PREHISTORIC ENVIRONMENT AND SETTLEMENT ...

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It is present at sites such as Yabrud (Rust 1950) and Madamagh (Kirkbride Ig58) ... Geonletric Kebaran site, Ein Gev IV, but the use of the technique was quite ...
Levant, Vol. XVII (1985)

PREHISTORIC ENVIRONMENT AND SETTLEMENT IN THE AZRAQ BASIN. A REPORT ON THE 1982 SURVEY SEASON

by Andrew Garrard, Brian Byrd, Paul Harvey and Francoise Hivernel During the past decade there has been a great increase in prehistoric survey and excavation in the arid lands of south-west Asia. There have been three, main reasons for this. Firstly, the need to correct the geographical imbalance of earlier work which concentrated on the Fertile Cresent. Secondly, the growing interest in reconstructing regional settlement patterns. The present day desert areas offer much better site survival than the more fertile regions with their recent agricultural and urban disturbance. Thirdly, prehistorians have become increasingly interested in the interrelationship between man and his environment. This relationship is particularly finely balanced along the borders of the arid zone. The major projects which have focused on the prehistory. of the desert regions of the Levant have been those of Bar Yosef and Phillips (1977) in Sinai, Marks (1976, 1977, 1983) in the Negev, Henry (1983, forthcoming) in southern jordan, Suzuki and Hanihara in the Palmyra region of Syria (Suzuki and Kobori 1970, Suzuki and Takai 1973, 1974; Hanihara and Sakaguchi 1978; Hanihara and Akazawa 1979, 1983) and Besancon et al. (1982) and Cauvin (1982) in neighbouring EI Kowm. During 1975 the author also began such a project in the Azraq Basin of eastern jordan (Garrard et al. 1975, 1977). The project was undertaken partly for the reasons described above, but also to obtain information on the role of the marginal areas fringing the Fertile Crescent in the beginnings of animal and plant husbandry. The Azraq Basin itself was chosen because rich prehistoric sites containing organic material had been found in the region by earlier workers (Waechter et al. 1938; Zeuner et al. 1957; Baker and Harza 1958; Field 1960). It was also attractive because it was a self-contained geographical entity which had presently got a sufficient range of ecological variability and resources to provide for the year round needs of nomadic groups. If this was also the case in the past, there was the potential for reconstructing complete settlement patterns. The area had also been the subject of ecological, hydrological and pedological studies (Baker and Harza 1958; Hemsley and George 1966; Nelson 1973) which provided a good "stage" from which to study past subsistence, settlement patterns and environment. During the 1975 season, 15 areas were surveyed systematically, these being chosen so as to sample as

many of the geomorphological features and biological habitats present in the basin as was possible. Over 50 occurrences of prehistoric material were recorded ranging in date from. late Acheulian to Chalco lithic, and evidence was found for an extensive late Pleistocene lake. It was decided at that stage to undertake a larger scale project, but I was unable to return for a second season until September 1982. The aims of the 1982 season were firstly, to undertake a geomorphological study of the central lake deposits and of two of the wadis draining into the western side of the basin in order to begin a reconstruction of the hydrological and climatic history of the basin. Secondly, to try and locate stratified sites of Upper Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic date, which could, after excavation, help in the dating of the geomorphological formations and provide data on cultural and economic developments through to the early pastoralist period. Thirdly, to increase our knowledge of past settlement patterns in the Azraq Basin. Before discussing the past environment and settlement of the region, it would be useful to outline the present situation. RECENT ENVIRONMENT AND SETTLEMENT IN THE AZRAQ BASIN The Azraq Basin is a shallow depression covering approximately 12,000 km.2 and stretching from the jebel Druze area of southern Syria to the Saudi Arabian frontier and then west to, within 20 km. of Amman (see Fig. I). It lies at the north-weste'rn end of a much longer depression-the Wadi es-Sirhanwhich extends for over 350 km. south-east to Eljawfin Saudi Arabia. The two were formed by block faulting in the late Cretaceous, but they are separated by a subsurface structural height and the faulting has occurred at different rates (Bender 1974). The elevation at the centre of the Azraq Basin is roughly 500 m. whilst along its northern boundary it reaches 1,800 m., along the western 900 m. and the southern and eastern 600 m. to 900 m. The southern half of the depression is composed of Cretaceous and Tertiary limestones, chalks and marls and the surface is coated with a flint hammada. The northern part is covered by basalts and tuffs, which were emitted from volcanoes and fissures between the Miocene and pleistocene (Bender 1974). One flow at Kheurbet

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el-Ambachi in southern Syria has been dated to 2125 ± '1.60 B;C. (de Vries and Barendsen 1954) suggesting that localized volcanic activity continued until quite recently. The older basalts are covered by a hammada of boulders and cobbles making access extremely difficult. , The, temperature regime at Azraq village, for the period for which we have records, varies between 45°e and -10oe (Nelson 1973), whilst precipitation over the basin as a whole varies between 200+ mm. in the

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north-west and less than 50 mm. in the south-east. The overall precipitation averages' 84 mm. per year, most of which falls in erratic unevenly distributed storms between November and March (D.N.D.P. 1966). There are no perennial streams or permanent bodies of surface water except for the springs and pools at Azraq. After storms, some water runs off in intermittent stream channels and eventually collects in topographic depressions (or playas) where it 'evaporates within a few months. The largest of these is at

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Azraq, and covers about 50 km.2• A very small percentage of the rainfall, estimated to be less than 2% per annum, seeps down through the surface material of the uplands and stream beds (particularly in the basalt area) and replenishes the ground water in the underlying geological formations. The ground water flows slowly through the rocks in a down gradient direction and eventually is discharged through springs and seeps into the freshwater pools at Azraq. With the exception of the westernmost steppic areas, permanent vegetation is largely limited to the wadis, the silty surrounds to the major qas or playas and the wetlands at Azraq. There is, however, a spring bloom of annuals on the basalt and flint hammada. The recent fauna of the basin has been described by Nelson (1973) and probably included herbivores such as oryx, gazelle, ass and ostrich, and carnivores such as lion, leopard, cheetah, hyaena, wolf, jackal and fox, the last four of which still occur in the area. Permanent settlement in the basin is limited 'to the western perimeter area where non-irrigated cultivation is possible in years when there are early winter rains, and to the central oases of Azraq Shishan and Druze . where there are' irrigated plots. There are also a large number of pastoral nomads (bedouin) inhabiting the region. Traditionally these could be divided into two broad groups, the sheep/goat pastoralists who spent their summers in the 'more fertile lands along the basin's western margins and their winters in the steppe and hammada between there and Azraq and the camel pastoralists who spent the dry season in simiJar areas, but penetrated the desert as far east as the Wadi es-Sirhan or western Iraq in the rainy months (Harris 1958). PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT AZRAQ BASIN

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Until the present survey was started little was known of the Pleistocene and early Holocene environment of the Azraq Basin and the only other localities to have been studied on the Syrian-Jordanian plateau were not directly comparable; those being the El J afr Basin in south Jordan (Huckriede and Wiesemann 1968), whose overall catchment is drier and which lacks the central springs of the Azraq Basin, the Damascus Basin of south-west Syria (Kaiser et al. 1973), which receives large inflows of water from the Lebanese Mountains, and the Palmyra Basin of central Syria (Sakaguchi 1978), which is over 200 km. to the north. The little data available on the Azraq Basin was acquired by the Baker and Harza Engineering Company (1958) when they made a survey of the ground and surface water potential of the Azraq area in the mid 1950'S. During the course of their investigations

