the average, an American discards 68 pounds of textiles and clothing annually. ... The organic apparel industry has been consistently growing annually.
Predicting behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion consumption: A comparison of attitude-behavior and value-behavior consistency models Srikant Manchiraju Iowa State University, USA ABSTRACT In recent years, sustainable consumption has received considerable attention. In fact, to save the planet Earth and future generations, it has been proposed the issue of sustainable consumption should be addressed. Consequently, in the present study, two theoretical models were analyzed separately, as well as in conjunction, to understand sustainable consumption in the context of fashion. Furthermore, the present study’s theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. INTRODUCTION In recent years, sustainability, by extension sustainable consumption, has received considerable attention by academicians (e.g., Abeliotis, Koniari, & Sardianou, 2010; Bissonnette & Contento, 2001; Manchiraju, Fiore, & Russell, 2012; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008), organizations (e.g., United States Geological Survey, International Organization for Sustainable Development, United Nations Division for Sustainable Development), popular media (Gillis, 2011), and companies (e.g., Aventura, Hass Libre, Johnson & Johnson, Nokia, P&G, Target, Tupperware, Volvo, Walmart). Sustainable consumption is commonly defined as: The use of goods and services that respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life, while minimizing the use of natural resources, toxic materials, and emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations. (Dolan, 2002, p. 17)
Increasingly, in Western societies overconsumption is widely prevalent, leading to the depletion of valuable natural resources (Ghadrian, 2010; Schaefer & Crane, 2005). For example, Schaefer and Crane (2005) drew upon the World Wildlife Fund for Nature statistics for the ecological footprint (assessed by the amount of land used to sustain the consumption of an individual) of an average person worldwide—2.28 hectares—whereas, the average U.S. citizen’s ecological footprint is 9.7 hectares. Likewise, in the context of fashion consumption, Claudio (2007) cited the Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste report, which suggested on the average, an American discards 68 pounds of textiles and clothing annually. Such consumption patterns are widely considered a threat to future sustainability. It has been maintained that sustainable consumption practices can lead to a decrease in consumption and, thus, help to ameliorate several environmental issues to a certain extent (Pinto, Nique, Anana, & Herter, 2011). In recent years, in accordance with the attention gained by sustainability, sustainable fashion consumption has garnered widespread attention from academicians and practitioners alike. The organic apparel industry has been consistently growing annually. For instance, sales of products made from organic cotton fiber jumped to US$ 1.07 billion in 2006 (Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009). Consequently, apparel manufacturers and retailers are eager to cater to this growing consumer segment. However, to gain a comprehensive understanding to promote sustainable consumption, it is important to understand individuals’ purchase decision factors. Within consumer psychology and psychology, in general, several behavioral models (e.g., attitude-behavior and value-behavior consistency models; Maio, Olson, Bernard, & Luke, 2003) have been proposed to understand human [consumption] behaviors. Consequently, research in recent years has focused on existing behavioral models (e.g., the Theory of Reasoned
Action; e.g., see Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988), which have been applied in different contexts—ranging from counterfeit product consumption (Kim & Karpova, 2010), to health behaviors (e.g., physical activity, Armitage, 2005), to purchasing organic products (e.g., organic food, Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). However, several researchers (e.g., Bissonnette & Contento, 2001; Manchiraju et al., 2012; Sniehotta, 2009) have noted existing behavioral models have been used extensively. For example, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1985) has been employed in numerous studies in various contexts, which has not been modified, extended, or abandoned (Sniehotta, 2009); thus, halting theory development, as noted by Sniehotta (2009). Therefore, the present study explored consumers’ behavioral purchase intentions (hereafter behavioral intentions) toward sustainable fashion by extending the existing behavioral model (i.e., the TPB). The aforementioned proposition is in line with Ajzen’s proposition. Ajzen (1991) noted, “The theory of planned behavior is, in principle, open to the inclusion of additional predictors if it can be shown that they capture a significant proportion of the