Presentation of local and international culture in

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Presentation of local and international culture in current international English-language teaching textbooks a

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Jeeyoung Shin , Zohreh R. Eslami & Wen-Chun Chen

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Department of Teaching, Learning, and Culture, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA b

Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Chung-Cheng University, Taipei, Taiwan Version of record first published: 01 Nov 2011.

To cite this article: Jeeyoung Shin , Zohreh R. Eslami & Wen-Chun Chen (2011): Presentation of local and international culture in current international English-language teaching textbooks, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 24:3, 253-268 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2011.614694

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Language, Culture and Curriculum Vol. 24, No. 3, November 2011, 253 –268

Presentation of local and international culture in current international English-language teaching textbooks Jeeyoung Shina∗ , Zohreh R. Eslamia and Wen-Chun Chenb

Downloaded by [Texas A&M University Libraries] at 12:57 18 April 2013

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Department of Teaching, Learning, and Culture, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; bDepartment of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Chung-Cheng University, Taipei, Taiwan (Received 21 April 2010; final version received 6 August 2011) The place of culture in teaching English as an international language (EIL) is a complex issue, given the diversity of contexts in which English is currently being used globally. Building on a sociocultural perspective that language use is open to negotiation and is context-dependent, this paper argues that the design and content of English-language teaching (ELT) textbooks should reflect the multiple perspectives inherent in EIL. Findings from an analysis of the cultural content of seven series of internationally distributed ELT textbooks are reported. Our study showed that even though cultural aspects were proportionally diverse in each textbook series, inner circle cultural content still dominates most of the textbooks. Furthermore, cultural presentation still largely remains at the traditional knowledge-oriented level and does not engage learners in deep levels of reflection. The findings are discussed in light of existing studies, and some recommendations for future textbook writers and classroom practice are suggested. Keywords: cultural content; EIL paradigm; ELT textbooks; ESL/EFL classroom; intercultural communication; textbook writers

Introduction The growing number of second-language speakers of English, which has already surpassed the number of native speakers, has influenced the status of English in the world today (e.g., Kivisto¨, 2005; McKay, 2003c). The new status of English as an international language (EIL) poses major challenges to the hegemony of British and American native-speaker norms in English-language teaching (ELT) practices (Modiano, 2001). Simultaneously, the EIL paradigm has made a unique contribution to cultural, intellectual, and economic disciplines in international contexts (Jenkins, 2005; Taki, 2008). It is not surprising that the ELT research field has also been challenged by the emerging paradigm of EIL. However, there is a scarcity of literature on EIL to assist ELT professionals in the development and effective use of resources to enhance instruction (Seidlhofer, 2003). As Ndura (2004) submits, ‘the content of instructional materials significantly affects students’ attitudes and dispositions towards themselves, other people and society’ (p. 143). Textbooks should incorporate learners’ diverse racial and cultural backgrounds and empower them to identify different voices and perspectives. The goal of this paper is to examine the way in which the EIL paradigm is framed within a selected number of current international ELT textbooks, with particular reference to ∗

Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 0790-8318 print/ISSN 1747-7573 online # 2011 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2011.614694 http://www.tandfonline.com

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cultural issues. We begin by conceptualising the EIL paradigm and the issues to which it gives rise. Second, we discuss how EIL defines culture, emphasising the significance of the learners’ own culture and experiences. Third, we examine the presentation of culture in current textbooks from various parts of the world. Fourth, we evaluate the cultural aspects and levels of cultural presentation in some current international ELT textbooks. Finally, we discuss the findings in light of existing studies and suggest some recommendations for future textbook writers and classroom practice.


