Classroom Techniques
Presenting Food Science Effectively Carl K. Winter
Abstract: While the need to present food science information effectively is viewed as a critical competency for food scientists by the Institute of Food Technologists, most food scientists may not receive adequate training in this area. Effective presentations combine both scientific content and delivery mechanisms that demonstrate presenter enthusiasm for the topic and generate audience interest. This paper provides food science presentation “best practices” based upon the results of the author’s 10 y of experience teaching communication skills to 1st-year graduate students. Topics include development of a “Presentation Inventory” that encourages presenters to consider why they are presenting, who they are presenting to, what information they plan to present, and how they plan to present the information. More specific sections of the paper address presentation introductions and conclusions, developing visual aids, responding to audience questions, flow, pacing, and time management, technological competency, and tips on how to practice a presentation. Such information should be applicable to all types of food science practitioners including undergraduate and graduate students, postdoctoral scholars, teaching and research academics, and government, industrial, and consulting food scientists. An awareness of such “best practices” among presenters of food science information can help raise the bar to improve the quality of contemporary food science presentations.
Introduction
theory and each student provides 3 oral presentations throughout the year (1 presentation in each of 3 quarters) on food science related topics of their choice. I provide detailed feedback to each of the students following their presentations, including a one-on-one office meeting to review their Winter Quarter videotaped presentations. Classmates also provide formal comments of the Winter Quarter presentations. In addition to the student oral presentations, the course also encourages discussion of the basics of oral communication through instructor lecture, critique of video clips of outside presentations, and candid review of talks presented during the Dept. of Food Science and Technology’s seminar series. During the 1st class meeting of the year, I ask students to recall a presentation they experienced, from their academic background or elsewhere, that they considered memorable and positive. Most discouragingly, few hands are typically raised while others often shrug their shoulders or respond with puzzled looks on their faces. When asked to recall presentations that were memorable for their negative attributes, I am often greeted with a near-unanimous show of hands and significant enthusiasm of the students to share their stories. The subsequent discussion of the negative attributes often focuses upon specific presentation characteristics such as the use of dense and unappealing slides, direct reading of the material covered on the slides, lack of direct engagement with the audience, and a lack of variety in the tools used for the presentation. Such comments are not solely reserved for academic instruction but MS 20151184 Submitted 13/7/2015, Accepted 29/9/2015. Author Winter is also extend to public presentations and even to major scientific with Dept. of Food Science and Technology, Univ. of California, One Shields conference presentations featuring leading scientists. In contrast, Ave., Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A. Direct inquiries to author Winter (E-mail: the rare positive and memorable presentations tend to focus more
[email protected]). on characteristics of the presenter (that is, enthusiasm, connection
Communication skills have been identified as one of the key success skills desired for food science graduates according to the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) “Core Competencies in Food Science” (IFT 2011). IFT specifically recommends that students are capable of communicating technical information to nontechnical audiences and have experience providing formal and informal presentations. Oral communication activities are frequently incorporated into undergraduate food science curricula to provide students with presentation opportunities. As an example, 9 food science faculty members at Iowa State Univ. developed curricula that involved communication activities to support the IFT communication success skill (Vrchota 2015). A qualitative survey of the oral communication activities in the classes of the 9 faculty members revealed that the students received no explicit teaching regarding oral communication in such classes and that the faculty members assumed that the desired proficiencies in oral communications would be attained through student participation in oral communication class activities (Vrchota 2015). For the past decade, I have been teaching a full-year communications skills course at the Univ. of California, Davis that is required for 1st-year students enrolled in our Food Science Graduate Group. Students receive training in communication/presentation
C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists R
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doi: 10.1111/1541-4329.12079
Food science communication . . . with the audience, organization, clarity of goals and objectives) and the use of innovative communication methods beyond projection of slides. As an educator, I am concerned about the potential for the “trickle down” effect by which tomorrow’s scientists emulate the frequently ineffective presentation methods used by their mentors. The “PowerPoint Era” descended upon scientists very quickly and has led many to overuse and abuse an otherwise powerful and effective presentation tool while abandoning or underutilizing other effective presentation methods (Cora 2015). My experience with the course has led me to develop a set of anecdotal best practices for the oral presentation of food science. Such practices have not been subject to formal assessment but provide the basis for teaching communication skills to graduate students. It is my opinion that such best practices are portable to other groups of learners, including undergraduate students, postdoctoral scholars, faculty members, and food science professionals in industrial, consulting, and government settings. Incorporation of these best practices in the oral communication training of undergraduate food science students can alleviate the disconnect identified by Vrchota (2015) where students were required to frequently engage in oral communication classroom activities but did not receive formal oral communication training. The goal of this manuscript is to highlight some of the less obvious components of presentations in an effort to increase presenter awareness of the elements that differentiate outstanding scientific presentations from those we commonly experience. By emulating outstanding presentations rather than mediocre ones, today’s students can raise the bar as to what constitutes an acceptable presentation and can differentiate themselves among their peers. This manuscript outlines the best practices for oral presentation of food science resulting from my experiences teaching the course. Initial focus in this manuscript is on the broader components of communication such as identifying one’s audience, taking inventory of one’s personal attributes, and designing memorable presentations. This is followed by more specific discussions of presentation elements including introductions, conclusions, visual aids, time management and pacing, audience interaction, technological competency, and practicing a presentation.