variance in intention or behavior after the theory’s current variables are taken into account” (p. 199). More specifically, the present study tested the predictive power of attitude-behavior consistency models (e.g., the TPB) and value-consistency models (e.g., the Fritzsche model; Fritzsche & Oz, 2007) in the context of sustainable fashion consumption, when employed independently and combined or augmented. The assumption of attitude-behavior consistency models is [individuals’] attitudes predict behavior strongly (Maio et al., 2003). Likewise, the assumption of value-behavior consistency models is [personal] values (i.e., concepts or beliefs pertaining to desirable end states; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, p. 551) influence behavior (Maio et al., 2003). The present study is unique in several ways:
(1) Few studies (e.g., Bisonnette & Contento, 2001) have employed an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Extended TPB; abbreviated as ETPB). Furthermore, ETPB has not been used in the context of sustainable fashion consumption (for exception, see Manchiraju et al., 2012). (2) Most of the studies related to the TPB (and ETPB; e.g., Jin & Kang, 2010) are based on student samples, which pose an impediment towards generalizability of the findings (Gordon, Slade, & Schmitt, 1987). But, in the present study, student as well as non-student samples were used for data collection. Furthermore, generalizability of the TPB and ETPB across the population was explored, which has been seldom demonstrated in previous studies. (3) Consistent with Ajzen’s (1991) proposition, this study demonstrated the variance explained for behavioral intentions toward purchasing sustainable fashion consumption by the ETPB is almost twice that for the TPB alone. For example, a meta-analytic review of TPB studies by Godin and Kok (1996) found the TPB explained 41% of variance in behavioral intentions. Whereas, for the present study, the ETPB accounted for 70% [approximate] of the variance in behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion consumption. (4) It is anticipated the findings of the present study will be important for academicians, environmentalists, marketers, and public policy-makers. For example, Al Gore and the Alliance for Climate Protection called for “mass persuasion” to promote sustainable consumption, given the urgency of environmental issues (Myers, 2010). This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section reviews extensive literature related to the theoretical models employed in this study, as well as the hypotheses that will be
tested. The second section presents research methodology adopted in this study. In the third section, statistical results related to the present research are reported. Finally, in the fourth section, discussion related to the study’s findings is mentioned; furthermore, practical implications related to the study findings are noted. THEORETICAL MODELS Theory of Planned Behavior Ajzen (1985) proposed the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). According to the TPB, an individual’s actual behavior is determined by behavioral intentions. Consistently, the TPB postulated attitude (i.e., evaluation of the behavior in question), social norm (or subjective norm; i.e., perceived social pressure to perform the behavior in question), and perceived behavioral control (i.e., perceived control over the behavior in question) affect an individual’s behavioral intentions. Several research studies have employed the TPB in various contexts, such as adoption of new technology (e.g., Harrison, Mykytyn, & Riemenschneider, 1997; Shin & Fang, 2004), understanding healthy/unhealthy behaviors (e.g., Johnston & White, 2003; Reinecke, Schmidt, & Ajzen, 1996), and environmentally friendly behaviors (e.g., Cheung & Chan, 1999; Heath & Gifford, 2002; Trumbo & O’Keefe, 2001). Also, the TPB has been used widely in the context of consumer behavior. Some examples include intention to purchase fashion counterfeits (Kim & Karpova, 2010), cross-cultural consumer acceptance of E-commerce (Pavlou & Chai, 2002), Internet purchasing (George, 2004), music piracy over the web (D’Astous, Colbert, & Montpetit, 2005), and sustainable consumption (Manchiraju et al., 2012; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992). Due to the widespread application of the TPB in different contexts, several TPB metaanalysis studies have been conducted (e.g. Armitage & Connor, 2001; Goden & Kok, 1996; Schultze & Wittman, 2003). Therefore, the TPB is considered a well-established social