Literature review Conceptualising EIL As mentioned, the paradigm shift in ELT practices and research rejects the superiority and authority of native speakers and their cultures. The new paradigm, termed EIL, accepts the language authority and norms of English-language learners (Phillipson, 1997) and accepts English as ‘a lingua franca’ and as ‘a medium of intercultural communication’ (Seidlhofer, 2003, p. 9). Although these interchangeable terms define the attitudes, expectations, and norms of EIL differently, they negotiate the authority and identity of English-language speakers. Furthermore, world English(es) has recently emerged and is more progressive in emphasising the role of EIL speakers as fully involved agents and not mere recipients (Seidlhofer, 2003). Several critical issues related to EIL have been identified in the literature: stigmatisation of non-native English speakers, questions of language identity and language ownership, respect for diverse cultures, and concerns about English as a means of cross-cultural communication between non-native English speakers (Gilmore, 2007; Liu, 2008). These issues have played a role in the categorisation of English speakers and the varieties of English. Kachru (1985) categorises the use of English in terms of ‘inner’, ‘outer’, and ‘expanding’ circles to define different English varieties. English used in inner circle countries, such as the USA, UK, Canada, and New Zealand, is defined as varieties used by native speakers. The outer circle comprises countries such as India, the Philippines, and Nigeria, where English is used as an official language in the historical context of colonisation. Finally, the expanding circle refers to countries such as Korea, Japan, and China, where English is used as a foreign language. McKay (2002) states that the inner and outer circles of English varieties in Kachru’s model make up the EIL. Furthermore, Seidlhofer (2003) believes that due to the rapid spread of English, countries in the expanding circle could enter the mainstream circle also. However, some researchers argue that Kachru’s model does not fit the current framework of EIL (Bruthiaux, 2003; Kirkpatrick, 2007). For example, Kirkpatrick argues that Kachru’s framework of outer and expanding circle countries assumes a native-speaker model of English. For this reason, Modiano (2001) suggests a conceptual model of English speakers that places fluent international English speakers who use English for cross-cultural communication in the centre circle without considering if they are native or non-native speakers. Modiano’s model is notable because it shifts the focus from the inner circle of native speakers to an international inner circle of non-native speakers (Kivisto¨, 2005). However, since most of the ELT textbooks still use a native-speaker model, Kachru’s model, which delineates inner circle countries from outer and expanding, is more applicable to our analysis. Culture in the EIL paradigm Cortazzi and Jin (1999) define the term culture as: ‘the framework of assumptions, ideas, and beliefs that are used to interpret other people’s actions, words, and patterns of thinking’


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(p. 197). Over the past 40 years, language professionals have increased their emphasis on learning the culture of English-speaking societies as well as learning the language itself. Studies of the role of culture in language education have been conducted from a variety of viewpoints (Paige, Jorstad, Siaya, Klein, & Colby, 2003). Currently, there is a growing body of literature stemming from the analysis of the needs of learners in a student-centred context that details the significance of their native cultures. Furthermore, the use of students’ own prior experiences is encouraged to facilitate effective L2 learning (Alptekin, 2002). The research has shown that learners improve their language skills when they have the opportunity to use the second language to express their own culture or to reflect on their own experiences. The cultural context of British and American English can differ greatly from the cultural context of non-native speakers, which adds to the difficulty of mastering English. It has been argued that students do not need to depend on the cultural schema of native speakers of English to negotiate meaning and to communicate with other users of English (McKay, 2003b). Similarly, Alptekin (2002) points out that effective L2 learning does not necessarily have to espouse the entire target culture; he asks: ‘how relevant is the importance of Anglo-American eye contact, or the socially acceptable distance for conversation as properties of meaningful communication to Finnish and Italian academicians exchanging ideas in a professional meeting?’ (p. 61). He argues that specific cultural characteristics of native speakers of English do not improve, or even influence, meaningful communication between non-native speakers of English. More to the point, researchers note that it is possible to separate the target culture, American or British, from the English language (e.g., Murayama, 2000). McKay (2003a) presents insights on how to separate EIL from a given culture: First, the cultural content of EIL materials should not be limited to native English-speaking cultures. [. . .] Second, an appropriate pedagogy of EIL needs to be informed by local expectations regarding the role of the teacher and learner. [. . .] Third, the strengths of bilingual teachers of English need to be recognized. (p. 140)

