk = random error associated with all observations. P < 0.05 was adopted as significant difference and values of P > 0.05 and P < 0.10 were considered as trend, according to Xu et al. [18].
Table 1 Composition of experimental diets. Ingredients, %
Natural mycotoxins
Co-contamination by mycotoxins
0% SDPP
6% SDPP
0% SDPP
6% SDPP
39.43 31.38 15.0 5.0 1.29 0.74 3.40 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.37 0.84 0.38 0.45 0.08 0.20 0.58 – – –
46.33 20.25 15.0 5.0 1.23 0.82 2.11 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.04 0.75 0.34 0.38 0.08 0.29 0.52 6.0 – –
33.23 30.43 15.0 5.0 1.30 0.74 3.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.37 0.86 0.38 0.45 0.08 0.21 0.59 – 0.23 6.91
40.11 19.31 15.0 5.0 1.24 0.84 2.08 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.04 0.78 0.34 0.38 0.09 0.30 0.52 6.0 0.23 6.88
Aflatoxins, μg/kg Fumonisins, μg/kg
0.95 450
0.95 450
300 8000
300 8000
Ca, % Available P, % Na, % Metabolizable energy, Mcal/kg Crude Protein, % Lysine digestible, % Methionine + Cis digestible, % Tryptophan digestible, % Threonine digestible, % Valine digestible, % Isoleucine digestible, % Neutral detergente fiber, % Acid detergente fiber, %
0.85 0.43 0.28 3.40
0.85 0.43 0.28 3.40
0.85 0.43 0.28 3.40
0.85 0.43 0.28 3.40
21.0 1.65 0.91
21.0 1.65 0.91
21.0 1.65 0.91
21.0 1.65 0.91
0.30 1.11 1.37 0.91 8.98 3.96
0.30 1.11 1.37 0.91 8.25 3.29
0.30 1.11 1.37 0.91 8.12 3.66
0.30 1.11 1.37 0.91 7.39 3.00
Corn Soybean meal (45% CP) Whey powder Sugarcane Dicalcium phosphate Limestone Soybean oil Vitamin suplement a Mineral suplement b ZnO Salt L-Lysine H-Cl DL-Methionine L-Threonine L-Tryptophan L-Isoleucine L-Valine Spray-dried porcine plasma Isolated aflatoxins Isolated fumonisin
3. Results There were no interactions between mycotoxins and SDPP for any variables (P > 0.05), suggesting that the deleterious effects of mycotoxins and/or SDPP benefits were independent. Individual feed intake was higher (P < 0.05) in diets with SDPP vs no SDPP. The difference in consumption among animals that consumed SDPP was approximately 0.5 kg/animal per period, representing 1.5 kg of feed intake improvement in total period (Table 2). Weight gain and feed efficiency were higher (P < 0.05) in diets with SDPP in the periods of 1–5, 1–10 and 1–15 (Table 2). Individual weight gain over the total period was approximately 1.0 kg higher with SDPP treatment. There was no SDPP effect on weight gain (P > 0.05) in the last period (11–15 days). We observed a tendency toward worsening intake (P = 0.06) for diets co-contamined with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins did not influence (P > 0.05) the incidence of diarrhea (Table 3). On the other hand, SDPP decreased (P < 0.05) diarrhea incidence during the 1–10 and 1–15 periods. The number of days with diarrhea in the total period (1–15 days) was approximatelyt 2.5 times lower with 6% of SDPP. Feed efficiency was higher in diets with SDPP (1–5, 1–10, and 1–15 days). The higher feed efficiency from the consumption of SDPP is probably associated with the agent's beneficial effects on weight gain (Fig. 1). However, when analyzed in isolation, during the last period (11–15 days), there was a trend (P = 0.06) toward inversion, with better feed efficiency in diets without SDPP. This may be associated with the recovery and rehydration of animals affected by diarrhea in the previous phases, and not necessarily to effects related to the diet. This was based on the frequency of days with diarrhea, that in the third period decreased more intensely for the animals treated without plasma, which decreased by 1.1 days (1.9 days–0.7 days). For animals treated with SDPP, the reduction was 0.3 days (0.4 days–0.1 days). At the same time, piglet maturation (intestinal and immunological) occurs naturally, which may have resulted in a trend toward better effects on feed efficiency during this period in diets without SDPP. Costs for piglets, corn, whey powder, and soybean meal were the most important feed components determining SDPP maximum cost (1–5 and 6–10 days; Table 4). In the third period, corn was the ingredient with the most important bio-index making SDPP economically feasible. The maximum estimated price for SDPP to be economically feasible should be lower than US$ 23.65/kg, US$ 18.90/kg and US$ 12.72/kg, for the periods 1–5, 1–10 and 1–15 days, respectively. Considering separately phases 6–10 and 11–15 days, the cost of SDPP should be lower than US$ 16.81/kg, and US$ 3.49/kg, respectively. The cost of the SDPP during the experimental period was US$ 5.40/kg, suggesting the feasibility of SDPP treatment. During the third experimental period of 11–15 days, the price charged did not make the use of SDPP economically feasible.