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they discovered sedimentary evidence of a Pleistocene lake, which they described as covering 4,500 km.2• Van Liere (1960-1) re-examined their evidence and suggested a three-phase lake, the earliest phase being represented by lacustrine marls, the second by gypseous marl and the third and latest by clay and loam. However, he was unable to date the sedimentary episodes . . Given the limitations of our knowledge of the past environment of the region a geomorphologist was invited to join the team in 1982 (Paul Harvey). During the course of the archaeological survey he made a geomorphological study of the former lake deposits in the central basin and of the depositional/erosional features in two of the wadis flowing into the western side of the basin-the Wadis el Jilat and Kharaneh (see Fig. 2). Since the western wadis receive the most precipitation it seemed likely that they would provide the most information concerning the history of water inflow into the basin .. These two wadis were also of considerable archaeological interest and a geomorphological survey was regarded as necessary for interpreting settlement distribution. Wadi el-jilat Wadi el-Jilat was selected because it was a valley in which Waechter et al. (1938) had located and partially excavated several impressive Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites in the 1930'S. It is a tributary of the Wadi Dabi (or Dhobai-wadi of the hyaena) after which Waechter's sites were named. The 8 km. stretch of the valley surveyed lies in lightly rolling limestone and flint hills about 55 km. south-west of Azraq. The elevation of the wadi at this point lies between 760 and 810m. whilst the hills on either side rise to c. 900 m. (see Fig. 3). Satellite photographs (such as that in the National Geographic, February 1984, 165: 2, pp. 244-5) show that this section of the wadi lies at the divide between recent steppe and desert. The flint covering much of the eastern sector of the survey area is darkly patinated, suggesting it has been exposed to weathering for a considerable period (i.e. there has been no recent soil or vegetation cover) whilst the flint at the western end is only lightly patinated, suggesting it has only bee~ exposed to weathering for a relatively short period (see Fig. 2). In the central stretch of the survey area, where Waechter's sites were located, the wadi has cut a gorge of up to 10 m. depth through the Early-Middle Quaternary' (?) travertines, and conglomerates, and the Tertiary limestones and cherts of the valley floor, and, Upper Palaeolithic to Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites are preserved in the shallow soil on either side. Given the age span of the sites it seems likely that the wadi

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ISTORIC

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has been entrenched in the gorge for over 25,000 years. There are a number of rock pools in the ravine where water is retained for one or two months after winter storms. There are also a number of shallow bedouin wells in the wadi bed, where water can be obtained for a period after the end of the rains. Cutting across the gorge at one point is a Nabateanearly Islamic stone dam. Silt has accumulated up to its lip, ·and extends for 2-3 km. upstream providing lush spring grazing and year round browsing. There are no contemporary settlements in the neighbourhood, or indeed. downstream as far as Azraq, but it is possible that it was used as a reservoir for caravans or "vas built with the deliberate intent of catching silt for cultivation or gTazing. Recent plough furrows extend out from the silt suggesting occasional cultivation, but the area was not utilized in the wet winter of 1982-3. Upstream of the gorge, the wadi has been capable of lateral as well as vertical erosion, but an alluvial terrace has survived and in its upper levels a late Upper Palaeolithic/Early Epipalaeolithic site was found (Wadi eljilat 9). As the wadi is presently' cutting through this terrace and there has .been no' detectable tectonic

activIty downstream, it seems likely that the terrace formed during ~ period of wetter conditions than the present, when there was slightly more vegetation. The site suggests that the terrace was forming up until c. 20-15000 B.c.,.but we will need to undertake a small scale excavation and obtain material for C14 dating before we can give a reliable date. The equivalent terrace on the opposite side of the wadi is partially covered by the remnants of a layer of homogenous. sandy loam, very remini.scent of wind blown loess. Epipalaeolithic artifacts were found on the surface of this deposit and· on the terrace in areas where the deposit had been lost by deflation (Wadi el J ilat 10). If the sediment proves to be loess it would suggest drier conditions following terrace formation. Excavation will be necessary to determine the relationship of the artifacts to the sediments and to obtain a date for this drier phase. Wadi el Kharaneh (Mudeisisat) For purposes of .comparison, a geomorphological survey was also undertaken in a small section of the

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Wadi e'l-Kharaneh, which lies 25 km. to the north of Wadi el-Jilat and 40 km. west of Azraq (see Fig. 2). Several prehistoric surveys have been conducted in the neighb9u~hood of Qasr el- Kharaneh (Zeuner el aI.1957'; Garrardelal. 1977; Muheisen 1983; Besancon a'nd H ours forthcoming) and they have shown the area to be rich in sites of all periods from late Acheulian to Chalcolithic. The only site to have been souQ.ded in the area is ':Kharaneh 4 which has industries dating from early Kebaran to Geometric Kebaran (Muheisen 1983). This suggests a time range of between 17 and 1°5°0 B.C., although the four C14 dates from the sites which are based on bone are later; 12020± 150 B.C. (Q3075), 10250 ± 140 B.C. (Q 3074), 8670 ± 125 B.C. (Q 3073) and 7890 ± 120 B.C. (Q3072). The author (A.N.G.) is presently analysing the rich bone collection from the' site which includes large numbers of Gazella subgutturosa, Equus hemionus/asinus, Lepuscf. capensis, Vulpes vulpes and Tesluda sp. and small numbers of Bos cf. primigenius, Canis lupus, Vulpes rupeUi (it.) (lnd Struthio camelus elements. There are also two teeth of Sus scrofa and a met'apodial ofCervus elaphus which were pr:opably brought to the~ite from further afield. The faunal collection suggest a steppic or semi-desert environment with slightly more vegetation than today.: Geomorphological investigations were limited ~o c. 6 km. of the wadi' centred on Kharaneh '4. At this p'oint the system is c. 625-650 m. a.s.l., and the wadi .is running through a broad valley c. 11 km. wide, with a darkly patinated flint hammada, covering the older. surfaces. Satellite photographs indicate that the dark flint gives way to lighter gravel c. 6-8 km. to the west of Kharaneh 4. As in Wadi el-Jilat this seems likely to have been the boundary between steppe and desert in the recent past (see Fig. 2).' . i " The site ofKharaneh 4 sits on a terrace in the Wadi el- Kharaneh. At the base' of the tefFace ','are gravels deposited by the' former wadi which contain "Upper Palaeolithic like flints" (Besancon and Hours forthcoming). Superimposed on these are clays which may be of lacustrine origin. There is no bedrock barrier which. could have acted as ,a '.dam, ,but it is possible that calcreted wadi gravels served this function. Above the clays are remnants of an homogenous layer of sandy loam very similar to the loess-like deposits in Wadi el-Jilat. Ifindeed it is loess, it would suggest drier conditions following terrace formation. Thesiteof Kharaneh 4 is stratified within the clays,and loams suggesting that' they accumulated within the time range of 17-1°5°0 B.C. It is hoped that charcoal can be obtained from the sections to allow a more secure dating. Either during or since this mat'eriaf' accumulated, incision took place in the wadi and its;tributaries, and this was followed by renewed ,terrace' formation and c