psychological theory, in terms of predictive power of human behaviors (Smith et al., 2008). For example, Armitage and Connor’s (2001) meta-analysis of 185 TPB studies found the TPB explained 27 and 39% of variance for behavior and behavioral intentions, respectively. Attitude Attitude towards a behavior is defined as the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation to perform the behavior in question (Kang & Kim, 2006). Accordingly, in the present study, the attitude construct refers to a consumer’s attitudes towards purchase intention to buy sustainable fashion products. As mentioned earlier, according to the TPB proposed by Ajzen (1985), a favorable attitude towards a particular behavior influences positive intentions to engage in the behavior. This proposition has been corroborated in numerous studies (e.g., Kim & Karpova, 2010; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992). For example, Kim and Karpova (2010) found a favorable attitude towards purchasing counterfeit fashion products positively influenced behavioral intentions to purchase these products. Furthermore, the proposition that attitude positively influences one’s behavioral intentions toward engaging in sustainable consumption has also been tested (e.g., Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009; Vermier & Verbeke, 2008). Vermier and Verbeke (2008) reported a significant positive correlation between attitude and behavior intentions toward sustainable food choice behavior among young adults in Belgium. Likewise, Sparks and Shepherd (1992) found a positive relationship between attitude and behavioral intentions toward organic vegetable consumption. Thus, in the present study the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: Attitude towards purchasing sustainable fashion products is positively related to behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products. Social Norm
The social norm refers to perceived social pressure experienced by an individual to perform a particular behavior (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). The social norm is also referred to as the subjective norm in the TPB context. In the present study, the social norm refers to a consumer’s perception of social pressure from significant others (e.g., family or friends) to purchase sustainable fashion products. According to the TPB, social norm positively influences behavioral intentions. Copious research studies have confirmed this proposition (e.g., Hansen, 2008; Kim & Karpova, 2010). Hansen (2008) found a significant positive correlation between social norm and willingness to buy groceries online. Kim and Karpova (2010) reported a significant positive correlation between social norm and the purchase intention variable; this relationship was the strongest of all relationships in their TPB-based study. In terms of sustainability-related behaviors, social norm has been found to have a significant impact on behavioral intentions towards organic food choices (e.g., Magnusson et al., 2001; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008), organic personal care products (e.g., Kim & Chung, 2011), and environmental activism (e.g., Fielding, McDonald, & Louis, 2008). For example, Sparks and Shepherd’s (1992) study determined social norm was significantly and positively correlated with intentions to consume organic vegetables. Based on the aforementioned literature, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Social norms towards purchasing sustainable fashion products are positively related to behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products. Perceived Behavioral Control Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s perceptions about one’s ethical or moral obligations toward performing a behavior (Bissonnette & Contento, 2001), such as purchasing sustainable fashion products, the focus of the present study. Several studies (e.g.,
Beck & Ajzen, 1991; Bissonnette & Contento, 2001; Dean, Raats, & Shepherd, 2008) have employed the perceived behavioral control construct in conjunction with the TPB. Connor and Armitage’s (1998) meta-analysis of TPB studies revealed perceived behavioral control accounted for 4% additional variance on average. For instance, regarding intentions to commit driving violations, social norm increased the variance explained by the TPB from 35 to 45% (Parker, Stradling, & Manstead, 1996). In terms of sustainability-related behaviors, perceived behavioral control had a significant, positive correlation with intention to purchase organic food products (Bissonnette & Contento, 2001). In this study, perceived behavioral control accounted for 23.5% of the variance for behavioral intentions. Therefore, based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3: Perceived personal responsibility towards sustainable consumption is positively related to behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products. Fritzsche Model According to the Fritzsche [value] model (hereafter the Fritzsche model], an individual’s values are predictors of one’s intention to engage in a particular behavior. Consistent with the Fritzche model, the present study employed Schwartz values (i.e., Biospheric, Egoistic, Traditional, and Openness to Change) to predict behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products. ----INSERT FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE--Figure 1. Examples of Attitude-Behavior and Value-Behavior Consistency Models with the Proposed Hypotheses.