The Big Picture
candidacy for an academic opportunity such as graduate school, a postdoctoral position, or a faculty job (Torok 2015). With the current presentation bar set pretty low due to the “trickle down” tendency to emulate ineffective presenters, a speaker providing a memorable presentation has the opportunity to really stand out among the crowd.
Who? It is obviously important to understand the audience to whom you will be presenting. The educational and professional backgrounds of the audience members must be recognized to tailor the presentation to the proper level. There is no “one size fits all” for a presentation; a presentation presented to a select group of leading researchers should be much different than one given to a community group or to elementary school students. While education levels, training, and interest in the topic will vary within a specific audience, I suggest that presenters envision a person they know who would be representative of the audience (that is, undergraduate/graduate student, professor, industrial or government scientist, friend, family, or community member) and target the presentation according to that individual’s level of expertise and interest in the topic. In addition to identifying the audience, it is also important to take inventory of your own personality and speaking style. Effective presentations, as will be discussed in more detail later, rely upon the speaker making a personal connection with the audience. Are you a good storyteller, and, if so, can you weave your presentation into the form of a story? Do you have specific interests or hobbies that could be interjected into your presentation to clarify key points or to provide structural continuity to your talk? Are you comfortable using humor (judiciously, of course) to insert some variety and comic relief into your presentation? Are you more comfortable providing a relaxed, stream-of-consciousness type of presentation or do you feel better giving a highly structured one? A recipe for disaster is to “give someone else’s presentation.” A presentation is an individual expression of one’s personality and style and successful presenters, with experience, recognize how to incorporate these personal attributes into their presentations while also recognizing the interests and backgrounds of their audience members.
As the students develop their presentations, I challenge them to consider the following 4 questions that represent the “Presentation What? What information do you wish to convey? What information Inventory”: do you think your audience wants to hear? After considering the Why? “why” and “who” questions, the answers to these questions may Why are you giving the presentation? While a fair answer might be quite obvious. Frequently, however, there exists a disconnect be “because I am required to do so,” let us assume that for most between what the speaker wishes to present and what the audistudents, there is more value to giving a presentation than simply ence wants to hear. As a result, the presenter often enters into an completing a requirement. As an academic exercise, it provides stu- implicit “contract” with the audience and some compromise must dents with experience and feedback to improve their presentation be necessary. The presenter also needs to have reasonable expectations about skills. Presentations, given both inside and outside of the classroom, also provide speakers with excellent opportunities to make positive how much material can be adequately covered in the time allowed impressions with their audiences. Such impressions can enhance for the presentation. There is a tendency, frequently exacerbated the presenter’s standing among key audience members and may through the overuse of PowerPoint, to include too much material be leveraged to differentiate the presenter from others, to influence in a presentation (Paradi 2015). This, in turn, leads to a dilution opinions regarding the presenter and/or the subject matter pre- in the quality of the presentation and makes it more difficult for sented, and to encourage further collaboration that could benefit the audience to appreciate the key points addressed. This “less is better” approach also provides speakers to focus their the presenter. A good presentation at a job interview can make the difference as to whether the presenter is offered a position, presentations on concepts and topics that they are most enthusiand a history of giving good presentations can positively influence astic about. If a speaker is not enthused about particular parts of a outside recommendations concerning one’s fitness for a job or presentation, it is best to leave such parts out entirely unless they Available on-line through ift.org
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Food science communication . . . are absolutely essential to the presentation. In countless meetings with graduate students sitting down with me to review the videotape of their presentations, I have noticed significant reductions in affect and enthusiasm as particular segments of a presentation are introduced. I ask the students how they felt about that segment and they typically respond that it was not a part of the presentation they cared about. This is particularly true when students provide detailed flowcharts of research methodology or lengthy listings of definitions or specific information. If the students cannot get enthusiastic about the material presented, how would they expect the audience to respond to the same material? Bottom line—if you are not interested in the material, then do not present it! To honor the contract between the presenter and the audience, the presenter obviously needs to pitch the presentation at the appropriate level. In addition, a successful presenter will be able to demonstrate an awareness of the audience by relating the talk to their experiences. To do so, it often helps if the presenter opens up a bit and demonstrates a “human” side to the presentation. The final step in honoring the contract between the presenter and the audience is to self-evaluate the presentation in real time to ensure that the audience is responding appropriately or to make some corrections if this is not the case. To do so properly, the presenter needs to make sustained eye contact with audience members and frequently scan the room to gauge audience reactions. Actions that interrupt eye contact between the presenter and the audience such as looking down at the laptop or reading slides verbatim from the projection screen make this self-evaluation more difficult while encouraging disengagement from the audience members (Hustad 2012).