further inCISIon. It seems likely that the terrace formation occurred during wetter periods when there was more vegetation and whilst the older terrace is probably of Upper Palaeolithic date, the latter may be contemporary with the late glacial' expansion of the Azraq lake described below. The Azraq Lake The geomorphological survey of the Azraq lake focused on four localities. Firstly, the perimeter of the present seasonal lake (Qa el-Azraq) where we'searched for sites which would indicate periods of low water level. Second and thirdly, the Wadis el-Uwaynid and Rajil, which flow into the western and eastern sides of 'the present playa, where we hoped to find sections showing the history of the most recent lake episode. Fourthly, Feidat ed Dihikiya on the Saudi border, where we hoped to ascertain whether there had been a recent drainage connection between the Azraq Basin and the nbrthern Wadi es-Sirhan (see Fig. 2). Q.a el-Azraq. The present seasonal lake (playa) at Azraq, can flood to a depth of 2 m. (up to 508 m. a.s.l.) and cover an area of 50 km.2 in wet winters, but it is impossible to generalize about the extent and timing of the flooding, as in some years it does not flood at all and in rarer' circumstances it can remain flooded all summer. In addition to the playa, which fills from surface runoff, there are also copious springs at Azraq Shishan 'and Druze which are charged by underground aquifers. These give rise to marshland areas of 5-6 km.2 at Shishan and 1-8 km.2 at Druze. In the mid 1950's the Baker and Harza Engineering Company (1958) found two sites within 1 km.of the south-west shore of the playa at elevations close to 508 m. These were investigated by Harding (1958) and Kirkbride (p.c.), but due to political events the excavations were limited in scale and the finds were temporarily lost. However, they have recently been rediscovered and are presently being studied by Copeland and Hours (p.c.). One of the sites, known as Lion Spring, Ain el-Assad, or Azraq 1 (see Fig. 4) contains late Acheulian, Yabrudian and Levallois-Mousterian (C. ,200,0004°,000) elements. Recent excavations have also produced ?Pre-Pottery Neolithic and late Neolithic (84250 B.C.) material (Rollefson 1982). The other site known as C Spring, or Azraq 21 produced Yabrudian and Levallois- Mousterian elements and· faunal remains which included Dicerorhinus sp., Equus hemionus and hydruntinus, Camelus dromedarius, Boselephas sp., Alcelaphus sp. and a large bovid (Clutton Brock 1970)~ These suggest a steppic or sub-desert environment with slightly more vegetation than today. -During 1975 the author (Garrard et al. 1977)·found three Epipalaeolithic sites in the Shishan. marshes at

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elevations close to 508 111; Two of these (Azr?-q 17 and 20) contained ?non-geometric Kebaran material (there is uncertainty because the collections were very small) and the third (Azraq 18) a Natufian assemblage, which includes 3 lunates with Helwan retouch, suggesting a date,Of 10500-8300 B.C. (see Fig. 4). During the 1982 season we discovered a further site on the southern side of the Shishan marshes within 200 m. of the present playa. This site, known as Azraq 31 (see Fig. 4), has an industry dating to the late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7-6000 B.C.). In addition to the prehistoric sites, there are also Roman-Byzantine walls surrounding the freshwater marshes and pools at Azraq Shishan which extend to the edge of the present playa. In conclusion one can state that lake levels must have been low during periods of the late Acheulian, Yabrudian, Levallois-Mousterian, ?Kebaran, Natufian, Pre-Pottery Neolithic Band Roman to Byzantine times. For evidence of high lake levels we examined the sections in Wadis el- Uwaynid and Rajil, to the west and east of the present playa. .Wadi el-Uwaynid. Wadi el-Uwaynid runs along the south side of Jebel Uwaynid, a basalt outlier to the

in text in relation to high and low lake levels.

west of Azraq Shishan (see Figs. 2, 4). In this locality, the wadi has a ,veIl preserved terrace, at the base of which are semi -consolidated wadi gravels, followed by lake clays, silts and evaporites. Lacustrine sediments were found up the wadi as high as the 530 m. contour, but not beyond. Moving downstream to the 520 m. contour, immediately south of the Qasr Uwaynid promontory, we found a number of in situ Epipalaeolithic sites eroding out from beneath the lake deposits. This· was checked by digging a .small sondage at Uwaynid 14. The industries from this site have no exact parallels within the Epipalaeolithic of the Levant, so it is not possible to date the rise· of. the lake at present. However, we hope to extend .the excavation and obtain material for C 14 dating in 1984. The Natufian site of Azraq 18 (see previous section) indicates that the lake had retreated. to near its present level by 10500-8300 B.C. Again excavation will. help refine this figure. Wadi el-Rajil. Moving across Qa el-Azraq to Wadi el-Rajil, we found similar evidence of lake deposits in a terrace running up to. the 530 m. contour. In this terrace the clays and evaporites of the lake ·were sandwiched between alluvial. gravels. Like .the Wadi

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el- Uwaynid, the Wadi el-Rajil is presently undergoiJlg incision, which is presumably related to the retreat of the lake and drier conditions. Evidence that the terminal glacial lake rose to 530' m. was also found in several other localities in the northern basin. If one measures the area enclosed by the present 530 m. contour, the lake would have had a coverage of c. 700 km.2 (cf. 50 km.2 of present se~sonal lake) and a maximum depth of c. 20 m. (see Fig. 2). However, there is a need for caution with these figures. Firstly, alluvial deposition and erosion make it impossible to establish the exact outline, of the high lake and thus its area. Secondly, both these factors and wind deflation have affected the contours of the former lake bottom, making it difficult to estimate depth. Thirdly,· it is possible that there has been tectonic activity in the southern basin since the lacustrine sediments were deposited. Feidat ed-Dihikiya. Having established that the late glacial lake rose to 530 m., a major point to consider was whether it ever extended into the Wadi es-Sirhan, which runs for over 350 km. south-east into Saudi Arabia. Pleistocene lake deposits have been observed in the Wadies-Sirhan but no detailed study has been made (U.S.G.S. 1963). Tracing the present contours around the central Azraq Basin, there is one point about 0·5 km. wide, at Feidat ed-Dihikiya near the Saudi Arabian border (see Fig. 2), where the divide between the two is marginally less than 530 m. An investigation of this area did not resolve the problem as there has been considerable erosional and tectonic activity in" the region, some of which may"' have occurred since the end of the Pleistocene. Feidat ed-Dihikiya is a "V" -shaped depression which cuts back from the northern Wadi es-Sirhan into the Azraq Basin through the shallow anticline, which divides the two. The depression is~defined by near vertical cliffs of 30 to 50 m. At the base of the cliffs brilliant white Tertiary marls and limestones are exposed. Above these are chocolate-brown sandy clays with rock salt, marls and thin gypsum layers (up to 20 m. thick) which are of lacustrine origin. Moving back from the cliffs to the highest part of the: anticline are lacustrine sandstones with conglomerates (up to 2 m. thick), hard, thin-bedded grey and white limestones (up to :10 m. thick), and layers of the brackish water mollusc, Cerastoderma edule paladosa interfingeredwith 'conglomerates and sandy .gravels' (up to 5 m. thick) (Bender 1974). The upper surface of these deposits reaches 570 m., well above the elevation of the late glacial lake at Azraq. This, linked to the thickness and lithology of the deposits, suggests that they belong to a much earlier lacustrine phase, and a shell sample was collected for Uranium-Thorium 'dating. In the base of the Feidat ed-Dihikiya depression, which was formed