Values
Values are defined as, “enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach, 1968, p. 160). Muncy and Vitell (1992) defined values related to consumption as, “the moral principles and standards that guide behavior of individuals or groups as they obtain, use, and dispose of goods and services” (p. 298). The role of personal values is well documented in consumer behavior (e.g., Beatty, Kahle, Homer, & Misra, 1985). Several studies (e.g., Sener & Hazer, 2008) have explored the role of personal values in sustainability-related consumption behaviors. Also, personal values have been added to the TPB to explain sustainability-related consumption behaviors (e.g., Kim & Chung, 2011; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). These studies found personal values influenced consumers’ sustainable consumption behaviors. Whereas past studies have explored various individual or consumer values (e.g., Rokeach, 1968; Schwartz, 1992, 1994), the present study employs a modified form of Schwartz values used in studies related to sustainable consumption (e.g., Vermier & Verbeke, 2008). According to Schwartz (1992, 1994), ten basic values are common across all cultures. These are power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security. Schwartz (1992, 1994) clustered these ten values into four categories: (1) self-transcendence (benevolence, universalism), (2) self-enhancement (hedonism, power, achievement), (3) conservation (conformity, security, tradition), and (4) openness to change (stimulation, self-direction). It is important to note the Schwartz value survey consists of 56 items. Researchers have noted the length of the Schwartz value survey can be problematic (Fritzche & Oz, 2007). Consequently, Stern, Dietz, and Guagnano (1998) developed a shorter scale, consisting of 12 items that tap the Schwartz values. In the revised scale, the creators decomposed self-
transcendence values into two categories—altruism and biospheric values. It is important to note other researchers (e.g., ecocentric values, Eckersley, 1992) have proposed environmental values similar to biospheric values (Nordlund & Garvill, 2002). Stern et al. (1998) suggested biospheric values should be used in the context of pro-environmental behavior. Therefore, the biospheric value subset of self-transcendence was employed in the present study. The modified form of the Schwartz value has demonstrated adequate reliability in various studies (e.g., Fritzche & Oz, 2007). Self-transcendence (biospheric values) Self-transcendence includes values, such as benevolence (e.g., being helpful, responsible, or honest) and universalism (e.g., protecting the environment, supporting social justice, or equality). It must be noted per Schwartz’s values framework, these two values are placed adjacent to each other. Thus, they are similar; in general, they reflect the welfare of others. Empirical evidence relating to self-transcendence values is important in the context of ethical consumption (e.g., Doran, 2009; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). For example, Doran (2009) found self-transcendence values influenced individuals’ fair trade consumption in the U.S. Likewise, in relationship to Stern et al.’s (1998) value clusters, self-transcendence values have been positively associated with sustainable food selection (De Boer, Hoogland, & Boersema, 2007). Biospheric values, a subset of self-transcendence values, consist of protecting the environment, unity with nature, and respecting the earth (see Stern et al., 1998). Individuals, who placed high importance on self-transcendence values (by extension, biospheric values), were more likely to engage in sustainable food consumption (Manchiraju, 2012; Manchiraju & Sadachar, 2013; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H4: Biospheric values are positively related to intentions toward purchasing sustainable fashion products. Self-enhancement Self-enhancement includes values, such as hedonism (e.g., pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself), power (e.g., social power and recognition), and achievement (e.g., ambition, personal success). It should be noted in Schwartz’s values framework, selfenhancement and self-transcendence are situated in diametrically opposite positions. Hence, self-enhancement is at odds with self-transcendence (Valor, 2007). That is, if self-transcendence represents others-oriented values, then self-enhancement reflects self-interested values (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). Self-enhancement values have been found negatively associated with sustainable consumption behaviors (Jackson, 2005). Individuals, who placed higher importance on self-enhancement values, were less likely to engage in ethical or sustainable fashion consumption (Doran, 2009; Manchiraju, 2012; Manchiraju & Sadachar, 2013). Thus, in the context of intention for sustainable fashion consumption, it is posited a consumer’s intention to purchase excessive clothing items, engage in premature disposal of fashion items, or seek luxury leather items may reflect self-enhancement values (Doran, 2009; Manchiraju & Sadachar, 2013). Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed: H5: Self-enhancement is negatively related to intentions toward purchasing sustainable fashion products. Conservation Conservation includes values, such as security (e.g., safety, harmony, stability of society), conformity (e.g., self-discipline, refraining from actions that harm others), and tradition (e.g., moderation, humility). Vermeir and Verbeke (2008) found individuals, who placed importance