Calculated composition
a Provided the following per kilogram of diet: Vit. A – 4.167.000 UI, Vit. D3 – 833.000 UI, Vit. E – 13.333 mg, Vit. K3 – 1.000 mg, Vit. B1 – 1.000 mg, Vit. B2 – 1.667 mg, Vit. B6 – 1.000 mg, Vit. B12 – 8 mg, Niacin – 11.667 mg, Pantothenic Acid – 7.333 mg, Folic acid – 200 mg, Colin – 104 mg, Biotin – 33 mg. b Ca - (min. 166 g e max. 203 g), Co – 266,7 mg, Cu – 66,67 g, I – 600 mg, Mn – 18,33 g, Se – 135 mg, Zn-41,67 g, Fe-66,67 g* 40 mg/kg growth promoter.
Cli = percentage of the SDPP in the diet i. The second analysis, aiming to estimate the economic feasability of the use of SDPP, consisted of the multiplication of the bio-economic indices obtained from the previous stage by the prices of ingredients from local trade (December 2016) as follows: piglet, US$ 2.90/kg (equivalent to three times the price of finished pig/kg); corn, US$ 0.23/ kg; whey powder, US$ 1.35/kg; soybean meal, 45% CP US$ 0.41/kg; sugar, US$ 0.50/kg; dicalcium phosphate, US$ 0.50/kg; calcitic limestone, US$ 0.04/kg; soybean oil, US$ 0.96/kg; micromineral supplement, US$ 3.86/kg; vitamin supplement, US$ 2.54/kg; zinc oxide, US$ 1.50/kg; common salt, US$ 0.11/kg; L-lysine, US$ 1.80/kg; DL-methionine, US$ 3.47/kg; L-threonine, US$ 2.16/kg; L-tryptophan, US$ 9.32/kg; L-valine, US$ 11.05/kg; and L-isoleucine, US$ 24.00/kg.
2.6. Statistical analysis 4. Discussion The values obtained were previously shown to demonstrate normality of errors using the Kolmogorov-smirnov test (P > 0.05).
The most important finding of this study is that treatment with 261
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Table 2 Effects of diets with natural contamination (NC) or co-contamination (CC) by mycotoxin and of the treatment with spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) on piglet performance. Natural contamination
Co-contamination
Mycotoxins
0% SDPP
0% SDPP
6% SDPP
NC
CC
0%
6%
Mycotoxins
SDPP
M*S
7.11 7.35 8.47 10.30
7.19 8.36 10.40 12.39
7.14 7.81 9.44 11.81
7.15 7.86 9.43 11.35
7.12 7.36 8.52 10.51
7.17 8.30 10.35 12.65
0.94 – – –
0.62 – – –
0.77 – – –
3.7 – – –
1.12 1.52 2.12 2.64 4.75
1.66 2.20 2.75 3.85 6.61
1.41 1.98 2.84 3.38 6.22
1.39 1.86 2.43 3.25 5.68
1.16 1.61 2.35 2.77 5.12
a a a a a
1.64 b 2.22 b 2.93 b 3.86 b 6.78 b
ns ns 0.06 ns 0.23
0.01 < 0.01 0.03 < 0.01 0.01
ns ns ns ns ns
28.3 19.6 21.5 21.5 20.7
0.24 1.12 1.84 1.36 3.20
1.17 2.04 1.99 3.21 5.20
0.67 1.64 2.37 a 2.30 4.67
0.71 1.58 1.91 b 2.29 4.20
0.24 1.16 1.98 1.40 3.39
a a
1.13 b 2.05 b 2.29 3.18 b 5.48 b
ns ns 0.03 ns 0.32
< 0.01 < 0.01 0.15 < 0.01 < 0.01
ns ns ns ns ns
83.3 35.8 23.6 41.3 29.1
−0.07 0.61 0.89 0.33 0.60
0.67 0.91 0.72 0.81 0.78
0.34 0.81 0.85 0.63 0.74
0.30 0.76 0.80 0.57 0.69
−0.01 a 0.65 a 0.87 0.39 a 0.63 a
0.65 b 0.98 b 0.78 0.81 b 0.80 b
ns ns 0.32 ns 0.30
< 0.01 0.01 0.06 < 0.01 < 0.01
ns ns 0.07 ns ns
138.3 32.9 12.6 47.1 18.3
6% SDPP
Body weight, kg Initial 7.13 7.15 5° day 7.37 8.24 10° day 8.58 10.30 15° day 10.71 12.90 Feed intake, kg/piglet/period 1-5 days 1.20 1.62 6-10 days 1.71 2.24 11-15 days 2.59 3.10 1-10 days 2.91 3.86 1-15 days 5.49 6.95 Weight gain, kg/piglet/period 1-5 days 0.24 1.09 6-10 days 1.21 2.06 11-15 days 2.13 2.60 1-10 days 1.45 3.15 1-15 days 3.58 5.75 Feed efficiency (weight gain/feed intake) 1-5 days 0.05 0.64 6-10 days 0.69 0.92 11-15 days 0.85 0.84 1-10 days 0.46 0.81 1-15 days 0.65 0.83
SDPP
a a
P values =
CV %
*Values followed by different lowercase letters in the line differ (P < 0.05) for the F test; ns = not significant; CV = coefficient of variation.