°

by down" faulting; there' are further Icike deposits, but their date remains unclear. ' Environmental conclusions An alluvial terrace was found in the western wadis: containing sif~s of late Upper Palaeolithic/Early Epipalaeolithic date (20-15°00 B.C.). Since the wadis are downcutting under the present arid conditions, and there has been no tectonic activity in the central Azraq Basin,' it seems likely that tpe terrace:s formed under wetter conditions when. there was more vegetation. The. terraces in both Wadis' el-Jilat and Kharaneh are 'covered by a loess-like deposit, and Kebaran/ Geometric Kebaran sites' were found eroding from its surface (17-':1°5°0 B.C.). The loess may der,ive from the deflatidn of expo'sed lake sediments at Azraq or from devegetation of neighbouring localities. Whatever its source, it suggests drier conditions. ,During the Epipalaeolithic, presumably after the accumulation of loess in the western wadis, a large lake formed in the central Azraq Basin with a surface area 14 times larger than the present playa (7°° as-opposed to the present 50 km.2). This had retreated by the end of the Natufian period (8300 B.'C.) and reached its present 'size by the early Holocene. The dramatic evidence of changing climatic conditions at Azraq is matched by geomorphological and palynological observations from south Jordan (Henry forthcoming) and the Negev and Sinai (Goldberg 1981). Data from these areas suggest wetter~onditions in,the late Upper Palaeolithic, "Geometric' Kebaran and early Natu£an and drier conditions in the Kebaran, late Natufian and Holocene. As in the other areas,' a more precise chronology will be possible once the sites have been sounded and material is available for C 14 dating. This is one of the main objectives of the 1984 excavation season;

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Up until the author's survey of 1975 (Garrard et al., 1977) the only prehistoric studies which had been undertaken in the Azraq Basin were the reconnaissances of Field (1960) and Zeuner et al. (1957), the small scale e~cavations of Waechteret al. (1938) in the Wadi el-Jilat (Dhobai) and of Harding (1958) and Kirkbride (p.c.) at the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites discovered by the Baker and Harza Engineering Company (1958) at Lion and C Springs, and the survey and excavations of the Bronze Age town of J awa in the nortll,ern basin by Helms (1981). Since 1975 there has been a great increase in research activities. Betts (1982, 1975,

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In order to obtain quantitatively controlled artifact 1983, 1984) has undertaken three seasons of s~rvey in the basalt desert, Besancon and Hours (forthcoming) samples which would be representative of the surface have made a survey of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic assemblages at the sites found, we used one of three techniques in surface collecting (sampling method sites, RoUefson (1980, 1982) has dug two soundings, at Lion Spring and made an investigation of a burin site designed by Brian Byrd). The large sites with dense on Jebel Uwaynid (Rollefson and Frohlich 1982), and concentrations of artifacts, of which there were six, Muheisen (1983) has excavated at the Epipalaeolithit:: were collected using a stratified, random sampling site of Kharaneh 4. In addition Hours and Copeland technique. A grid was established and within each 10 (p.e.) have been studying the artifacts collected by by 10 m. or 20 by 20 m. grid unit (the size of the grid Harding and Kirkbride from L:ion and C Springs. depending on the nature of the site) 1 square was As a result of these various activities, we are collected. The location of the square within each grid beginning to know something of the broad periods of unit was randomly selected. The size of the square occupation, the industries, the types of settlement and varied from site to site (from 25 by 25 em. to 1 by 1 in .the case of the. basalt region, of the architecture. m.), depending on the density of artifacts. Isolated However, it will be necessary to undertake a lot more artifacts were occasionally collected and point presystematic area survey work before we can make venanced fr9m the datum (please note that the figures detailed statements about past settlement patterns. in the tables do not include the isolated finds). The Similarly, it will be necessary to undertake further majority of sites recorded were smaller and less dense. excavations if we are to give precise dates to the surface On these sites one to three circular units were sampled. industries, know more of the internal layout of sites, of The radius of the circles varied from 25 em. to 1 m. depending on the situation. On five of the sites which the socio-cultural life of the inhabitants and of the subsistence history of the region. contained very low densities of artifacts but were The 1982 archaeological survey had three main judged to warrant labelling as a site, a small selective sample of artifacts was collected. Although not quantiaims. Firstly, to locate sites which could be used for dating the environmental sequence described in the , fiably reliable, the collections did help in dating. The artifact studies were undertaken by Brian Byrd preceding section. Secondly, to find well stratified sites, which could on sounding, help us to date the (Wadi el-Jilat 10 and Uwaynid 14) and Francoise Hivernel (the remainder). industries recognized from surface collections and provide us with data on the cultural and subsistence hi~tory of the area. The third aim was to increase our knowledge of settlement patterns, by expanding the area covered by systematic field work. Site and Assemblage Descriptions Archaeological survey therfore concentrated on two As with all surface collections, it should be localities, the Wadi el-Jilat, where well stratified sites recognized that the assemblages gathered may not be had been found by Waechter et al. 1938) and secondly homogeneous ones. Mixing may have occurred on a the area of the former Azraq lake, where we hoped to number of occasions as a result of human or natural find sites related to the former lake levels. No factors such as deflation. archaeological survey was undertaken in Wadi elA further problem is that of artifact edge damage. Kharaneh as this had been the focus of survey work by The sites sampled are in an area used intensively by the author (Garrard et al. 1975, 1977) and Muheisen pastoralists and their herds of goats, sheep and camels. (1983) in earlier years. The samples collected' contain a large number of In Wadi el-Jilat we began by surveying the sites "casually retouched" or "utilized" pieces and it is which Waechter had 'located' in the 1930's. Vve then possible that sOllleof this was. caused by trampling. walked five tral).sects from ridge top on one side of the valley to ridge top on the other, to sample a cross" For this reason these pieces have been left out of the analysis which Jollows. It should be noted, however, section of the environmental features in the region (see that some of the notches described may have been map 3). Following this we made a survey of the sites formed in this manner. located during geomorphological survey work. In the As we are dealing with' surface collections from the Azraq lake region we walked two transects, one in the survey of restricted areas (although sampled in' a north-eastern sector from above the high lake level controlled way) anda number of the sites found will be down to the shore of the present playa (from 0725 X sounded in the near future, there has been no attempt 3220 to 0125 x 2590 :UTM grid) and the: second on to build a detailed cultural sequence or to make large Jebel Uwaynid (from 8350 x 2300 to 8175 x ,2075). scale comparisons with other areas in the present also surveyed the sites found during geomorphological report. investigations.

We

LEVANT

10

o b

o

c

e

o I Fig. 5. Wadi el-jilat 8. (a) Endscraper on blade. (b) Endscraper/notch.

Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic Sites.