on security, conformity, and tradition values, were inclined to buy sustainable products. Vermeir and Verbeke (2008) justified their findings by stating such individuals are likely to engage in buying sustainable products, since individuals who emphasize conservation are concerned with the safety of others, refrain from harming others, and might want to take the middle course. Also, Kilbourne, Grünhagen, and Foley (2005) mentioned tradition values are moderately predictive of sustainable behavior in the context of pro-environmental behavior. Furthermore, De Leeuw (2011) found individuals, who valued tradition, were willing to pay more for green or fair trade products. Pinto et al. (2011) found conformity values were related to environmentallyresponsible water consumption. Thus, in the context of intention for sustainable fashion consumption, it is posited a consumer’s intention to buy sustainable fashion products is associated with conservation values. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed: H6: Conservation values are positively related to behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products. Openness to Change Openness to change includes values, such as stimulation (e.g., seeking excitement, or novelty) and self-direction (e.g., freedom, curiosity). It is important to note in the circumplex model, conservation and openness are 1800 from one another (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). Heidmets and Raudsepp (2001) reported a negative relationship between openness to change values and pro-environmental behavior variables (e.g., forest-related attitude) among Estonians. Kilbourne et al. (2005), in their cross-cultural study, found openness to change was positively correlated with materialism (i.e., self-enhancement; see Manchiraju, 2013). However, it must be noted all Schwartz value clusters are interrelated. Recall, Schwartz values (by extension, Stern et al., 1998) have been proposed as self-transcendence/self-
enhancement, and conservation/openness to change dimensions. Consequently, Schwartz (1992) noted, “every hypothesis that specifies the association of one value type with an outside variable has clear implications for the associations of the other value types as well” (p. 54). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H7: Openness to change is negatively related to behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products. The Augmented Model Over the past three decades, the TPB has been employed in a plethora of contexts as noted earlier. Sniehotta (2009) noted, This body of research has not stimulated changes or development of theory (e.g., modify or extend)….This may be interpreted as an indication that the theory is either very successful, or that the research conducted testing this theory has been lacking rigor. (p. 258) For example, Armitage and Connor’s (2001) meta-analysis of 185 TPB studies found the TPB explained 27 and 39% of the variance for behavior and behavioral intention, respectively. However, consistent with Sniehotta’s (2009) proposition to increase the predictability of the TPB, several additional constructs have been proposed by numerous researchers, which have been labeled as the expanded TPB (ETPB; Bissonette & Contento, 2001; Manchiraju et al., 2012). For example, by including four new constructs (e.g., perceived self-identity and perceived availability; see Manchiraju et al., 2012), Manchiraju et al. (2012) demonstrated the ETPB’s variance explained was above 70% of individuals’ behavioral intentions to engage in sustainable fashion consumption behaviors.
----INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE---Figure 2. The Proposed Augmented Model. Consequently, in the present study, it is maintained the augmented model (i.e., ETPB) proposed, based on combining attitude-behavior consistency (i.e., the TPB) and value-behavior consistency (i.e., the Fritzsche model) models, would explain a greater variance in the context of individuals’ behavioral intentions towards sustainable fashion products, than either of the models employed alone. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed: H8: The variance explained for individuals’ behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products by the augmented model will be greater than either of the models employed alone. METHODOLOGY Participants An online survey was utilized to collect the data. Respondents were limited to a specific geographic location—the United States. In total, the number of valid responses collected were N = 966. The data collected were from two samples: student (S1) and non-student (S2). S1 consisted of respondents, who were students at a prominent Midwestern university in the United States. The total number of respondents were 690 (Males = 251). The respondents’ mean age was 22 (ages: 18 – 25). S2 consisted of 276 (Males = 156) respondents, who represented the general population of the United States. These responses were collected using the Amazon Mechanical Turk (see Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011), an online survey data collection tool maintained by Amazon, Inc. The respondents’ mean age was 43 (ages 18 – 74). The descriptive statistics related to the samples are provided in Table 1. Measurement
In total, eight constructs were measured. The constructs were measured using adapted items from previous scales—attitude (e.g., Holbrook & Batra, 1987), social norm (e.g., Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008), perceived behavioral control (e.g., Roberts, 1996), behavioral intentions (e.g., Ji & Wood, 2007), and personal values (four constructs; Stern et al., 1998). All items were measured with a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree; for values – 1 = not at all important to me, 7 = very important to me). Additionally, demographic-related items were included in the survey. Sample items from the survey are furnished in the Appendix. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Demographics Gender Male Female Age 18-29 30-39 40-49 > 50 Ethnicity Euro American (Caucasian) African American Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander Native American Others Education High school diploma/Associate Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree/Advanced degree (MD, Ph.D.) Household Income < $50,000 $50,000-$100,000 $100,00-$150,000 > $150,000
Student Sample S1 [N= 690; in %]
Non-Student Sample S2 [N= 276; in %]
36 63
57 43
92 6 2 -
39 26 16 19
85 1 3 8 3
78 9 6 4 3
29 13 58
42 34 24
35 39 21 5
63 27 6 4