How? During the 1st class session of the year, I ask the students “how many of you have given a PowerPoint?” Typically, all the students smile and raise their hand. I then correct them by pointing out that you do not really give a “PowerPoint” but rather you give a “presentation.” PowerPoint is a common tool used to (hopefully) enhance presentations but does not qualify as a presentation itself. I make this distinction because it is my opinion that many in the scientific community conflate “PowerPoint” with “presentation.” In doing so, presenters frequently default to using PowerPoint for most of their presentations without considering other complementary or stand-alone presentation approaches that could ultimately improve the quality of the presentation. It is clear that the appropriate use of PowerPoint tools can significantly enhance the quality of a presentation. PowerPoint allows for the simple incorporation of items such as attractive and informational images, data tables, figures, cartoons, media headlines, bullet point lists, and video into a presentation. PowerPoint is very convenient to use since files can be efficiently retrieved, edited, appended, reorganized, electronically transmitted, and shared with other presenters or audience members. At the same time, the use of PowerPoint tools in presentations presents the potential for misuse. When my students are asked to describe memorably poor presentations, most of the comments are directed toward poor quality slides overflowing with too much information that is frequently read verbatim by the presenter while looking directly at his/her laptop. The use of PowerPoint tools frequently results in technical difficulties related to computer/projector incompatibilities, loss of key graphics or images, and, most importantly, a loss of time devoted to addressing the technical issues that reduces the effective time to provide the presentation (Nelson 2015). Lights are often dimmed when 36 Journal of Food Science Education • Vol. 15, 2016
PowerPoint presentations are given, encouraging some audience members to snooze rather than to pay attention to the presentation. Presenters using PowerPoint tools may also reduce their eye contact with the audience, particularly if they are looking down at their computer or focusing on the projection screen rather than on the audience. The format, structure, and venue for the presentation may also influence the tools used for a presentation. Short presentations (15 min or less), for example, may be much more effective without using PowerPoint tools as very few specific points can be made during that time period while effort still needs to be invested to connect with the audience, which is usually done better without using slides. I have witnessed many ineffective panel presentations, with panelists each given 5 min each to present, that have been undone by poor PowerPoint slides. Presentations made during meal functions, particularly those in the evenings when audience members may have experienced a long day and may have consumed alcoholic beverages may also be more effective in the absence of PowerPoint slides. As alternatives to using PowerPoint slides, presenters should consider using “old-school” tools such as drawing on the board by hand, passing out samples, doing demonstrations, or simply engaging in a dialogue with the audience. As long as the 2 “what” questions (what do you want to talk about? what does the audience want to hear?) are appropriately reconciled and the speaker fulfills the obligations of the implicit contract with the audience, such a presentation can be extremely effective. Since PowerPoint slides represent the default mode for most scientific presentations, the use of simple dialogue or of alternative presentation tools may help a presentation stand out by providing the audience with a fresh presentation format.
Specific Tips Scientific presentations can be very complicated in terms of content as well as from external factors such as meeting room layout, audio/visual capabilities, and time restrictions. From my experiences teaching communication skills to food science graduate students, I have developed a series of topical “best practices” that follow.
Introduction Presenters like to focus on the key scientific information they wish to present and, in doing so, often give little consideration to developing an appropriate introduction. This approach is quite flawed since the introduction section of a talk is critical to the success of a presentation and requires that the speaker take this section seriously (Martinuzzi 2015). Recent research analyzing TED (Technology, Entertainment, and Design) talks showed that it took about 7 s for audience members to make their 1st impressions and decisions about the entire presentation (van Edwards 2015). Thus, it is critical to quickly get the audience’s attention and leave a favorable 1st impression. To do so, I encourage my students to “hit the ground running” as they start their presentation. This involves putting the presenter in a position that has the complete attention of the audience and making the 1st words count by providing compelling information. Such opening information might be in the form of telling a story, personalizing the talk, presenting provocative and interesting statistics, or asking questions of the audience. The impact of an introduction can be enhanced if the speaker addresses the audience with the room lights on and in the absence of any projected slides or speaker notes. When done appropriately, such an introduction Available on-line through ift.org