I

I

3cm I

(c) Thick pointed blade. (d) Pyramidal core. (e) Angle burin on cobble.

on tools are primarily punctiform, followed by plain. Cortical platforms are less common and other platform types are rare (Table 9). al. (1938) as E2, is located on an erosional terrace on Over half of the tools recovered are retouched flakes travertine beside the Wadi el-Jilat gorge (see Fig. 3). It and blades (Table 11). End scrapers (Fig. sa, b), and is 110 by So m. in size and runs south-west to notches and denticulates are present in moderate north -east. A low mound is present at· the southern numbers. Burins (Fig. se), borers, ,~icroliths, and end of the site. The surface is densely covered with truncations are uncommon. One basalt grinding stone flint. Fifteen samples, So by So cm. in size, were fragment \\Tasobserved on the surf£lce of the s~te. collected in a' 20 by 20 m. grid system. The collections "The low freque~cy of microliths .suggests that the yielded 1,461 artifacts, the vast majority being clehitage (Table d. Twice as many cores, 'were used for the site was not primarily occupied during the Epipalaeoproduction of flakes (Table 4) as for the production of lithic~ Instead, it may be of Upper Palaeolithic date. blades (Fig. Sd). This is consistent with the majority of _ 'Unfortunately the only Upper Palaeolithic sites which tools being made on flake blanks (Table 6). Platforms have been excavated in Jordan are in the south of the Wadi el-jilat

8. This site referred to by Waechteret

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

SETTLEMENT

IN

THE

AZRAQ

BASIN

11

o

+ ~a

o I

3cm

I

Fig. 6. Wadi el-jilat 9. (a) Retouched bladelet. (b) Endscraper. (c) Backed bladelet. (d) Notch. (e) Backed bladelet. (f) Microburin. Bifacialleaf-shaped piece. (i) Endscraper on flake.

country. These yielded broadly similar tool class proportions (Henry 1982, p. 428), but their technology was quite different from the Wadi el-Jilat material. Wadi el-jilat 9. This site is located on the alluvial terrace on the south side of the Wadi-el-Jilat, upstream of the gorge (see Fig. 3). It consists of two dense s

a

3cm

I

~b

-u-~ -~+ o

Fig. 8. Wadi el-Jilat

10.

(a-d) Backed bladelet fragments. (e) Burin on natural surface. (f) End scraper on blade. (g) Double end scraper. (h) Endscraper retouched blade. (i) Burin on natural surface. (j) Single platform sub-pyramidal core.

6g). Notches and denticulates, truncations, and microliths and retouched bladelets (Fig. 6a,c-e) are present in decreasing numbers. Burins and borers are uncommon. Only one microburin was found (Fig. 6f). Two bifacially retouched pieces were observed and collected as isolated finds from outside the collection squares (Fig. 6h). In addition, several basalt groundstone artifacts were observed on the surface. The site is difficult to date. The assemblage has a number of similarities with the Wadi el-Jilat 8 material but the microlith' component is higher. However, it

on

still represents a minor component of the tool assemblage. It is possible the site contains both Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic horizons. Wadi el-Jilat 10. These artifacts were found on the surface of the alluvial terrace on the north side of the Wadi el-Jilat, opposite site 9 (see Fig. 3). In places the terrace was covered by loess-like deposits and as these were covered by similar artifacts, it is possible that the present artifact spread has deflated down from a higher level. Three 1 m. radius surface collections were made,

LEVANT o

o

o

o

c

b

o

d

e

o I

3cm

I

o

o

o

~0

o

o

k

~I

o

9 o

o

o

~n

o

Fig. 9: Uwaynid 14. (a-f) La Mouillah points. (g) Narrow micropoint. (h-i) Double obliquely truncated backed bladelets. (j) Double obliquely truncated bladelct. (k-l) Obliquely truncated bladelets. (m) Single plaiform core on thin edge. (n) Concave truncated bladelct. (o-q) Microburins. (r) Single plaiform core on thin edge. (s) Burin.

yielding over seven hundred artifacts for analysis (Table I). The assemblage contains more than twice as many blades and bladelets as flakes. Analysis of the 2 5 whole blade/bladelets recovered indicates that 40% were bladelets and 60% blades. Although the sample size is very small· the results are also supported by a width measurement analysis of broken blade/bladelets. If 11 mm. is taken as the maximum width for bladelets, then

35·32% of the 201 broken pieces examined would appear to be bladelets and 64-68% blades (Tixier 1963). Blades appear to be clearly in the majority. Blade and bladelet platforms are mainly plain but punctiform and crushed platforms form just over half of the sample (Table 9). The majority of flake platforms are also plain but cortical platforms are very common. Crushed and punctiform platforms are in

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

this case rare (Table g). It would therefore appear that the punch technique was only· in common use for the production of blades and bladelets. The majority of the cores are single platform blade cores (Fig. 8j), but there is quite a variety of types within this class (Table 4). Flake cores are also common, but the overwhelming majority of the tools are made on blades and not on Hakes (Table 6). The tools are dominated by end scrapers, which represent 38-15% of the tool assemblage (Table 1d. Most of the end scrapers are made on blades (Fig. 8f-h). Burins and retouched pieces are present in fair numbers, particularly burins on natural breaks (Fig. 8e,i). Backed bladelets represent one-quarter of the assemblage, but none of them are whole (Fig. 8a-d). Quite a number of the backed bladelets have retouch on both lateral edges. The site was occupied during the Epipalaeolithic, but because of the small number and the fragmentary nature of the microliths it is difficult to determine when. The absence of microburins and the lack of clear geometric microliths suggests that the site predates 125°0 B.C. and that it may be comparable with late Kebaran occupation. Uwaynid 14. This site was found eroding out from beneath sediments belonging to the last major lake episode at Azraq. The site lies to the imlnediate south-west of Qasr Uwaynid (see Fig. 4). Seven lIn. squares collections were made yielding over one thousand artifacts (Table 1). The assemblage is dominated by blades and bladelets while Hakes are much less frequent. An analysis of 76 complete blade/bladelets indicated that 51 (68-1%) can be classified as bladelets while only 25 (32-8g%) can be termed blades (Tixier 1g63). Bladelets are therefore in the majority. Blade and bladelet platforms are almost equally divided between punctiform and crushed varieties, whilst other categories are only minimally represented (Table g). It appears that the punch technique was primarily used for blade and bladelet production. Flake platforms, however, show a different distribution. Cortical and plain platforms, however represent about one half of the sample and crushed platforms about one third (Table g). This suggests that the Hakes were mainly the by-product of core reduction prior to the removal of bladelets. This is further supported by the fact that almost all of the tools are made from blade and bladelet blanks (Table 6). Although the sample size is small (41) the microburin technique appears to have be~n in regular use at the site (Fig. go-q). The restricted microburin index is 34-74 (Henry Ig74) while the adjusted microburin index is 29-48 (Marks and Larson Ig7 7). The location of the microburin fracture was almost evenly divided