RESULTS The data were subjected to various statistical analyses, primarily structural equation modeling (SEM) and regression analyses. The statistical packages utilized for the analyses were
MPlus 6.0 and SPSS 19. The statistical analyses were conducted in three stages: (1) used SEM’s confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the equivalence of the samples, (2) based on the results from the CFA, the proposed hypotheses, based on attitude-behavior and value-behavior consistency models, were tested using regression strategy, and (3) hierarchical regression strategy was used to test the statistical significance for increase in variance, if any, for behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion consumption. Before proceeding, scale reliabilities were measured. For this analysis, the samples were combined. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient ranged from .78 to .93, supporting factor reliability. More specifically, the coefficient values are attitude (.93), social norm (.84), PBC (.88), personal values (.78; composite of four value constructs), and behavioral intentions (.93). The variance extracted for the constructs in the model ranged from .65 to .83. Measurement Invariance of the Samples In the present study, data were collected from two different samples (i.e., S1 & S2). Therefore, it is imperative to test whether the samples can be combined to test the proposed hypotheses or analyzed separately. Consequently, to test the sample equivalence (i.e., measurement invariance; see Schmitt & Kuljanin, 2008; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000), CFA was employed. More specifically, the χ2 difference test comparing the fit of constrained and unconstrained measurement models to the data was significant (∆ χ2 = 72.529, ∆ df = 20, p < .001), indicating the two samples were non-equivalent; hence, they cannot be combined to test the proposed hypotheses. The resulting indices for the constrained measurement model and unconstrained measurement model demonstrated an adequate fit to the data (χ2 = 1913.105, df = 684, p < .001, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = 0.06) and (χ2 = 1840.576, df = 664, p < .001, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = 0.05), respectively. Consequently, the proposed hypotheses related to attitude-behavior consistency
(i.e., the TPB), value-behavior consistency (i.e., the Fritzsche model), and augmented attitude and value behavior consistency models (i.e., the ETPB) were tested separately for the two different samples (i.e., S1 and S2). Hypotheses Testing Attitude-behavior consistency model. For the attitude-behavior consistency model (i.e., the TPB), behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion product purchase was regressed on attitude towards sustainable fashion products, perceived behavioral control, and social norms. The same process was employed for both samples. S1. Consistent with the proposed hypotheses for the attitude-behavior consistency model, H1, H2, and H3 were supported. Behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products was significantly and positively related to attitudes toward sustainable fashion products (β = 0.345, p=0.000), perceived behavioral control (β = 0.268, p=0.000), and social norms (β = 0.285, p=0.000). The R2 for the behavioral intentions in the present context for the attitude-behavior consistency model was 0.565 (p=0.000). S2. Like S1, the proposed hypotheses for the attitude-behavior consistency model, H1, H2, and H3 were supported in the case for S2. Behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products were significantly and positively related to attitude toward sustainable fashion products (β = 0.325, p=0.000), perceived behavioral control (β = 0.410, p=0.000), and social norms (β = 0.185, p=0.000). The R2 for the behavioral intentions in the present context for the attitude-behavior consistency model was 0.673 (p=0.000). Value-behavior consistency model. For the value-behavior consistency model (i.e., the Fritzsche model), behavioral intentions toward sustainable fashion products purchase was regressed on four different personal values.
S1. H4 and H7 were supported; whereas, H5 and H6 were not supported. Behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products was positively related to biospheric values (β = 0.593, p=0.000) and negatively related to openness to change values (β = -0.066, p=0.05). The R2 for behavioral intentions in the present context for the value-behavior consistency model was 0.376 (p=0.000). S2. For this sample, H4, H5, and H6 were supported; whereas, H7 was not supported. Behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products was positively related to biospheric values ((β = 0.627, p=0.000) and traditional values (β = 0.113, p=0.032); whereas, negatively related to egoistic values (β = -0.140, p=0.007). The R2 for the behavioral intentions in the present context for the value-behavior consistency model was 0.371 (p=0.000). The augmented model. For the augmented model, attitude-behavior and value-behavior consistency models were augmented. Furthermore, consistent with the literature (e.g., see Jayawardhena, 2004; Maio et al., 2003;), which states personal values influence attitude[s], an interaction term was also included. For example, Jayawardhena (2004) found in the context of eshopping behaviors, personal values influenced consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions toward e-shopping. Also, at the conceptual level, Kahle (1983) proposed values are similar to attitudes; except values are more abstract, which influence a wide range of attitudes (Maio et al., 2003). Therefore, in this process, stepwise hierarchical regressions were employed. In Step 1, the TPB was tested. In Step 2, the value-behavior consistency model was augmented to the attitudebehavior consistency model. In other words, behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products was regressed on attitude, social norm, PBC, and four personal values. In Step 3, the interaction term was added to the model.