flora, and increases colonization by pathogenic microorganisms, contributing to occurrence of diarrhea. According to Tran et al. [27], the reduction of diarrhea incidence in animals treated with SDPP may be associated with reduction of pathogenic adhesion molecules in the intestinal mucosa, thus providing a better balance in the intestinal mucosa [28]. According to this author, SDPP improves intestinal health by promoting greater absorption of nutrients. This may also explain the increased weight gain observed in animals treated with feed co-contaminated with mycotoxin and SDPP in the absence of interactions. It is important emphasize that immunoglobulins present in SDPP have activity against pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella sp. and E. coli. This may explain the reduction of incidence of diarrhea [29]. A study conducted by Petschow et al. [30] demonstrated that SDPP improves intestinal mucosal integrity and reduces pathogen permeability, also decreasing the incidence of diarrhea. Taken together, these factors can explain the reduced diarrhea incidence in animals treated with SDPP. Similar to our results, Weaver et al. [23] observed the harmful effects of mycotoxins during the third period (11–15 days). There was no effect on the group fed a diet co-contaminated with mycotoxin in the first two stages, but there was a tendency toward worsening intake (P = 0.06) in the third stage. This maybe associated with the cumulative effect of mycotoxins on piglets during the previous stages. This suggests that the level and/or time of exposure were not sufficiently great to have effects on performance variables until the third stage. Similarly, there was no effect on growth performance in piglets receiving a dose of 20 μg/kg of aflatoxins for 35 days [31].
SDPP (6%) increased feed intake and weight gain, possibly as a consequence of improvement in palatability. It was also associated with better piglet health status, similar to that observed by Gattás et al. [19] who used approximately 6% of SDPP during the first 14 days after weaning. We observed that diets contaminated with mycotoxins reduced weight gain during the third period. According to Dilkin et al. [20], the reduction in animal weight gain is considered a consequence of diminished food consumption, such as was observed by Harvey et al. [21] in swine poisoned with fumonisin B1 at 100 mg/kg of feed. In our study, SDPP increased feed intake and weight gain, similar to the result obtained by Pujols et al. [22], who showed that animals supplemented with SDPP had higher feed efficiency, lower morbidity and lower mortality rates in the subsequent phases of life. Improvement in weight gain in animals fed with SDPP is likely associated with the presence of animal protein, as well as with improvement in patalability and with the presence of functional components such as immunoglobulins. A study conducted by Weaver et al. [23] demonstrated that improvement in immune system function contributes to weight gain in piglets fed with a diet containing SDPP, due to the presence of immunoglobulins. The occurrence of diarrhea in the poisoned animals may be associated with immune system impairments, since the immunossupressive effects of mycotoxins may decrease the host resistance to infectious diseases [24], including by bacterial infections such as Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli [25,26]. According to these authors, the presence of bacteria in the intestine decreases colonization of intestinal
Table 3 Effects of diets with natural contamination (NC) or co-contamination (CC) by mycotoxin and of the treatment with spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) on diarrhea incidence.
1-5 days 6-10 days 11-15 days 1-10 days 1-15 days a
Natural contamination
Co-contamination
Mycotoxins
SDPP
P values =
0% SDPP
6% SDPP
0% SDPP
6% SDPP
NC
CC
0%
6%
Mycotoxins
SDPP
MaS
1.3 1.9 0.7 3.1 3.9
0.4 0.6 0.1 1.0 1.1
0.7 1.9 0.7 2.6 3.3
0.4 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.9
0.9 1.2 0.4 2.1 2.5
0.6 1.1 0.4 1.6 2.1
1.0 1.9 a 0.7 2.9 a 3.6 a
0.4 0.4 b 0.1 0.9 b 1.0 b
0.47 ns ns ns ns
0.15 < 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.01
ns ns ns ns ns
Values followed by different lowercase letters in the line differ (P < 0.05) for the F test; ns = not significant; CV = coefficient of variation.