Furthermore, sociocultural theory supports the social context of language learning as playing a crucial role; learners can learn language through interaction with peers and teachers in different contexts. Pavlenko and Lantolf (2000) argue that second-language learning is, ‘a struggle of concrete socially constituted and always situated beings to participate in the symbolically mediated lifeworld ... of another culture (p. 155)’. According to sociocultural theory, learners are active participants in their new culture. In EIL settings, nonnative speakers communicate mostly with other non-native speakers rather than native speakers of English (Jenkins, 2006). Learners’ cultures and experiences, therefore, need to be validated within the teaching materials and instructional practices used. From the perspective of sociocultural theory, learners’ English variants and local contexts have legitimacy and should not be relegated to marginal status. Textbook writers and material developers should take this variability into account and help learners to utilise their own life experiences in order to facilitate their identification with different varieties of English and their associated cultures.

Cultural content in ELT textbooks English is not the exclusive property of the inner circle countries anymore. English is increasingly used as an international language by non-native speakers of English for


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different purposes. EIL involves crossing borders, as non-native users of English interact in cross-cultural encounters. From the EIL perspective, understanding learners’ own cultures is paramount, because it gives the learner an opportunity to develop an understanding of the culture of others (McKay, 2000, 2002). Many researchers agree that most current Englishas-a-foreign-language (EFL) textbooks focus on features of Western culture (Alptekin, 1993; Renner, 1993). The main reasons for using elements of the target culture seem to be that: (a) it is more cost-effective for publishers to produce and publish textbooks using these social and cultural contexts; (b) it is difficult for native-speaker authors to compose texts that are free from the influence of their own Anglo-American culture; and (c) historically, target-language instruction has emphasised its own culture (Alptekin, 1993). Boriboon (2004) examined the disparity between students’ daily lives and the discourse in the text materials they used. He compared examples about shopping and cuisine from a current popular English textbook, New Headway, with learners’ lives in rural Thailand. The disparity between Thai culture and the scenarios presented in the textbook created reading comprehension difficulties for learners. As a solution, the author suggests that teachers encourage their students to modify or create dialogues based on their personal connections or experiences. Table 1 summarises recent studies that have examined the cultural content of ELT textbooks. The table contains two noteworthy features. First, in terms of methodology, content analysis and critical discourse analysis were used in several studies. For example, Murayama (2000) analysed the cultural content of 10 EFL textbooks in Japan in terms of ‘aspect’ and ‘level’ of culture to determine which culture was presented and how deeply the cultural content was presented in texts. Garcıá (2005) created a cultural analysis table that included ‘cultural objectives, cultural content, the methodology of the cultural component and assessing culture’ (p. 62). Each of these categories has further subcategories. Based on the critical discourse analysis, Taki (2008) examined ‘contents’, ‘social relations’, and ‘subject positions’ in the EFL textbooks (p. 130). Furthermore, research findings have shown that both internationally distributed and locally produced ELT textbooks contained deficiencies. Analyses of internationally distributed ELT textbooks have revealed that the materials were dominated by American and British viewpoints (Ilieva, 2000; Ndura, 2004). Ilieva (2000) argues that this might hinder a learner’s acculturation because it does not help students to expand their own cultural awareness vis-a`-vis their new society. Similarly, other researchers have found that locally produced English textbooks also contained mostly American and British cultures and values, rather than globally oriented materials. On the other hand, Majdzadeh (2002) found that locally produced Iranian ELT textbooks focused exclusively on Iranian culture and religion. This lack of target cultural perspectives can create a barrier for students who are seeking to improve their intercultural competence and target-language skills. Similarly, Garcıá (2005) concluded that the Spanish ELT textbooks that he analysed provided little opportunity for students to develop intercultural competence. Researchers such as Majdzadeh (2002) and Victor (1999) have suggested that textbooks need to be localised, but should also include target and global culture to facilitate learners’ intercultural competence. Teachers should be encouraged to use complementary teaching materials to ensure that their students are exposed to local, target, and global cultural components. Cortazzi and Jin (1999) believe that the cultural features that can be used in ELT textbooks are of three types: ‘source culture materials’ that use students’ native cultural artefacts as content, ‘target culture materials’ that include the cultures of Englishspeaking countries (mostly Western countries), and ‘international materials’ that embrace diverse cultures from around the world. Finally, they maintain that additional research with a more reflective attitude towards cultural content and methodology is needed in

Summary of research on culture in ELT textbooks.