Food science communication . . . sends a message to the audience that the presenter takes the talk seriously, is organized and prepared, and has a sincere interest in the audience. In practice, I have witnessed relatively few presentations that begin in such a manner. A typical introduction often features a presenter 1st acknowledging the comments of the session moderator followed by a direct repetition of the speaker’s name and title of the presentation, which is likely reproduced on a slide visible to the audience and may have already been referenced by the session moderator: “Thank you, Dr. Jones, for the kind introduction. As Dr. Jones mentioned, my name is William Smith and the title of my presentation today is . . . .” Such information is not necessary, signals to the audience members that they are in store for a standard presentation (cue the cell phones and tablets), and misses the opportunity to make a strong 1st impression. (How many times can you make a 1st impression?) In contrast, starting a presentation with “Did you know that (add compelling statistic here),” “how many of you have eaten (add food product here),” or “when I was 13 y old, I (add personal story here)” may help spark audience interest in the presentation and helps establish a connection between the presenter and the audience. Once established, the connection can be enhanced as the presenter clearly outlines why the introductory comments are relevant to the presentation, what the speaker is planning to present, and how the speaker will go about doing so. Such a successful introduction will convey presenter enthusiasm and organization and signal to the audience members that they will be in for a treat as they witness the presentation. Speakers are often nervous immediately before their presentations. I view this as a good thing as it can get the adrenaline flowing and can provide an energy boost that enhances the presentation and helps the speaker demonstrate enthusiasm. At the same time, speakers need to consider strategies to help them feel more comfortable prior to stepping onto the stage. One thing to consider is where you should be while you are being introduced. In a small room, it is often fine for the presenter to remain seated near the podium area during the introduction. Staying seated can allow the presenter to relax more than if the presenter automatically stands up in the vicinity of the moderator and receives uncomfortable gazes from the audience. In the event that awkward comments are made during the speaker’s introduction that might throw the speaker off guard and trigger some verbal or physical response, remaining seated helps shelter any overt or inappropriate responses from the audience. Another important strategy to ease initial presentation jitters is to develop and practice a strong and comfortable opening sentence or 2. This is best presented by deliberately striding up to the area where you will start your talk, centering your body to the audience, smiling and pausing to make eye contact with the audience, and then launching directly into a strong opening line. In practice, many presenters prematurely begin their comments while walking up to the podium due to nervousness, which lessens the impact of a strong opening line. This can be avoided, particularly through awareness and from rehearsing one’s introduction to include walking to the podium prior to speaking.
Presentation Conclusion Similar to the introduction, the concluding section of a presentation is often treated as an afterthought when developing a presentation and a poor conclusion can damage an otherwise wellpresented talk. I have witnessed countless presentations where the Available on-line through ift.org
speaker abruptly transitions from the body of a talk with an awkward “Well, that’s it—any questions?” statement that catches the audience off-guard and leaves the impression that the presenter would be happy just to step off of the stage at that very moment. A conclusion provides the presenter with an opportunity to make a final pitch to illustrate the main points developed during the presentation. A good conclusion might tie in nicely to statistics or stories that were introduced during the beginning of the talk and might include highlights of the presentation in the form of take-home messages. Just as a strong opening statement can help set the stage for a strong presentation, a strong and rehearsed concluding statement can add to the memorability of an excellent talk. After the concluding statement, I recommend that presenters pause and make eye contact with the audience and briefly, but sincerely, thank them for their attention. Reciprocally, this will signal the audience to demonstrate their appreciation of the presentation through a round of applause, if deserved. I do not recommend that speakers solicit questions from the audience until after the opportunity to receive applause has concluded as this may uncomfortably impede the ability of the audience to show their appreciation. Consideration should be given as to the development of appropriate visual aids, if necessary, to accompany the conclusion. It is completely appropriate, if desired, to turn off the projector and turn on the room lights prior to providing a conclusion, which allows the audience to clearly focus on the presenter’s final comments. Slides can also be effectively used during a conclusion, particularly when they might include a brief list of take-home points or a provocative image that captures the essence of the presentation. Keep in mind that the content on the final slide should complement, and not compete with, the concluding remarks. Presenters who are frequently anxious to complete their talk may also inadvertently “overclick” on the final slide, which emulates the “escape” function in PowerPoint and reduces the size of the image while also unflatteringly displaying much of the content of one’s computer desktop. Presenters are urged to add a duplicate copy of the last slide to avoid this from happening.