S1. Consistent with the proposition in Step 1, the TPB constructs revealed significant main effects on behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products (R2 = 0.565, p=0.000; see above). Moreover, there was a significant effect of values on behavioral intentions in Step 2 (ΔR2 = 0.057, p=0.000). Also, the interaction term was significant in Step 3 (ΔR2 = 0.004, p=0.008). The total variance for behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products by the augmented model is R2 = 0.626 (p < 0.000). S2. Similarly, for S2 in Step 1, the TPB constructs revealed a significant main effect on behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products (R2 = 0.673, p=0.000; see above). Moreover, there was a significant effect of values on behavioral intentions in Step 2 (ΔR2 = 0.022, p=0.000). Also, the interaction term was significant in Step 3 (ΔR2 = 0.003, p=0.000). The total variance for behavioral intentions to purchase sustainable fashion products by the augmented model is R2 = 0.698 (p < 0.000). Table 2 Summary of Statistical Analyses for Student and Non-Student Samples Student Sample (S1) Non-Student Sample (S2) β* p-value S/NS β* p-value S/NS Hypotheses Attitude BI 0.345 0.000 S 0.325 0.000 S Social Norm BI 0.268 0.000 S 0.410 0.000 S PBC BI 0.285 0.000 S 0.185 0.000 S BV BI 0.593 0.000 S 0.627 0.000 S SE BI -0.034 0.318 NS -0.140 0.007 S C BI -0.038 0.260 NS 0.113 0.032 S OC BI -0.066 0.05 S 0.208 0.01 NS Abbreviations: behavioral intentions (BI); perceived behavioral control (PBC); biospheric value (BV); selfenhancement (SE); conservation (C); openness to change (OC); supported (S); not supported (NS) *standardized coefficients
DISCUSSION Fashion, by extension sustainable fashion consumption, is regarded as “culture-bound” (Vandereycken & Hoek, 1992; Vogel, 1991). This perspective corroborates that fashion consumption is a complex phenomenon, which has functional, personal, and symbolic
significance. Consistently, in the present study, it was determined an individual’s psychological factors (e.g., attitude and personal values; Maio et al., 2003) influenced consumers’ behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption. Consistent with previous findings (e.g., Armitage & Connor, 2001; Manchiraju et al., 2012), the TPB was a strong predictor for consumers’ behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption and was valid for both samples. Likewise, the role of personal values’ influence on behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption was demonstrated for both samples (e.g., Manchiraju 2012; Manchiraju & Sadachar, 2013). However, in the present study, there were differences in the ways they influenced consumers’ behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption. For example, selfenhancement influenced behavioral purchase intentions differently in the present context for both samples. Furthermore, consistent with the conceptual assumption, in the present study it was determined the consumers’ personal values interacted with their attitude towards particular consumption domain or object. Values are abstract concepts, which influence numerous individuals’ attitudes and beliefs (Maio et al., 2003). Consistently, in this study, the interaction term between consumers’ attitudes and personal values influenced their behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption. THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS The present study has important implications—theoretical as well as managerial. From a theoretical perspective, it was demonstrated the ETPB is a stronger predictor of sustainable fashion consumption than the TPB (attitude-behavior consistency model) or the Fritzsche model (value-behavior consistency model). In fact, the variance explained by the ETPB in the present
study is twice the value found in several TPB meta-analytic studies. For example, Armitage and Connor’s (2001) study found the variance explained for behavioral intentions by various TPB studies approached 40%. In the present study, the variance explained approached 70% due to the TPB augmentation, as proposed by several researchers (e.g., Manchiraju et al., 2012; Sniehotta, 2009). Several scholars (e.g., Gordon, Slade, & Schmitt, 1986) have questioned the use of student samples in research, which might lack external validity. Therefore, in the present study, both student and non-student samples were utilized. Although, the findings were similar for both samples, there were some differences. For example, the ETPB’s variance explained for behavioral purchase intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption varied; R2=0.63 [student sample] and R2=0.70 [non-student sample]. Another example, self-enhancement failed to reach statistical significance related to behavioral purchase intentions in the present context for the student sample; whereas, it was negatively related in the non-student sample (for other differences see Table 2). Therefore, these findings suggest research studies using student samples should be cautious in generalizing their study’s findings. The present study has some managerial implications. Personal values are of increasing importance in applied fields, such as business (Doran, 2009). Specifically, in the context of sustainable fashion consumption, this information could be invaluable for marketers. For example, sustainable fashion brands can employ different value-based advertising and marketing strategies for various market segments. Employing advertising or marketing campaigns with widespread appeal are ineffective for today’s complex consumer (Doran, 2009). For example, in the case for student consumers [or younger consumers], sustainable fashion brands should employ advertising and marketing strategies, which underscore biospheric