Study

Purpose

Analysis

Victor (1999)

Matching the cultural content of Content analysis textbooks and pedagogical issues, the goals of learning English of Gabonese students, and cultural contexts of Gabon in textbooks used in Gabon Ilieva (2000) Culture in adult ESL texts designed Critical discourse analysis in Canada: (1) what is cultural knowledge?; (2) whose viewpoint of culture is used?; and (3) can students reflect their own cultural experiences in the new immigrant society? Murayama (2000) The content of cultural features in Document analysis: EFL textbooks in Japan analysis of the cultural content of textbooks using the categories of aspect and level of culture Majdzadeh (2002) The disconnection between English Content analysis and the culture of English in Iranian-English textbooks Aliakbari (2004)

The role of culture in Iranian-English Content analysis textbooks for students’ intercultural competence

Texts Two widely used textbooks in Gabon: Imagine You’re English and L’anglais Vivant

Findings English textbooks used in Gabon were not well suited for the students’ needs and situations

Canadian textbook for adult L2 learners: Canadian Concept 3

(1) Culture examined in the selected texts adhered to target cultural concepts; (2) target cultural viewpoint was prevalent in the texts; and (3) the texts were less likely to contribute in an integrated way in the new setting Ten EFL textbooks for upperThe reflection of EIL was likely to be secondary school in Japan different in each textbook; the cultural content of textbooks examined seemed to be consistent at the traditional knowledge-oriented level Twenty-one lessons in eighth and (1) The textbooks definitely advocated ninth grade public school Islamic traditions and culture and (2) textbooks and 24 lessons from the the textbooks need more provision same level textbooks in a private for Western culture to accommodate language school in Iran the international perspective Four levels of Iranian high school The Iranian textbooks were not textbooks: English Book 1–4 adequate to expand learners’ intercultural competence



Table 1.

(Continued )

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Table 1.

(Continued.)

Study Ndura (2004) Garcıá (2005) Taki (2008)

Purpose

Analysis

Cultural bias in ESL textbooks used Qualitative analysis in the USA

Texts

Findings

Six ESL textbooks for elementary Stereotyping, invisibility, and unreality and secondary grades in the USA were found as the major cultural biases International and intercultural Qualitative approach: a Fourteen first- and second-course The textbooks did not have a crossaspects in EFL textbooks in Spain cultural analysis table Bachillerato textbooks in Spain cultural and contrastive approach Ideology and power relationships in Critical discourse analysis: Four internationally distributed The internationally distributed ELT materials used in Iran analysis of content, textbooks: Expressways, New textbooks conveyed the discourse of social relations, and American Streamline: Destination, the Western-dominated economic subject positions New Interchange 3, and Spectrum framework based on social equality; 4, plus local textbooks for Iranian Iranian high school textbooks have high school students: English Book the following features: (1) de1– 3 and A Preparatory English contextualised conversations; (2) Course lack of cross-cultural awareness; (3) significant consumer-oriented issues; and (4) a focus on other people’s experiences and situations


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various countries to meet the goal of improving cultural awareness in the EIL perspective (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999).