Question and Answer Session Typical scientific presentations feature the speaker’s prepared remarks followed by audience questions. During the prepared remarks, the speaker has complete control over the material presented. Once the audience chimes in with questions, the speaker loses some control of the agenda. Many speakers are caught offguard by this sudden change in dynamics and do not prepare themselves well to transition into the question and answer section. Additionally, many presenters may be fatigued at this point of the presentation and may treat the question and answer session as something they need to endure, rather than shine at, before they can exit the stage. To prepare for the question and answer session, it is important to anticipate audience questions ahead of time and develop short, succinct answers. You might want to ask yourself “what is the hardest question I could get?” and develop an answer for that. It is important for presenters to concentrate on the questions and to give themselves time to develop appropriate responses. I encourage presenters to move toward and look directly at the questioner while the question is being asked. Patience is key here as some questioners may be long-winded and unfocused and, in many cases, may be providing more of a comment than a question. Presenters often have a tendency to rush in with a quick Vol. 15, 2016 • Journal of Food Science Education 37
Food science communication . . . answer and in many of the videotaped segments of my students’ presentations, presenters will actually interrupt the questioner with their responses before the question has been completed. I encourage students to rephrase the questions before launching into answers. There are several benefits to this approach. By rephrasing the question, the presenter eliminates the possibility of interrupting the questioner, and also allows everyone in the room to better understand the question, particularly if it is hard for the rest of the audience to hear the questioner. More subtly, a skilled presenter may use the opportunity to rephrase the question into a form that is more comfortable for the presenter to address. Additionally, the process of rephrasing the question buys more time for the presenter to develop an appropriate answer. When answering the question, direct your response to the person who asked the question through eye contact. Short, concise answers are preferred; if the questioner wants more information, then he/she should ask a follow-up question. More lengthy answers potentially expose areas the speaker is not as comfortable with while also taking time away from the questions of others. Invariably, questions will be asked for which the presenter does not have an answer. It is completely appropriate for the presenter to answer “I don’t know,” or “I’m not sure about that, but what I do know is . . . .” One benefit of rephrasing questions is that it may allow the presenter to “repackage” the question to allow a more comfortable response than “I’m not sure.” Questions frequently refer to graphs and figures that were included in the main presentation. When possible, speakers should attempt to answer the questions without 1st backtracking through the slide deck to display the slide showing the graphs or figures. As long as the presenter understands the question clearly and understands the data that had been presented previously, the presenter should have no difficulty answering the question without audiovisual aids. The process of locating the slide in question can be time consuming and distracting for the audience, so this should be avoided unless it is essential for the generation of an appropriate response to the question.
Visual Aids As mentioned previously, PowerPoint can serve as a wonderful tool to highlight and illustrate key points of a presentation. Audiences have become accustomed to it and new PowerPoint tools are constantly being developed to further enhance presentations (Microsoft 2013). At the same time, it is critical to understand that PowerPoint is a tool to enhance a presentation, and not a substitution for the presentation itself. When not used properly, PowerPoint can serve as a distraction that deflects attention from the presenter. To honor the implicit contract between the presenter and the audience, it is critical that the audience have every opportunity to pay attention to the presenter and not be lured into a state of malaise orchestrated by PowerPoint technology. I view PowerPoint as a helpful tool to provide an outline of a presentation and to highlight key figures and findings. As such, it is an excellent alternative to the use of external presentation notes that tend to serve as a crutch for presenters and may break the connection between the speaker and the audience. I encourage my students not to use notes if giving presentations using slides; this suggestion is often greeted with concern when introduced at the beginning of the academic year but by the end of the year, most students are very comfortable presenting in the absence of external notes. PowerPoint slides adequately substitute for external notes 38 Journal of Food Science Education • Vol. 15, 2016
as they allow the presenter to give the presentation in an outlined, logical manner. As the vehicle for a presentation outline, slides should be kept very simple to allow the presenter and the audience to easily follow along. The presenter is responsible for elaborating the information outlined on the slides to give the audience a reason to pay attention to what the presenter is saying. The process of simply reciting what is already written on the slides back to the audience (the so-called “bullet point reading exercise”) is a well-tested method likely to lose audience attention. Many of my students worry that the need to elaborate information beyond what is specifically included on the slides might cause them to forget to include important elements of their presentations. While this does, in fact, frequently occur, I argue that the benefits of a more spontaneous presentation in which the audience maintains its attention on the words of the presenter more than offset the downside of forgetting specific presentation points. Slide content and spoken words need to be synchronized to prevent discontinuity. If the presenter is addressing a specific point while the projected slide focuses on something else, the audience may become confused and divert its attention from what the presenter is talking about. In the event of the introduction of a new point for which a slide has not been developed, it is important to turn off the projector or to project a blank slide to allow the audience to focus specifically on what the presenter is saying. An important rule of thumb for giving a presentation using PowerPoint tools is “if it’s not worth talking about, then it shouldn’t be on the slide.” This is a simple rule but one that is often not followed. Any information presented on a slide that is not addressed by the presenter confuses the audience and reduces audience attention on what the presenter is saying. Attractive slide presentations often incorporate variety in terms of content and appearance. Varying slide content using images, text, graphs, figures, and combinations can motivate audiences to follow along with a presentation far better than a presentation using single-format slides such as repeating lists of bullet points constructed with the same colors and fonts. It is critical that charts, figures, and graphs not be too complicated when projected. Presenters may often place several different graphs on a single slide, resulting in a busy, daunting slide that can intimidate audience members unfamiliar with the topic. It is preferred that single graphs be reduced to single slides to allow appropriate focus on the material contained on the slide. Extra care is required when charts, graphs, or tables acquired from the scientific literature are directly incorporated into PowerPoint presentations. Visual quality of this information may be low when they are enlarged to fit a PowerPoint slide, and may necessitate manual reconstruction. In addition, many charts, graphs, and tables contain extraneous information that will not be addressed during the presentation. In such cases, it is advised that presenters utilize PowerPoint tools such as circling, boxing, changing color, or expanding that highlight the key information points of the charts, graphs, or tables that will be discussed.
