1 Presented at 32nd Annual Conference of Indian Psychiatric Society on 7th December 1979 at Bangalore. â¢Professor and Head ... presence of one healthy Y chromosome causes the cortex ..... their images of Vishnu-Lakshmi, Radha-Krishna,.
Indian J. Psychiat. (1980) 22 3—18
Presidential Address T H E C O N C E P T OF BISEXUALITY A N D PSYCHIATRY 1 D. N. NANDI,2 M.Sc, M.B.B.S., Ph.D. (Gal.) D.P.M. (Scot.), F.R.G. Psych. (Lond.) F.R.G.P. (Edin.), F.A.P.A. (U.S.A.) INTRODUCTION On the occasion of the Silver J u b i l e e Celebration of the N I M H A N S , this meeting together of neurologists, clinical psychologists, sociologists and psychiatrists is of significance. Although technically belongi n g to different disciplines, we all investig a t e the same subject, m a n . We all a r c acutely aware of the complexities involved in the scientific t r e a t m e n t of this subject. T h e r e is a strong disparity between the sciences of inert m a t t e r a n d those of life, more particularly those of man. Physics a n d the like sciences are built on concepts which can be expressed tersely and clearly in mathematical language. They search for reality beyond the r a n g e of c o m m o n thought. Such is not the position of sciences of man. M a n is an indivisible whole of extreme complexity. N o simple r e p r e sentation of him can be obtained t h r o u g h abstractions or through algebraic equations. There is n o scientific method capable of grasping m a n simultaneously in his totality, his p a r t s and his relations with the external world. We are obliged to seek the help of various techniques and, therefore, to build different disciplines for a p p r e h e n d i n g our common object, man. E a c h discipline abstracts from m a n only w h a t is attainable by its special m e t h o d . But the entirety of h i m is left out, a n d what is left out is too i m p o r t a n t to be neglected. We are far from understanding m a n as a whole. W e know h i m only as composed of distinct parts. In fact, our ignorance is so profound t h a t , n o t w i t h 1
standing the enormous achievements of modern science a n d technology, h u m a n i t y today is caught in a severe crisis, the kind of which it has never before experienced. In the midst of a n a b u n d a n c e of m a t e r i a l wealth a n d technological knowledge, m a n finds himself a stranger in the world t h a t he has created. H e feels terribly lonely a n d frightened, helpless to cope with the stress a n d strain of modern life. Perhaps, something can be done to a p p r e h e n d the total m a n , a bio-psychosocio-cultural integrated being. Perhaps, we the humble workers belonging to the disciplines of neurology, clinical psychology, sociology and psychiatry meeting here to day can make a common endeavour to search for a perspective and open u p a p a t h towards understanding m a n in his totality. Let the words of poet C a n d i d a s be our guiding motto : " m a a is the t r u t h above all t r u t h s , there is nothing above t h a t . " With this goal in view, I propose now to examine, in my h u m b l e way, the concept of bisexuality. BISEXUALITY : BIOLOGICAL Biologically a h u m a n being is not a pure unisexual organism. Each human organism bears the potentiality for b o t h male a n d female sex. It is the p r e d o m i nance of one over the other sex which determines the sexuality. A female g a m e t e always bears one X chromosome a n d a male gamete m a y either possess one X chromosome or one Y chromosome. In the event of fertilization
Presented at 32nd Annual Conference of Indian Psychiatric Society on 7th December 1979 at Bangalore. •Professor and Head of the Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Calcutta, Calcutta.