Methodology Research questions The main research objective in this study is to examine how current international ELT textbooks reflect the cultural perspective of the EIL paradigm. To achieve this objective, we identified the embedded cultural elements and contents in these textbooks and analysed them based on the EIL perspective. We also investigated the depth of the cultural representations in these texts in terms of raising learners’ intercultural competence. Our analysis was designed to answer the following research questions: (1) Do internationally distributed ELT textbooks reflect the cultural perspective of the EIL paradigm? (2) How comprehensively do these textbooks represent the cultural perspective of the EIL paradigm? Sample Our sample consists of seven series of internationally distributed ELT textbooks that are designed for ESL/EFL contexts and are used in several Asian countries, providing a total of 25 books. Selection of the texts was based on recommendations from ESL/EFL teachers, a book’s recognition as a best seller on publishers’ annual catalogues, and a book’s availability at the time of this study. The sample textbooks are listed in Table 2. Data collection and data analysis The textbook analysis was based on the approach recommended by Murayama (2000). It was modified to expand her regional study to an international scope. Murayama’s approach was used for this study because it focuses both on the cultural content presentation and on the level of presentation of cultural information. The framework addresses the existence of different cultural materials in the textbooks and how deeply the material is presented and discussed in the textbook. Kachru’s (1985) classification has been used in this study since it is helpful in underlining the plurality of Englishes. His classification signifies that in addition to the traditional native-speaker varieties (inner circle), there are now other varieties developed in other countries (outer and expanding circles). Similarly, McKay (2002) notes that teachers and teaching materials should create an intercultural atmosphere in EIL classrooms, ‘so that individuals gain insight into their own culture. These insights can then be shared in cross-cultural encounters undertaken in international contexts’ (p. 100). The study employed a mixed-method approach for textbook evaluation in which qualitative data were quantified utilising content analysis, a tool that makes inferences from data through objective and systematic content categories (Holsti, 1969; Stemler, 2001). In addition, two raters (authors of this study) coded the data, and inter-rater reliability was calculated (0.85, p , 0.001). To answer the two research questions, the researchers examined the content of the textbooks from two viewpoints: ‘aspects of cultures’ and ‘levels of cultural presentation’1 (Murayama, 2000). The analysis of aspect was then subdivided into ‘inner circle’, ‘outer/ expanding circle’, and ‘others’ based on Kachru’s widely used model (1985) noted

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Table 2. Textbook sampling.


Title

Authors

Publisher

Side by Side

Steven J. Molinsky and Bill Bliss

Pearson Longman

World Link

Susan Stempleski, Nancy Douglas, James R. Morgan and Andy Curtis Liz and John Soars

Thomson Heinle

Fifty-Fifty

Warren Wilson and Roger Barnard

Pearson Longman

True Colors

Jay Maurer and Irene Pearson ESL E. Schoenberg

Interchange

Jack C. Richards with Cambridge Jonathan Hull and Susan Proctor Michael Rost Longman

New Headway English course

World View

Oxford University Press

Level

Books examined in this study

4-level (beginning– Level 1– high intermediate) Level 4: a total of four books 4-level (low Intro –Level beginning–high 3: a total of intermediate) four books 4-level (beginning– Starter–Level high intermediate) 1: a total of two books 3-level (low Intro; Level beginning–high 2: a total of intermediate) two books 4-level (beginning– Basic –Level intermediate) 4: a total of five books 4-level (beginning– Intro –Level intermediate 3: a total of level) four books 4-level (beginning– Level 1– high intermediate Level 4: a level) total of four books

earlier; the analysis of level was subdivided into ‘knowledge-oriented content’ and ‘communication-oriented content’. Some examples are presented in the following sections. Examination and analysis of the World Link series revealed cultural content pertaining to Western holidays such as Christmas, Valentine’s Day, and Easter in the World Link Intro (Unit 8-A). This content was considered as inner circle. However, World Link 1 (Unit 7-B) included content related to the Nebuta festival in Japan, the Holi festival in India, and Chusok in Korea. This content was considered as outer/expanding circle. The category of ‘others’ pertained to content that was mainly related to phenomena or knowledge in natural science such as information on the earth and the natural world provided in World Link 3. The following example taken from Chapter 12 in Fifty-Fifty 2 illustrates the level of cultural presentation. It is considered as knowledge-oriented content (Figure 1). A second example, from Chapter 9 in New Headway (Pre-intermediate), focusing on the development of students’ speaking skills, demonstrates communication-oriented content (Figure 2). The text helps students improve communication skills and promotes intercultural competency through the discussion of world cities. By comparing their ideas with each other and discussing the big cities in different parts of the world, students gain insight into other cultures in addition to their own culture. The data were analysed based on the following procedures. When the major content of a lesson was found to be in either the inner circle or outer/expanding circle, the unit in which



Figure 1.

An example dialogue from Fifty-Fifty 2.

Figure 2.