values. On the other hand, for non-student consumers [or mature consumers], conservation (i.e., traditional) values should be used for sustainable brand communication strategies. Furthermore, social norm played a more important role in the non-student sample when compared to the student-sample among the TPB variables. Therefore, when targeting the general population, marketers should emphasize the social-oriented aspect of sustainable fashion consumption. On the other hand, for the student-sample, attitude played the most important TPB variable; thus, when targeting younger consumers, individual-oriented aspect of sustainable fashion consumption must be emphasized in marketing campaigns. In other words, to promote sustainable fashion consumption, business can capitalize on consumer’s personal values and, thereby, better position sustainable fashion products and generate interest among their target consumers. On the other hand, converting non-consumers of sustainable fashion products can be challenging. For instance, based on the present study, mature consumers who prized selfenhancement values (e.g., power) highly are least likely to engage in sustainable fashion. In such cases, Doran (2009) suggested building marketing campaigns congruent with selfenhancement values will be effective. Likewise, from the present study, another group of nonconsumers reluctant to engage in sustainable fashion consumption among younger population are the ones who prized openness to change values. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH The present study has several limitations. First, Ajzen (1991) noted the TPB is context specific. Therefore, the findings from the present study focused on sustainable fashion consumption. In general, it lacked context specificity (e.g., sustainable fashion accessories and clothing). Also, as noted earlier, fashion is a complex phenomenon. Therefore, the proposed
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I like sustainable fashion products. I think favorably about sustainable fashion products.
Social Norm -
My close friends think it is a good idea for me to buy sustainable fashion products. The people who I listen to could influence me to buy sustainable fashion products.
Perceived Behavioral Control -
My behavior can have a positive effect on the environment by purchasing sustainable fashion products. Since one person cannot have any effect upon environmental pollution and natural resources problems, it doesn’t make any difference what I do [reverse coded].
Biospheric Values -
Protecting the environment, preserving nature. Unity with nature, fitting into nature.
Self-Enhancement Values -
Wealth: material possessions, money. Influence: having an impact on people and events.
Conservation Values
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Self-discipline, self-restraint, resistance to temptation. Honoring parents and elders, showing respect.
Openness to Change Values -
A varied life filled with novelty and change. Curiosity: interested in exploring things.
Behavioral Intentions -
I intend to buy sustainable fashion products in the future. I would go out of my way to buy sustainable fashion products.
Key Terms and Concepts Sustainable Consumption refers to “use of goods and services that respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life, while minimizing the use of natural resources, toxic materials, and emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations” (Dolan, 2002, p. 17). Attitude-behavior consistency models assume that [individuals’] attitudes predict behavior strongly (Maio et al., 2003). Value-behavior consistency models assume that [personal] values (i.e., concepts or beliefs pertaining to desirable end states; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, p. 551) influence behavior (Maio et al., 2003). Attitude towards a behavior is defined as the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation to perform the behavior in question (Kang & Kim, 2006). Social norm refers to perceived social pressure experienced by an individual to perform a particular behavior (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s perceptions about one’s ethical or moral obligations toward performing a behavior (Bissonnette & Contento, 2001).
Values are defined as, “enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach, 1968, p. 160).