SETTLEMENT

IN

THE

AZRAQ

BASIN

between the proximal and distal halves of the bladelet, 23 and 18 respectively. No preference seems to have been shown for either end. The cores are almost exclusively single platform blade cores on the thin edge of a tabular piece of Hint (Table 4). These thin pieces of Hint often have the white cortex remaining on both lateral surfaces (Fig. gm,r). The source of the Hint is at present unknown. The tool assemblage is dominated by microliths (Table 11). Truncations (Fig. gj, n-p) are common while end scrapers and burins (Fig. gs) are present in low numbers. La Mouillah points (Fig. ga-f) are the most frequent type of backed bladelet and backed bladelet fragments are fairly common. Micropoints (Fig. gh,i) are also present. Over 80% of· the backed bladelets have abrupt retouch. The remainder of the tools are backed with semi-steep, alternating, or partial retouch. The size range of the complete backed tools ranges between 23 and 39 mm. in length and 4 and 10 mm. in width. The median width is, however, 5 mm. The site clearly dates to the Epipalaeolithic. The main characteristics of the collection are the high frequency of microliths, particularly the La Mouillah point, the predominance of bladelet debitage, and the consistent use of the micro burin technique. How representative this collection is of the site as a whole is unclear, since the sample is small, from a restricted area and the region has been subject to erosion. It appears to be a relatively unmixed assemblage and does not fit easily into any of the recognized industries. The consistent use of the micro burin technique has not been found at any classic Kebaran sites in the Levant. It is present at sites such as Yabrud (Rust 1950) and Madamagh (Kirkbride Ig58) but only in low numbers. The technique has been found at one Geonletric Kebaran site, Ein Gev IV, but the use of the technique was quite different froln that at Uwaynid 14 (Bar Yosef Ig70, Henry 1974). The technique was used in the Natufian, the Negev Kebaran, the Mushabian, the Harifian, the Qualkan and the late and final Hamran (Bar-Yosef Ig81, Henry Ig82). If the consistent use of the microburin technique can be used as a tirne indicator, then Uwaynid 14 should postdate 125°0 B.C. (Bar Yosef (lg8)). However, although the Qualkan industry is undated at present, it has been suggested that it is contemporaneous with the Kebaran (Henry 1g82, p. 430), which would push the use of the rnicroburin technique back several thousand years. Wadi el-Jilat 6. This site is located at the valley side about 300 In. north of the Wadi el-Jilat gorge (see Fig. 3). It appears to sit on slope colluviuln which overlies the travertine erosional terrace through which the gorge is cut. The core of the site consists of three nlounds running east-west and covering 120 by "50m.

16

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I

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I

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~b

0

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c

d

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I

'0 I f c::l.

~e

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0

g

0

0

~h

i

~

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::t=:========+====+=1

Fig. (/t)

Wadi el-Jilat 6. (a) Backed bladeletfragment. (b) Microburin. (c) Rectangle fragment. (d-f) Backed bladeletfragments. (g) Helwan bladeletjragment. Lunate. (i) /soceles triangle. (j-k) Borers. (l) Side scraper. (m) Double end scraper. (n)Angle burin on truncation. (0) Pseudo naviform core. (p) Pebble tool.

[0.

A dense scatter of artifacts extends eastwards for another 150 m. The site was named K by Waechter et al. (1938) and their 3 x 1 m. trench is still visible in the swale between the east and central mounds. The site has suffered from recent disturbance; The remains of a bedouin encampment lies to the immediate north and -:several vehicle tracks cut across the .,surface. The north-western portion of the western mound appears to have been flattened out as a parking area.

Fifty-nine 25 x 25 em. samples were obtained, one from each 10 x 10 m. grid area. This yielded 4,785 artifacts (Table 1) most of which were debitage, including 29 microburins, 4 Krukowski microburins, and 1 trihedral point. The majority of the cores recovered were for blade and blade1et production (Table 4, Fig. 100), but the tools appear to have been made almost equally on flakes and blades (Table 6); Analysis of tool platforms shows that plain platforms

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

are the most common, followed closely by punctiform platforms (Table 9). The dominant tool class is retouched flakes and blades (Table 11). Microlithic and retouched bladelers are also quite common (Fig. 10a~i), the majority of which are fragments often with backing on both sides. They include three geometries; a lunate, a rectangle, and a triangle. End scapers, the majority being made on flakes (Fig. 10m), truncations, and notches and denticulates are present in lesser numbers. Burins (Fig. Ion) and borers (Fig. 10j,k) are uncommon. Over a dozen basalt and limestone groundstone artifacts, including one mortar, were visible on the surface of the site. However, none of them were situated within our sample units. The presence of microburins, grinding stones, and a few geometric microliths indicates that the surface collection probably dates to the latter half of the Epipalaeolithic, probably postdating 12500 B.C. However, given the depth of the mounds-Waechter found five stratified layers-initial occupation may have been much earlier. Neolithic Sites Wadi-el-Jilat 7. This site covers about 60 x 50 m. of the travertine erosional terrace on the southern edge of the Wadi el-Jilat gorge (see Fig. 3). It was termed site C by Waechter et al. (1938), and it contains three concentrations of half buried upright stones. Although there are clearly some bedouin graves in this area, there also appear to be some stone structures which may be contemporary with the prehistoric site. Seven 1 by 1 m. squares, one per 20 by 20 m. grid unit, were sampled, yielding 1,161 artifacts (Table 2). Almost 20% of the artifacts collected were tools. The majority of the cores recovered were used for blade and bladelet production (Fig. IIi), but the sample size is small (Table 5). The tools collected were, however, mainly prepared from flakes (Table 7). The platforms on the tools are primarily plain and punctiform (Table 10).

Over half of the tools recovered are retouched flakes and blades (Table 12). Notches and denticulates, microliths and retouched bladelets(Fig. 1.1b,d), and truncations are present in much lower quantities. Burin (Fig. 11f), scrapers (Fig. 11h), and borers are poorly represented. No geometric microliths were recovered. Two projectile points· were collected as isolated finds. :The points are of the Byblos (Fig. 11e, and EI Khiam (Fig. 11a) variety. In addition, a tranchet axe (Fig. 11g) was obtained. Waechter felt that the site belonged to the PrePottery Neolithic B, but given the amount of microlithic tools and the large number of pieces with

SETTLEMENT

IN

THE

AZRAQ

BASIN

Ouchata retouch the site may also have been occupied earlier. Wadi el-Jilat 2 I. This diffuse scatter of artifacts covers 150 x 80 m. of the travertine erosional terrace on the north side of the Wadi el-Jilat (see Fig. 3). Three concentrations of artifacts were observed and 1 m. radius circles were collected from each concentration. A further nine isolated objects were picked up yielding together just over 500 artifacts (Table 2). .The cores were mainly for blade and bladelet p~oduction although the sample is extremely small (Table 5). The tools are mainly made on blades (Table 7) and the platforms are primarily plain, followed by punctiform (Table 10). The majority of the tools are retouched blades and Rakes (Table 12) and they occur in almost equal numbers. Notches and denticulates are quite common but all other classes of tools are minimally represented .. Several fragments of bifacial pieces and a bifacial piece on tabular flint were collected as isolated finds. Wadi el-Jilat 22. This site is located on the travertine erosional terrace on the north edge of the Wadi el-Jilat gorge (see Fig. 3). .It covers an area of 100 x 60 m. and was named site I by Waechter et al. (1938). The surface is densely covered with flint, and bone is eroding out in a number of places. Thirteen 25 by 25 em. squares were collected, one per 20 x 20 m. grid unit. Four isolated artifacts were also picked up and together this adds up to over 300 artifacts (Table 2). Although the sample of cores is small, flake manufacture appears to have been more common than blade and bladelet production (Table 5). Several of these cores were on flakes (Newcomer and Hivernel 1974). The preference for flake production is further supported by the results of an analysis of tool blanks, most of which were formed from flakes (Table 7). The platforms are mainly plain but punctiform and faceted types are also common. Other forms were poorly represented (Table 10).