An example from New Headway (Pre-intermediate).

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it was found was assigned a full point. However, when the inner circle and outer/expanding circles’ cultures were represented equally in a single unit, each category received half of a point. For example, this was the case in Lesson 1 in True Colors (Level 1), so 0.5 points was given in each category. The inner circle was 20% and the outer/expanding circle was 10%. The percentage of ‘others’ was the remainder after the deduction of the percentages for the inner and outer/expanding circles. To answer the second research question, a similar procedure was applied to the feature of level. In this section, the cultural content in each lesson – if any – was categorised into knowledge-oriented and/or communication-oriented. The sum of the two categories added up to 100% (Table 3). Findings Research question 1: aspects of culture The goal of the ‘aspect’ analysis was to investigate whether internationally distributed ELT textbooks reflect the cultural perspective of the EIL paradigm. Figure 3 shows that cultural content related to the inner circle dominated the cultural content covered in all these textbooks compared to content related to outer/expanding circles. More than half of the content of Side by Side presented the inner circle culture. Contents related to Western holidays, such as Christmas, Valentine’s Day, and Easter, were judged as inner circle. Similarly, American Headway included inner circle culture in more than half of its content. Although inner circle cultural content dominated the World Link series as well, this series included cultural content related to an outer/expanding circle to a greater extent compared to other textbook series. Interestingly, each unit of the World Link series consisted of two sublessons within a single topic. In each unit, most of lesson A was related to Western culture and lesson B reflected international culture.

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Table 3. Sample analysis of the cultural content of True Colors (Level 1). Aspects of cultures


Level 1/unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total %

Figure 3.

Inner circle

Outer/expanding circle

0.5

0.5

Levels of cultural presentation Others

Knowledgeoriented

Communicationoriented

0.5

0.5

1 1 1

1 1 1

0.5

2 20

0.5

1 10

1 1 1 1 7 70

2.5 83.3

0.5 16.7

Aspects of culture in the textbooks analysed.

In addition, some textbooks had a separate section focused on cultural aspects. For example, the revised edition of Side by Side has a new feature under the cross-cultural topics: Gazette pages, which contain feature articles, role playing exercises, and email exchanges among global English speakers. As for the World Link series, according to the authors (see Stempleski, Douglas, Morgan, & Curtis, 2005 in Table 2), the topics and themes were designed to centre around universal topics that could facilitate English-language learning with a global perspective. In particular, this textbook series has a unique section, titled World Link, which introduces global knowledge and information. For instance, one section introduced tipping, a practice common in many countries, presenting the situation as it occurs in the USA, Egypt, Mexico, Italy, and Thailand. The analysis showed, therefore, that even though inner circle cultural information dominates the content of most of the ELT textbooks analysed, there is some attempt to both localise and globalise the texts.

Research question 2: levels of cultural presentation The second objective of this study was to examine the levels of cultural presentation and investigate whether textbooks go beyond the knowledge level presentation of cultural issues and promote intercultural communicative competence among learners. The aim



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was to explore how deeply the internationally distributed ELT textbooks present cultural materials. As shown in Figure 4, the emphasis in textbooks generally seems to demonstrate a heavy bias towards the traditional knowledge-oriented level of cultural presentation. The analysis showed that Fifty-Fifty did not exhibit the communication-oriented level of cultural presentation at all, possibly because of its focus on the structural aspects of language. Furthermore, none of the textbooks was found to have a balance between the knowledge-oriented level and communication-oriented level of cultural presentation. In addition, some lower-level textbooks for beginning learners tend to be more knowledge-oriented, while intermediate or higher-intermediate textbooks tend to incorporate more intercultural-communication features. Figure 5 shows that the content of Side by Side (Level 1) is more likely to have knowledge-oriented features and that Side by Side (Level 4) content has more communication-oriented features. The textbook authors took different approaches to presenting cultural information. Under the theme travel, for example, the authors of the Fifty-Fifty book included various countries. However, the conversations tended to deliver knowledge-oriented information.

Figure 4. Levels of cultural presentation in the textbooks analysed: knowledge versus communication. This figure has 3% of the data missing.