Flow, Pacing, and Time Management An effective presentation follows a logical flow in which topics are introduced in an appropriate order and new points made during the presentation are often reinforced by prior points. While a typical scientific presentation follows a flow that includes an introduction, body of information, conclusion, and questions, innovative presentations using different flows are also encouraged Available on-line through ift.org
Food science communication . . . provided that they are structured to cover information the presenter wants to present and the audience wants to hear. To allow the audience to easily follow along with a presentation, it is critical that presenters differentiate specific sections (and subsections) of their presentation through the use of appropriate transitions. As an example, during the introduction segment, the speaker may provide a “road-map” of the presentation by outlining the various topics/issues that will be covered. At the conclusion of the discussion of each topic or issue, it is useful for the presenter to signal to the audience that the topic or issue has been addressed and that it is time to move on to the next one. A short 1 or 2 sentence summarizing the highlights of the topic or issue can be particularly helpful in establishing this transition. Explicit reference to the “road-map” provides a comfort to the audience and makes it easy for audience members to continue to follow along with the presentation. In addition to transitions between specific sections (introduction, body, and conclusion) of the presentation and between specific topics or issues, the flow of a presentation may also benefit greatly from transitions between individual slides. It is typically easy for a presenter to begin discussion of a new slide but a concluding statement for each slide is often lacking. As a consequence, presenters frequently will advance from 1 slide to the next before the discussion of the 1st slide has been completed. Providing a concluding statement for each slide, pausing briefly, and then advancing to the next slide alleviates this problem and improves the flow of the presentation. Presenters also need to consider the pace of the presentation and develop mechanisms to prevent fatigue. It is common for presenters to start off a presentation with considerable enthusiasm but to have that enthusiasm fade as the presentation progresses. Such a decline in enthusiasm is normal but may be exacerbated when the presenter is discussing a section of the talk that he/she is not very enthusiastic about. As mentioned previously, if the presenter is not enthusiastic about a portion of the presentation, then that material should be replaced by material that is much more interesting to the presenter if at all possible. There are many ways that presenters may minimize fatigue as a presentation develops. One method is to vary the content, appearance, and time devoted to individual slides to keep the presentation “fresh.” Experiences in my class have indicated that the presentation of specific difficult slides (often containing lengthy bullet point lists or complicated figures) can speed up presenter fatigue but if such slides are followed with simpler ones that do not require as much time or presenter concentration, the presenter can better overcome the fatigue and get back on track. As a simple alternative, presenter fatigue can also be reduced by converting the lengthy, difficult, or complicated slides into a series of 2 or 3 slides, each conveying part of what was included on the original slide. I recommend that presenters always have water or another beverage with them when they are presenting. This is helpful in the event that the presenter’s mouth and/or throat get dry. Beverages can also be used as an acceptable mechanism for the presenter to take a pause, particularly if fatigue may be setting in. Even if the presenter is not thirsty, stopping the presentation to take a small drink provides an opportunity to rest and refocus. Presenters should ensure against overuse of beverages during a presentation that can disrupt the flow of a presentation and serve as a distraction, particularly in the case of some of the “noisy” beverage containers.
Available on-line through ift.org
While it is critical that presentations be designed to fit into the time allotted for them, complications invariably arise and presenters are frequently asked to complete their presentations before they had planned to. Typically, this results in presenters rapidly racing through their remaining slides; this approach frequently makes it difficult to understand their comments and raises anxiety among audience members. A preferred approach is to consider which remaining parts of the presentation are the most important, focus efforts on presenting those parts calmly and clearly, and ignore the less important parts of the presentation.
Technological Competency Contemporary presentations may involve significant use of technology so it is critical that presenters possess appropriate technological skills. Computer competence is a necessary skill for any presenter using a computer. In addition to mastering the basic skills of loading a presentation onto a computer, entering the slide show mode, and advancing slides, effective presenters may also incorporate audio, video, and animations into their presentations. It is important to practice transitions between slides and video, particularly if you may be using an unfamiliar computer for your presentation and compatibility issues could present themselves. For many presenters, the computer itself may become a distraction as an object that takes the presenter’s attention away from the audience. I have observed numerous presentations, both in the classroom and at major scientific conferences, where presenters focus their attention on the computer rather than the audience. This behavior is often heightened as the presenter changes slides; the presenter’s head moves down to look at the computer, the presenter’s voice does not project as well, and the index finger is raised and poised to advance a slide, even though the presenter has yet to complete discussing the prior slide. I encourage students to give their presentations without paying any attention to the computer to avoid being sucked into the computer’s “Force Field.” I make a remote slide advancer/laser pointer available so that it is not necessary to manually advance slides from the computer. Rather than looking down at the computer to keep track of what is shown on the slides, I recommend, when possible, that presenters turn their bodies slightly to allow them to see the information projected on the projection screen. When done correctly, the presenter is able to periodically glance at the projection screen to follow along with the slides while otherwise maintaining eye contact with the audience. To demonstrate that it is not necessary to have the computer directly accessible to the presenter, I often turn the computer so that its screen is visible to the audience but not to me, or place the computer far away from where I will be standing during the presentation. The approach of not looking at the computer screen prevents the presenter from being able to use PowerPoint to see the next slide while presenting the current slide. For presenters who rely on this feature, I suggest that they continue to use it but to exercise caution that they do not spend too much time looking specifically at the computer screen. As an alternative, I suggest that presenters focus their efforts on developing and providing an appropriate concluding comment for each slide. When done properly, the prior slide can stand on its own and as the next slide is presented, the presenter can briefly pause to prepare to discuss it. The use of a laser pointer can be helpful in focusing audience attention on a particular segment of a slide when done judiciously.