The tools are mainly retouched blades and flakes, but notches and denticulates, and end scrapers are also common (Table 12). All other classes are rare. Two bifacially retouched tangs and a tile scraper were collected as isolated artifacts. Waechter thought the site was Kebaran, but if the bifacial elements are contemporaneous with the rest of the assemblage, then it seems likely to date to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B. Unfortunately the sample size is not large, so reliable dating will have to wait until after test excavation. Azraq· 31. This site is located on a hard layer of travertine within 200 m. of the south-west shore of the present Qa el-Azraq (see map 4). It covers an area about 80x- 70 m. and thirty-one 1 x 1 m. samples, one per lOX 10 ill. grid unit; and 19 isolated artifacts were

18

LEVANT

L3a

o

o

+

d

C>

o

o ~f

9

o I

+ Fig.

11.

Wadi el-jilat

7. (a) El Khiam point.

3cm

I

o

h

(b) Retouched bladelet. (c) Tang. (d) Backed blade. [e) Byblos point. (f) Angle burin on truncation. (h) Side scraper/endscraper. (i) Opposed pla?form core.

collected, yielding over 400 artifacts (Table 2). The few cores recovered are for blade and bladelet production (Table 5) and tools are predominantly made on blades (Table 7). The platforrns are mainly plain but punctiform ones are also common (Tablel 0). Over half the tool assemblage collected from the sample squares cpnsists of projectile points and bifaces

(g) Oval axe.

(Table· 12). This number was supplemented by the collection of isolated finds. Retouched flakes and blades are common, but the remaining tool classes are either absent or uncommon in this small sample (Fig. 12a,b,h,i; Fig. 13a). Several projectile points are present, including the Amuq (Fig. 120, Byblos (Fig. 12d,e) and Jericho (Fig. 12c) types. Some of the points

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

SETTLEMENT

IN

THE

AZRAQ

BASIN

19

a

o I

o

3cm

I

d

~e

+ o f

~

g~~--> Fig.

12.

Azraq)1.

(a) Point or drill fragment. (b) Double backed bladelet. (c)jericho type point. (d-e) Byblos type points. (f) Amuq type point. (g) Bijacially retouched leaf-shaped point. (h) Denticulate. (i) Angle burin on truncation.

have tangs, but barbs do not occur. One point is similar to those recovered from the kurkaI' ridge (Noy et al. 1976). Several oval axes (Fig. 13c) and a number of tile knives (Fig. 13b) were also found. Dating of the site is based on the chronology for the evolution of tool types suggested by Bar-Yosef (lg81) and must be viewed as tentative. The samples recovered did not yield any projectile points which occur after 5000 B.C. The late Pre-Pottery Beolithic B is characterized by a high frequency of Byblos and Amuq points and the tranchets are mainly of the amygdaloid oval shape, all of which occur at the site. The tile knives are known to occur in the fifth and .fourth

millennia but could also be earlier (Copeland in Garrard et al. 1977), and those recovered fromihe site mayor may not be contemporaneous with the projectile points recovered. Therefore the site probably dates to the later Pre- Pottery Neolithic B between 7000 and 6000 B.C. Wadi el-jilat 13. Waechter et al. b 938) site B is located on the travertine erosional terrace on the southern edge of the Wadi el-Jilat gorge (see Fig. 3). During his excavations Waechter found a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B assemblage and a stone structure. Two samples were collected from this site during the Ig82 survey, but they were too small to help in dating the site.

LEVANT

20

a

\ o

3cm

I

I

c

b Fig. 13. Azraq 31 cont. (a) Circular endscraper. (b) Tile knife. (c) Oval axe.

Burin Sites.

and the fourth in the corral of a desert kite at c.

Seven of the sites found during the 1982 survey can be classified as burin sites (Betts 1982). Three were located in the Wadi el-Jilat and four along the survey transect in the north-east Azraq lake region. One of those located in the Wadi el-Jilat (WJ. 20) was found on a ridge top overlooking the valley and the other two (WJ. 14, 15) on the valley slopes (see Fig. 3). All four of those in the Azraq region were located on basalt flows, three lying close to the 530 m. contour (AZ. 25, 26, 27)

(AZ·30).

510

m.

All seven sites were sampled using circular collection units. The sample sizes vary considerably, but a number of observations can be made about the group as a whole. At all sites except Azraq 27, tools represent a very high percentage of the artifacts recovered (Table 3). The frequency of tools falls between 30 and 55% at most of the sites. Blades and bladdets were slightly more common as tool blanks than flakes (Table 8).

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

With the exception of Wadi el-jilat 14, the tool assemblages are dominated by burins (Table 13). Truncations, notches and denticulates are also common. At Wadi el-jilat 15, oval axes, bifacially retouched pieces and tile knives were also recovered, indicating an early Neolithic date far the occupation. Burins were also the commonest tool class found in Waechter et al. (1938) excavations at Wadi el-jilat 13 (site B). Other aspects of the flint assemblage including the projectile paints, suggested a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B date for this site, and it is passible that the other burin sites are contemparary (Betts1982). Unclassified Sites A number of other sites (Wadi el-jilat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11,12,16,17,18; Uwaynid 15,16,17; Azraq 24) were found and sampled during the 1982 survey. Unfortunately none 'Of these yielded assemblages which were hamageneous or distinctive enough to allow secure temporal placement. Most of the sites could date to anywhere between the Upper Palaeolithic and the Chalcalithic. This is undoubtedly related to our lack 'Of knowledge of changes in lithic technology, exploitation techniques and settlement patterns in the regian. Hapefully, in the future, as our knowledge increases, these sites will be better understood. Settlement Conclusions The 1982 archaeolagical survey was successful in locating a number 'Of rich in situ stratified sites of Upper Palaeolithic to Pre-Pottery Neolithic B date. Once saunded these will hapefully help us ta date the environmental sequences observed in the Azraq Basin, the surface industries found by previous surveys, and provide us with data· on the cultural and economic history of the regian at a time when animal and plant husbandry and village life was developing in the mare fertile western Levant. The main objective of the 1984 and 1985 field seasons is ta sound a number 'Ofthe sites located in the Wadi el-Jilat and Azraq lake region. Owing to the fact that systematic area survey work has 'Only been canducted in small areas of the Azraq Basin (Garrard et al., 1-977 and the present survey; Betts 1982, 1983, 1984) it remains premature to make detailed statements about past settlement patterns in