Figure 5. Proportion of knowledge- versus communication-oriented cultural presentation in Side by Side texts for different academic levels.


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In other words, even though the cultural content was presented from a global perspective, the authors limited the presentation of cultural issues to a knowledge level. On the other hand, the theme of travel repeatedly appeared in World Link, New Interchange, and World View, with a communicative focus that went beyond merely factual presentation of the cultural materials. First, in its reading section, New Interchange 1 (Unit 11) dealt with famous cities. After reading about three famous cities, learners are asked to match the cities to their descriptions. Students then make charts to compare each city and discuss them with their partners. In World View 1 (Unit 11), students view two pictures (the Coliseum of Rome and a safari in Kenya) and discuss travel plans with their partners. In addition, World View 1 (Unit 3) has a quiz that asks each learner if he/she is an international person by framing the questions related to international matters, such as leisure activities, food, and celebrities, at the national or international level. World Link 3 (5B) dealt with cultural adjustments made by newcomers under the topic Being Different. This content addresses real-life issues about culture shock and the problem of acclimatisation to a new country and culture. The activities encourage learners to challenge their own experiences and worldviews by thinking critically and expressing their ideas. The three textbooks presented similar cultural information using different types of tasks and literary genres. The presentation of cultural materials was not limited to the knowledge level only and fostered interaction as well as critical examination and discussion of the cultural issues presented. Unfortunately, most texts present cultural information mainly related to tourism and surface level culture at the factual and knowledge levels. There is a need to provide opportunities for learners to discuss profound cultural issues such as beliefs and values at a deeper level so that they have a greater capacity to gain insights into their own culture and belief in the new cultural and social setting. Pedagogical implications Recognition of the international status of English means that educators should promote the development of learners’ ability to communicate ideas and cultural beliefs in varied settings. Recognition of the diversity of the contexts of English-language use and an ability to use strategies to communicate effectively in English in international settings are critical for ensuring a high level of communicative competence. In other words, both local and international contexts are equally important settings for language use. According to Alptekin (2002), both native with non-native discourse and non-native with non-native discourse must be considered since developing successful bilinguals with intercultural insight and knowledge has become an important pedagogical goal. Kramsch (1993) recommends that teachers establish ‘a sphere of interculturality’ (p. 205) where learners and instructors can engage in ongoing reflection on cultural learning. Cortazzi and Jin (1999) view cultural learning as a dialogue between teachers, students, and textbooks. The teacher acts as a cultural mediator by encouraging students to delve into the beliefs, values, and cultural practices that they embody and to use those reflections to relate to other cultures. The sociocultural context of language learning, the developmental levels of learners, programme objectives, and a consideration of situations where learners might use their native languages should all be taken into account when making decisions regarding curricula. To better understand motivation in EFL education, scholars have also studied factors that demotivate learners. Sakai and Kikuchi (2009), for example, argue that learning materials can be major demotivators. Many English-language learners do not find such materials culturally responsive because they do not reflect the students’ everyday experiences. Many textbooks contain cultural references that are unfamiliar to English learners