262
CV %
143.6 106.2 181.8 112.3 110.4
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Table 4 Estimated bio-economical indexes for determining the maximum SDPP price for use in piglet diets. Bio-econ. indexes for kga
Periods (days after weaning) 1–5
6–10
11–15
1–10
Piglet 9.077 6.648 1.764 7.680 Grinded corn −3.082 −2.961 −2.453 −3.970 Whey powder −0.728 −0.682 −0.491 −0.925 Soybean meal (45% CP) 0.355 0.449 0.842 0.539 Sugarcane −0.243 −0.227 −0.164 −0.308 Dicalcium phosphate −0.052 −0.048 −0.032 −0.066 Limestone −0.051 −0.049 −0.039 −0.066 Soy oil 0.050 0.060 0.103 0.074 Vitamin suplement −0.015 −0.014 −0.010 −0.018 Mineral suplement −0.015 −0.014 −0.010 −0.018 ZnO −0.012 −0.011 −0.008 −0.015 Salt 0.037 0.038 0.043 0.050 L-Lysine H-Cl −0.027 −0.024 −0.013 −0.033 DL-Methionine −0.012 −0.011 −0.006 −0.015 L-Threonine −0.010 −0.009 −0.003 −0.013 L-Tryptophan −0.004 −0.004 −0.003 −0.005 L-Isoleucine −0.017 −0.016 −0.008 −0.022 L-Valine −0.024 −0.024 −0.021 −0.032 Maximum SDPP price estimated to be economically feasible, US$/kg Maximum priceb 23.65 16.81 3.49 18.90
1–15 5.128 −2.771 −0.611 0.596 −0.204 −0.042 −0.045 0.076 −0.012 −0.012 −0.010 0.040 −0.020 −0.009 −0.007 −0.004 −0.013 −0.023 12.72
a Economic Bio-indices obtained according Guidoni et al. [17] to be multiplied by the prices of the ingredients to estimate the maximum price of SDPP so that the supplemented diets have the same economic efficiency of the diets without SDPP. b Estimated maximum price for the SDPP to be economically feasible in the piglet's diets according to the prices obtained in December 2016, in which the SDPP cost was US$ 5.40.
point for SDPP use. The use of SDPP had several positive effects, but is important emphasize that its use can be associated with transmission of zoonotic pathogens. Nevertheless, several studies have demonstrated only minimal risks for transmission [34]. A study conducted by Pujols et al. [34] showed that SDPP containing the porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) did not infect weanling pigs, similarly to a result observed for Hepatitis E virus [35]. The risk of infection is minimal because the spray drying process, similar to the pasteurization process, causes rapid changes in temperature and pressure, reducing the number of viable microorganisms [36]. This effect depends on the process being carried out under established conditions to ensure reductions in the microbial load. Therefore, the correct preparation of SDPP is essential to avoid passing infectious agents to consumers. Fig. 1. Data dispersion related to food intake (a), weight gain (b) and feed efficiency (c) in piglets during the 15 days of experiment (1–15). A trend line was added to assist in the observation of the data distribution in the four experimental groups. It should be noted that the experiment was performed in two stages, and each experimental unit was formed by two piglets (total 56 animals).
5. Conclusion Mycotoxins reduced weight gain in the third period. The addition of SDPP promoted an increase in feed intake and weight gain, as well as reduced incidence of diarrhea in piglets, in the context of natural contamination or co-contamination with aflatoxins and fumonisins. SDPP was not economic feasibility during the third period (11–15), but was economic feasibile in the periods 1–5, 1–10 days, and during the total period (1–15 days).
The highest values of bio-index for piglet gain obtained for the first two periods (1–5 and 6–10 days) compared to the others were expected, since, as several authors have suggested, the benefits of SDPP are more pronounced in the first days after weaning, but decrease over time [32]. During the third period (11–15 days), where the plasma's benefits were reduced, corn became the main bio-economic index determining the maximum price of SDPP. The simulation of maximum SDPP price indicated that its use was economically feasible (1–5, 1–10 and 1–15 days). Although it was economically feasible in the third period (11–15 days) for promoting higher feed intake, its estimated price was higher than the market price for plasma in the period (US$ 5.40), making its use economically inefficient during this period. The economic feasibility of this ingredient in post-weaning was also verified by Dalto et al. [33], who obtained results favorable to the use of SDPP during the entire nursery period. However, there is a need for further studies on the economic break-even
Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgements Purchase of the feeds used in this study were partially supported by Ajinomoto do Brasil, Nutract and Vitamix Nutrição Animal. Müller thanks the scholarship funded by FAPESC. 263
Microbial Pathogenesis 117 (2018) 259–264
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