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Food science communication . . . Caution must be taken, however, to avoid overuse of the pointer, causing it to lose its utility. Many presenters inadvertently use the laser pointer to work their way down bulleted lists that do not require such focus. Many presenters also develop a “lasso” style in which large segments of slides are frequently circled with the laser pointer; when this style is overused, it can be distracting for the audience. I use a remote that combines a slide advancer and laser pointer with a toggle mechanism that turns the computer monitor on and off. As such, it is very easy to turn off the slides in predetermined sections of a presentation to allow audience focus to be placed entirely upon the presenter. This is particularly valuable at the beginnings and ends of presentations. I encourage students to make their introductory comments with the slides off to maximize audience attention, and then toggle the slides on when necessary. At the end of a talk, the presenter can easily turn the slides off to allow greater focus on the concluding comments. Presenters should anticipate the rare but potentially disastrous event of a computer crash or power failure. Since slides are used to guide one’s talk, I recommend that presenters print out a copy of their slides to have on hand that they can refer to in an emergency to maintain continuity. Adjustments to the presentation will need to be made as complex information may be more difficult to present to the audience without slides. This adjustment also provides an opportunity for the presenter to engage more with the audience and illustrates the need for presenters to gain prior experience presenting without slides.
Practicing a Presentation For a presentation to be effective, the presenter needs to appear comfortable and confident. This is best achieved by adequately practicing a presentation so that the presenter is very familiar with what is to be presented and satisfied with the content. This may require significant editing of a presentation; the initial slide deck used (in the case of a PowerPoint presentation) may look little like the final. Some edits may be necessary to condense (or expand) the original presentation into one that fits the time allotted for the presentation. Other edits may be necessary to avoid difficult sections of the presentation. This may occur when the presenter, after practicing a particular section, may reach the conclusion that the section cannot be presented with the same level of enthusiasm as other sections of the talk. If it is not worth discussing enthusiastically, it should not be included in the presentation if at all possible. Presenters may also encounter words or phrases that are difficult to pronounce. This is common for all presenters but may be more acute for presenters who are not presenting in their native language. Rather than leaving such words or phrases in the presentation and developing anxiety each time they are to be used, a presenter should 1st consider if their use is necessary to convey the main points. Conversely, it may be possible to substitute other words or phrases that are easier to pronounce to meet the same objectives, or to initially introduce the whole phrase but refer to it in acronym form for the remaining part of the presentation. Speaker fatigue often ensues toward the end of a presentation. If practice sessions indicate that the speaker may be tiring out, techniques such as introducing a greater number of simpler slides such as images or short text segments near the end of a presentation may be useful in minimizing fatigue. In addition to refining the content of a presentation through practice, it is also important to prepare for the physical environment where the presentation will be given. Ideally, a presenter
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would practice the presentation in the same room where the formal presentation will be held. This would allow the presenter to become familiar with elements such as the room’s audiovisual equipment, lights, chalk/whiteboard, and chair/table configuration. If additional presentation approaches beyond traditional slides are used such as audio, video, Internet links, or writing on the chalkboard or whiteboard, the presenter should ensure that everything is working properly during a practice session. The presenter should also consider where he/she will be standing during the presentation and where, if necessary, the computer would be situated. It has been my experience that most presenters spend the majority of their presentation time in a single location, often in close contact with the computer. In many cases, this is necessitated by the characteristics of the room and the available audiovisual equipment. A room will often feature a podium containing a laptop and microphone with the expectation that the presenter will remain in the podium area throughout the presentation. Since it is now common for presenters to have access to remote slide advancers, laser pointers, and portable lavalier microphones, it should not be a foregone conclusion that the presenter will need to reside in the podium area for the majority of the presentation. I believe that presentations featuring speakers that move around tend to be more dynamic and effective than those where the presenter does not move much. Such presentations are more visually appealing, provide a variety of different sight lines, and result in less fatigue for audience members. While developing and practicing a presentation, speakers should decide if they plan to move around or to stay put in a particular spot throughout the presentation. This is, of course, a personal choice and is dependent upon the comfort level of the presenter. If the presenter decides to move around, some thought should be given as to how frequently the presenter should move and where the presenter will stand to view the projection screen, if necessary. If the presenter prefers to remain stationary (or if this is dictated by the room characteristics), this does not mean that the speaker is not allowed to gesture or make head/body movements. The use of emphatic gestures helps emphasize key points while encouraging enthusiasm from the presenter. Observations from my class suggest that students often stand very still and put their hands in their pockets at the beginning of a presentation. As they begin to demonstrate more movement or gestures, their enthusiasm becomes more evident and their presentations more effectively reach their audiences.