4
D. N. NANDI
of the ovum with a sperm having X chromosome, the zygote formed will develop into a female and if the fertilizing sperm contains Y chromosome then the sex will be male. T h e chromosomal content of the zygote determines the differentiation of the embryonic gonadal sex. T h e primitive gonad is bisexual a n d has two distinctive parts—the inner medulla with the potentiality of developing into testes ; and the outer cortex with the potentiality of developing into ovaries. T h e presence of one healthy Y chromosome causes the cortex to regress a n d the testis develops ; but if the chromosomes are b o t h X , then ovary develops a n d the medulla is regressed. After the testes are formed, two hormones, testosterone and Mullerian regression factor ( M R F ) , are elaborated by t h e m in the male foetus. T h e M R F causes disappearance of the Mullerian duct (the female tube) a n d the testosterone retains the Wolffian system and induces the formation of the rest of the male genitalia (epididymis, vas deferens and the male external genitals). In the female, d u e to the absence of testis (and not due to any influence of ovaries) Wolffian system disappears a n d the Mullerian system differentiates into uterus and uterine tubes. Studying the development of sexual a p p a r a t u s in most mammals a n d specially in humans, it has been observed t h a t the resting baseline of the reproductive tissue is female. I n other words if something is not added to the tissue, no masculinization will occur irrespective of the animal's genetic potentiality (Sherfey, 1966). H a v i n g a glance to the comparative a n a t o m y we notice that most primitive animals for the purpose of reproduction divide into two by binary fission giving rise to two identical organisms with genetic characteristics of the species. A little higher in the scale of evolution we see in annelida, both types of sexual apparatuses, male a n d female ; there they have developed e q u a l potency
a n d they give rise to perfect h e r m a p h r o d i s m . Further higher up in evolution we observe the a p p e a r a n c e of unisexual organism, nevertheless with considerable somatic potentiality for the other sex. T h e a m p h i bian larva having gonad consisting of medulla a n d cortex with the capacity to develop into testes or ovaries respectively, the differentiation being controlled by the sex chromosomes. In certain a m p h i b i a the sex can be reversed without altering the genetic make-up, t h a t is, a genotypic female can be changed into a phenotypic m a l e with normally functioning male reproductive organs. Such alterations can be brought about by very unrelated experimental modes like extremes of t e m p e r a t u r e , castration or gonadal grafts (Burns, 1961). This type of experimentation becomes more a n d more difficult as we go higher and higher up in the scale of evolution ; but the possibility still remains as traces of potentiality are retained in a latent form. T h o u g h e x p e r ' m e n t a t i o n is not possible with h u m a n beings, true h e r m a p h r o d i s m is o b served a t times in them. C e r t a i n neurohormonal mechanisms have been found to be greatly influencing the sexual behaviour. I n m a m m a l s , including h u m a n s , if exposed to sex hormones during certain critical period of foetal development, the reversal in childhood a n d adult sexual behaviour occurs. I t has also been seen t h a t i m p l a n t a t i o n of hormones in certain parts of the hypothalamus produces striking effect on the sexual behaviour of animals a n d t h a t for the development of ' ' m a l e h y p o t h a l a m u s " exposure to androgen is essential, but for the formation of "female h y p o t h a l a m u s " simply the lack of exposure to endrogen is enough—the presence of female h o r m o n e is not necessary. From m a n y experimental evidences, it appears that in the brain of both the sexes two centres exist ; one for the m a l e and the other for the female, which regulataes the sexual behaviour (Michael, 1964 ; Michael a n d H e r b e r t ,