SETTLEMENT

IN

THE

AZRAQ

BASIN

21

the region. Nevertheless it is possible to make a few general comments. At the present time the only sizable in situ Lawer and Middle Palaeolithic sites discovered have been located in cuts made through the former lake and marsh deposits at Azraq. Elsewhere, finds have been limited to redeposited material in wadi gravels and isolated implements and small scatters on ancient undisturbed hammada surfaces. Upper Palaeolithic sites also remain rare. They have so far only been found in the alluvial terraces of the Wadi el-jilat and Kharaneh. In both cases the distribution pattern may be as much an "artifact" of geological pracesses as of human settlement patterns. By contrast, Epipalaeolithic sites have been discovered in a wide range of locations. Some 'Ofthose in the western wadis cover areas of 10-20,000 m.2• The occupation debris is dense and has accumulated to depths 'Of 2-3 m. To the author's knawledge these are the largest Epipalaeolithic sites known fram the Near East. The Epipalaeolithic sites in the Azraq lake region are smaller, the largest reaching c. 5,000 m. 2. A -cansiderable number of Pre- Pottery Nealithic B sites have also been located (particularly if 'One includes the burin sites under this heading) in the western wadis, along the perimeter of the basalt lava flows and in the marsh and lake area at Azraq. These never reach the scale of the largest Epipalaeolithic sites, but some are up to 5,00D m.2 in area. In addition to the above, a large number of sites with presently undiagnostic industries have been found. Some of these have architectural features and it is possible that some will turn aut t'O be Neolithic or Chalcolithic, but this can only be tested by excavation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I (A.N.G.) would like to thank the Jordanian Department of Antiquities and particularly the Director Dr. Adnan Hadidi and our field representative Khalid Abu Ghanimeh for their help with the survey. I am also extremely grateful to the British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History and its former Director Mrs. Crystal Bennett for providing me with research time and facilities, and to Dr. Gary Rollerson and Dr. Donald Henry for valuable discussions concerning the flint industries. For funds lam very grateful to the Br-itish Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History, the British Academy, the Wainwright Committee and the Palestine Exploration Fund.

LEVANT

22 , Table

Frequency and percentage

I

Tools

Debitage

W.j.6 W.j.8 W.j·9 W.J. 10 UW.14

, Table

of artifact classes from Upper and Epipalaeolithic sites

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

4,058 1,221 1,038 659 846

84.81 83'57 83.84 86'94 87'04

636 214 173 76 109

13'29 14.65 13'97 10'03 11' 21

91 26 27 23 17

1'90 l' 78 2'18 3'03 l' 75

4,785 1,461 1,238 758 972

100'00 100'00 99'99 100'00 100'00

Frequency and percentage of artifact classes from Neolithic sites

2

Tools

Debitage

W.J. 7 W.j.21 W.J.22 AZ·31

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

921 441 262 364

79'53 90'18 80·62 90'55

226 44 54 37

19'52 8'99 16·62 9'20

11 4 9

0'95 0·82 2' 77 0'25

1,158 489 325 402

100'00 99'99 100'01 100'00

Frequency and' perceptage

of artifact classes from Burin sites

Tools

Debitage

Table 4

Total

Cores

N

Table 3

W.j. 14 W,j.15 W.J. 20 AZ.25 AZ.26 AZ.27 AZ·30

Total

Cores

Total

Cores

N

%

N

%

N

61 35 157 154 40 146 0

55'45 37.63 '64.61 47'58 46'51 82'02

48 50 81 169 46 26 17

43.64 53'76 33'33· 52'32 53'49 14.61 94'44

8 5 0 0 6

%

N

%

0'91 8·60 2'06

110 93 243 323 86 178 18

100'00 99'99 100'00 100'00 100'00 100'00 100'00

3'37 5'56

Frequency and, percentage of core classes from Upper and Epipala~o.,. lithic sites :J .; ,~ ' .~

Blade/Bladelet

W.J. 6 W.J. 8 W.J. 9 W.j.l0 UW.14

Flake

Unidentifiable

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

59 6 16 13 16

64.83 23'08 59'26 56'52 94'11

16 13 3 5 0

17' 58 50'00 11, 11 21· 74

16 7 8 5

17' 58 26'92 29.63 21' 74 5.88

91 26 27 23 17

99'99 100'00 100'00 100'00 99'99

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

Table 5

AND

Frequency and percentage Blade/Bladelet

W.J. 7 W.J. 21 W.J. 22 AZ·31

SETTLEMENT

%

N

%

N

6 3 2 3

54·54 75.00 22·22 100·00

3

27 ·27 25.00 66·67

2 0 1 0

Table 7

Table 8

8'18. 11·11

N.

%

11 4 9 3

99·99 100·00 100·00 100·00

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

333 73 60 66 105

49.78 36.62 34.48 94·28 98.13

336 135 114 4 2

50.22 63.38 65·52 5·72 1·87

669 213 174 70 107.

100·00 100·00 100·00 99·99 100·00

Frequency and percentage of tool blank classes from Neolithic sites Flakes

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

73 30 9 36

30.80 65·22 18·00 80·00

164 16 41 9

69'20 34.78 82·00 20·00

237 46 50 45

100·00 100'00 100·00 100·00

Frequency and percentage of tool blank classes from Burin sites';: Blade/Bladelets

W.J. 14 W.J. 15 W.j.20 AZ.25

%

Flakes

Blade/Bladelets

W.J. 7 W.J. 21 W.J. 22 AZ·31

Flakes

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

19 34 44 88

41.30 66·67 57.14 52.69

27 17 33 79

58.70 33·33 42·86 47.31

46 51 77 167

100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

'::No data recorded

BASIN

Total

Frequency and percentage of tool blank classes from Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic sites Blade/B ladelets

W.J. 6 W.J. 8 W.j·9 W.J. 10 UW.14

AZRAQ

Unidentifiable

N

Table 6

THE

of core classes from Neolithic sites

Flake

6 0

IN

for sites AZ 26,27

and 30.

23

24

LEVANT

Table 9

Frequency and percentage of platform types from Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic Dihedral

Plain

W.J. 6 WJ.8 'W.J. 9 W.J. 10 on flakes on blades UW·.l4 on flakes on blades

N

%

N

%

119 23 59

45'77 30'26 55.66

9 2 6

3'4'6 2·63 5.66

39 32

52'00 35'16

0

25 13

25'25 5.60

3 3

Table

Plain

W.J. 7 W.J. 21 W.j.22 AZ·31

Punctiform

Cortical

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

95' 33 22

36'54 43'42 20'75

4 4 3

1'54 5'26 2·83

19 5 9

7'31 6'58 8'49

14 9 7

5'38 11·84 6·60

260 76 106

100'00 99'99 99'99

1'10

27

1'33 29.67

8 3

10·67 3'30

5 22

6·67 24'18

22 6

29'33 6'59

75 91

100'00 100'00

3'03 1'29

11 100

11' 11 43'10

5 4

5'05 .}·72

32 10,7

32'32 46-.02

23 5

23'23 2'IU

'99 232

99'99 99'99

Dihedral

Punctiform

of platform types fr-am Neolithic sites Faceted

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

46 17 17 7

37'10 65'38 44'74 63.64

6

4-84 3.85 5'26

45 6 11 3

36'29 23"08 28'95 27'27

10 1 4

8'06 3.85 10'53 9'09

2 0

Splintered

%

N

Frequency and percentage

10

Faceted

sites

Splintered

Cortical

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

9

7'26 3.85 5'26

8 0 2 0

6'45

124 '26 38 11

100'00 100·01 100·00 100'00

'1

2 0

5'26

PREHISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT

AND

o

o

...•

0 c