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across the globe. To make curricula more culturally responsive and relevant, Weinstein’s notion of ‘Learners’ Lives as Curriculum’ can be used as a framework (Weinstein, 1999). In this view, the emphasis should be on creating learning ‘materials that speak to learners’ most pressing concerns and issues’ (Weinstein, 1999, p. 2). The issue of cultural content in EIL teaching materials is not an easy matter to resolve in an EIL context. Educators should approach all cultural content in EIL materials reflectively. There are instances in which teaching a target culture is appropriate; in others, a local culture or international culture approach might be more advantageous. A balanced combination of localised, native-speaking, and internationalised forms of culture represents yet another alternative. However, cultural content is only one issue. More important is to consider how to utilise these materials in the EIL classroom. Unfortunately, most of the ELT textbooks we examined reflected a knowledge-based level of cultural presentation. Instead of providing facts about other cultures, learners must be given ‘the means of accessing and analyzing any cultural practices and meanings they encounter’ (Byram, 1997, p. 19). Culture teaching, therefore, becomes much more than a simple presentation of cultural facts. ELT textbooks and curricula should provide a lens through which learners expand their cultural awareness to include global and multicultural perspectives. The main goal of cultural teaching is to develop responsive action (Menard-Warwick, 2009). As previously noted, ELT materials in non-native, English-speaking countries should make an effort to help students communicate in English with both fellow non-native speakers and native speakers (Tomlinson, 2005). Based on this research, we recommend a dual strategy design for EIL curriculum development that includes both a localising and a globalising perspective (McKay, 2002). First, we should localise our material by using learners’ experiences and making our textbooks culturally responsive. We should also develop teachers’ manuals that include specific suggestions and instructions about how the texts can be used in the learners’ specific cultural contexts. It is possible that we may have to replace unfamiliar cultural contexts with familiar, useful ones (Cam Le, 2005). However, as previous studies demonstrate, current localised textbooks have limitations as well. One of their key shortcomings is a failure to link the English language to the cultures of other countries in order to promote global communication. This limitation can be overcome by including material about global cultures (Nault, 2006). Second, in a globalising perspective, we should remember to place equal value on both non-native and native speakers’ cultural knowledge regarding both the target and local elements in teaching materials. Both ELT textbooks and the ELT curriculum should provide a lens through which learners can expand their cultural awareness to include global, multicultural perspectives. Baker (2008) defines crucial aspects of cultural awareness: (a) an awareness of the role culture and context play in any interpretation of meaning; (b) an awareness of culture that goes beyond facts; (c) the ability to compare cultures for similarities and differences; (d) an awareness of the relative nature of cultural norms; (e) an awareness of how individuals relate to cultures; and (f) the ability to employ these skills in intercultural communication. (p. 141)

We recommend that future textbooks should: (a) focus not only on cultural facts but also on deeper beliefs and values; (b) incorporate a variety of ‘Englishes’ in teaching materials; (c) encourage non-native, English-speaking educators to write textbooks; (d) promote both native and target cultures’ specific norms; (e) raise publishers’ awareness of intercultural competence; and (f) promote teachers’ effective integration of local and global culture.

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Mediation through technology should also be considered. Incorporating current media, films, and the Internet into learning situations provides students with English-language materials from different contexts and localities. Furthermore, telecommunications such as e-mail, chat rooms, and online discussions can provide platforms for interactions between native and non-native speakers of English (Baker, 2008; Nault, 2006). Webbased exchanges demonstrate that intercultural understanding can be achieved through dynamic, interactive processes. With mediation from their foreign peers, learners develop knowledge and an understanding of the other culture. Teachers play the role of a facilitator for self-reflection and self-construction (Furstenberg, 2010).

Conclusion This paper analysed and discussed the cultural perspectives of EIL in current, internationally distributed ELT textbooks. It has demonstrated the domination of inner circle cultural content in all textbooks examined. This seems to indicate that inner circle cultures are more highly valued than those in the outer and expanding circles, even though the majority of English users employ English in international contexts. Furthermore, many of the relevant texts remained at the traditional knowledge-oriented level. It is recommended that textbook writers and educators consider how to create an intercultural space within the classroom to help learners develop their intercultural competencies and allow effective communication between people of diverse backgrounds through the use of EIL (Byrnes, 2004). In addition, in terms of cultural content, massproduced textbooks presenting a single target culture no longer meet the needs of students learning an international language. Every country where EIL is taught must be an agent of the language in order to select applicable content and methodology for the local context (McKay, 2003a). Finally, in the context of globalisation, there are unprecedented opportunities for contact between cultures. Jenkins (2006) argues for a pluricentric attitude to EIL approaches to English. This attitude should recognise that while English needs common ground to enable English speakers to communicate, it should also allow the use of varieties of English that represent their uniqueness and support language rights in the context of international communication.

Note 1.

Murayama (2000) used the terms ‘aspects of cultures’ and ‘levels of cultural understanding’ to evaluate cultural content in textbooks. However, this study uses a modified term ‘levels of cultural presentation’, instead of ‘levels of cultural understanding’.

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