Further Reading There are countless books, articles, and Web site guides available that focus upon effective presentation skills. While many are quite general, I recommend a couple that focus primarily upon scientific communication. Matt Carter’s Designing Scientific Presentations is a pragmatic and comprehensive guide written specifically for scientists that takes the reader through all aspects of presentation design and includes helpful information on designing and delivering slide presentations, oral presentations without slides, scientific posters, and scientific writing (Carter 2013). Randy Olson’s Don’t Be Such a Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style provides an irreverent look at the need for scientists to personalize themselves and tell stories to keep audience attention, and is based upon the author’s transition from a tenured marine biology professor to a Hollywood film producer (Olson 2009). Olson’s book was previously reviewed in this journal (Hartel 2010).
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Food science communication . . .
Conclusions An effective food science presentation requires more than just subject matter fluency and the ability to rattle off statistics and describe graphs, tables, and figures. A rapport with the audience must be established that requires an understanding of the audience’s interests and backgrounds. In addition, the presenter needs to be aware of his/her own personality characteristics and use techniques that allow the personality to shine through. The presentation tips included in this manuscript are simply suggestions based upon observations from my 10 y of teaching communication skills to graduate students. Such tips have not been quantitatively evaluated and may not be considered to be appropriate by some readers. In addition, readers may have other suggestions to improve presentation skills not included in this manuscript. I welcome such feedback and look forward to hearing from some of you. The key take-home message from this manuscript is that presenters may be more effective if they are aware of many of the nonsubject matter components involved in communication and make efforts to address such components in their presentations. When roles are reversed and presenters assume the role of audience members, they may actively consider elements they like or do not like in the presentations they observe thus sharpening their own skills for future presentations. There is a silver lining even in the case where you are forced to sit through a dull, “bullet point reading exercise” type of presentation. First of all, you have the opportunity to think about how you might give the presentation differently to improve its effectiveness. Second, it is possible that you might be scheduled as the next presenter, and the contrast between your presentation and the prior one may be clear and allow you to further shine in the eyes and minds of your audience.
References Carter M. 2013. Designing science presentations. A visual guide to figures, papers, slides, posters, and more. Amsterdam: Academic Press. p 360. ISBN-978-0-12-385969-3. Cora C. 2015. Six major mistakes when doing PowerPoint presentations. Available from: http://www.lifehack.org/articles/communication/sixmajor-mistakes-when-doing-powerpoint-presentations.html. Accessed 2015 September 3. Hartel R. 2010. Book review of Don’t Be Such a Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style, by Randy Olson. J Food Sci Ed 10:13–14. Hustad M. 2012. PowerPoint abuse: how to kick the habit. Fortune. Available from: http://fortune.com/2012/06/12/powerpoint-abuse-howto-kick-the-habit/. Accessed 2015 September 3. (IFT) Institute of Food Technologists. 2011. 2011 Resource guide for approval and re-approval of undergraduate food science programs. J Food Sci Ed 10(4):54–90. Martinuzzi B. 2015. 12 Ways to hook an audience in 30 seconds. Available from: https://www.americanexpress.com/us/small-business/openforum/ articles/hook-presentation-audience-30-seconds/. Accessed 2015 September 3. Microsoft. 2013. What’s new in PowerPoint 2013. Available from: https:// support.office.com/en-us/article/What-s-new-in-PowerPoint-20131c38822e-0284-4acb-8099-23dc6f3207c5. Accessed 2015 September 3. Nelson W. 2015. Persistent PowerPoint presentation problems. Available from: http://www.walternelson.com/dr/av. Accessed 2015 September 3. Olson R. 2009. Don’t be such a scientist: talking substance in an age of style. Washington DC: Island Press. p 216. ISBN-13: 978-1-597265638. Paradi D. 2015. Results of the 2013 Annoying PowerPoint Survey. Available from: http://www.thinkoutsidetheslide.com/free-resources/latestannoying-powerpoint-survey-results/. Accessed 2015 September 3. Torok G. 2015. Why are presentation skills important? Available from: http:// www.torok.com/articles/presentation/WhyArePresentationSkillsImportant. html. Accessed 2015 September 3. van Edwards V. 2015. 5 Secrets of a successful TED talk. Available from: http://www.scienceofpeople.com/2015/03/secrets-of-a-successful-tedtalk/. Accessed 2015 September 3. Vrchota D. 2015. A view of oral communication activities in food science from the perspective of a communication researcher. J Food Sci Ed 14:36–47.
Conflict of Interest The author has no conflict of interest to declare.
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