THE CONCEPT OF BISEXUALITY AND PSYCHIATRY 1963 a n d Young et al., 1964). Stoller (1968) while discussing the biological substrate of sexual behaviour stated t h a t " A crucial m a t r i x binding all sexual behaviour is, obviously sexual pleasure, in itself a complex mixture of tension, anticipation, physical sensations a n d gratification." In searching for brain centres a n d p a t h ways of pleasure, Old (1958) in rats a n d H e a t h (1963) in h u m a n s discovered brain areas for pleasurable sensation in limbic system a n d specifically the septal region of the brain. O n e of the patients of H e a t h with chronically implanted electrodes stimulating the septal area reported his feeling as " i t is 'good', it is as if he was building up to a sexual o r g a s m " . Fisher et al. (1965) observe t h a t full or partial erection of penis in 95 per cent of times d u r i n g the d r e a m i n g ( R E M ) sleep occurs. MacGlean (1963) reports that dreaming sleep is controlled by a p a r t of brain which is closely connected with the limbic system, stimulation of which p r o duces erection. T h u s it a p p e a r s t h a t all d r e a m i n g a n d sexuality might h a v e n e u r o physiological control. Both types of hormones are secreted in both sexes. Testes secrete not only large a m o u n t of a n d r o g e n b u t also a small a m o u n t of oestrogen. Similarly, ovaries secrete a large a m o u n t of oestrogen, b u t in addition they secrete a small a m o u n t of androgen. Adrenal cortex, in b o t h sexes, secretes a n drogen a n d p r o b a b l y small a m o u n t of oestrogen also (Ganong, 1977). T h e influence of endocrine glands on sexual behaviour is well known. Removal of testes before puberty produces total absence of adult genital sexuality and non-appearance of secondary sexual characters. Castration after p u b e r t y also produces marked reduction of sexual activity in male. Similar effects are not produced in female after castration. Waxenburg (1963) reports t h a t sexuality is dependent on androgen in both sexes. T h a t libido in women is independent of oestrogen has been reported
5
by Fuller and Drezner (1944). Parkes and Bruce (1961) h a v e shown that the females have greater capacity to perceive smell sensation and this capacity varies directly with the level of oestrogen in them ; so the acuity of this sense varies in different periods of the menstrual cycle. This is true in h u m a n s , as in lower animals. By anthoropometers, it is possible to measure the proportion of the masculine and feminine components of physique. T a n n e r (1962) has devised a measure, androgyne score (3 biacromial—I bi-iliac diameter). This score gives m e n a mean of a r o u n d 93 units with a s t a n d a r d deviation of a b o u t 5, a n d women a m e a n a b o u t 78 with a similar standard deviation. T h o u g h its value has not been well established, researchers like Coper a n d R a y (1959) found that psychiatric p a t i e n t s including schizophrenics of both sexes, h a d significantly lower (more feminine) a n d r q , gyne score. Janowsky et al., (1972) have p r o p o u n d e d a hypothesis that regulation of t h e balance between the central adrenergic (or serotonergic) on one side a n d the cholinergic neurotransmitter on the other is disturbed in affective disorders with p r e d o m i n a n c e of cholinergic over adrenergic in depression and the reverse in m a n i a . It is seen t h a t a n t i m a n i c drugs are cholinergic a n d antidepressives are anticholinergic. Janowsky a n d Davis (1978) have reviewed the works, both experimental a n d clinical, in support of their hypothesis. This hypothesis provides some scope for speculating if the central adrenergic a n d cholinergic neurotransmitter system contributes to the determination of the active a n d passive aspects respectively of our personality. I t is too early to make further comment on this point. Diverting our attention for a m o m e n t to another discipline, Ethology, dealing with the learning behaviour of animals let us look at one well known observation of Lorenz (1952). For his experimentation, Lorenz took greylag geese at a certain
6
D. N. NANDI
critical period of their infancy when in their natural state they were expected to be with their mother. Lorenz substituted himself in place of their mother a n d the birds attached themselves to Lorenz, they followed a n d responded to him throughout their growing period as if he were their mother. W h e n these birds attained sexual maturity, their sexual drives were directed exclusively towards Lorenz and to other h u m a n beings and not towards their own species. This well known process, I m p r i n t ing, has been found to be present to a greater or lesser degree, in many animals including mammals. Some scientists (Bowlby, 1960 ; Gray, 1958) feel that some sort of imprinting is also observed in h u m a n infants. BISEXUALITY : PSYCHOLOGICAL T h e New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1979) states about bisexuality, while discussing on W o m a n , as : " E x p e r i m e n t a l studies have led to the conclusion t h a t masculinity and feminity are not mutually exclusive alternatives b u t are combinations of traits, unevenly distributed among individuals of either sex. Physically as well as psychologically, each person is a unique balance of characteristics. . . . m a y be placed on a continuum, extending from malencss a t o n e end to femaleness at the o t h e r . . . . " M - F scales" have been d e s i g n e d . . . .scores on the M - F scales have been correlated with other psychological characteristics, such as general intelligence, creativity, self-assertion, dependence, a n d passivity. . . . people with a high intelligence quotient a n d individuals who score high on originality, creativity, and analytical thinking s h o w . . . . i n t e r e s t s . . . .associated w i t h the sex opposite to their own. These findings simply confirm in q u a n titative terms what m a n y a layman has sensed a n d such writers as Virginia Wolf have expressed when she slid, speaking about women and fiction, "for anyone who w r i t e s . . . .it is fatal to be a man or woman p u r e and simple ; one must be woman-
m a n l y or m a n - w o m a n l y " (A R o o m of One's Own, 1929)". Freud has repeatedly pointed out t h a t biologically every h u m a n possesses b o t h male and female characteristics the p r o portion of which is considerably variable. H e recognised bisexuality in the M e n t a l life also and thought it to be a fundamental constituent of the psyche. O f Psychological bisexuality he observed, ''.... it is an u l t i m a t e fact for our knowledge, it defies every a t t e m p t to trace it back to something e l s e " (Freud 1940a). But he found it very difficult to describe the difference between psychological masculinity a n d feminity. H e said : "For distinguishing between m a l e a n d female in mental life we make use of w h a t is obviously an i n a d e q u a t e empirical a n d conventional equation : we call everything that is strong and active male a n d everything t h a t is weak and passive female (Freud, 1940b)," H e contended that because of the bisexuality h u m a n beings never manifest pure masculinity or p u r e feminity. But the fact is t h a t each individual manifests b o t h masculine and feminine characteristics in almost every behaviour (Freud, 1905). F r e u d (1925) stated " all h u m a n i n d i viduals, as a result of their bisexual disposition and cross-inheritance, combine in themselves b o t h masculine a n d feminine charaeteristics, so that pure masculinity a n d feminity remain theoretical constructions of certain c o n t e n t " . Freud (1940c) understood this bisexual n a t u r e of h u m a n being q u i t e early. I n a letter of August 1, 1899 he wrote Wilhelm Fliess. "Bisexuality I a m sure you arc right a b o u t it. A n d I a m accustoming myself to regarding every sexual act as a n event between four i n d i v i d u a l s " (Freud, 1923). Freud (1940c) realised the difficulty in investigating the components of the opposite sexual tendency in h u m a n subjects in psychoanalytic practice. In this connection he wrote : "If we ask an analyst w h a t his experience has shown to be the m e n t a l structure least accessible to influence
THE CONCEPT OF BISEXUALITY AND PSYCHIATRY
7
in his patients, the answer will be : in a in a n y of the above fields m a y lead to the woman her desire for a penis and in a m a n difficulties in the w a y of harmonious blendhis feminine attitude towards his own ing of the two components, which m a y give rise to anomalous behaviour. Sociosex...." Alfred Adler though differed from cultural emphasis on any one of these In F r e u d in m a n y respects, agreed on the aspects may lead to social m a l a d y . points of psychological bisexuality of h u m a n ancient Rome, we find an e x a m p l e of this being. He, however, t h o u g h t that every one-sided emphasis, where masculinity was individual w a n t s to give u p femininity over-stressed in child rearing practices, spea n d strives for a masculine role (Wood- cially for male children, a n d which were reflected in the treatment of the slaves, in worth, 1949). Similarly Carl Gustrv J u n g detected cruel discipline, in education of children, the feminine side of m a n ' s n a t u r e (Aniina) in public execution and gladiatorial games a n d the masculine component in female (Kiefcr, 1951). psyche (Animus) in his archetype (Concise BISEXUALITY : SOCIOLOGICAL Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry, 1972). Psychological bisexuality has been Most of the depth psychologists agree on the issue of the existence of bisexuality amply reflected in the h u m a n social system, in the mental life, though dffering as to in the form of various cultural practices—• its source a n d its mode of origin. Bose religious and non-religious. (1921) emphasised the i m p o r t a n c e of psychoLicht (1952) collected events of life logical bisexuality in determining the be- in ancient Greek history a n d literature haviour of a n individual in health a n d and showed t h a t in the festivals and cusdisease. toms of Greece there were traces of thoughts which took h u m a n being as bisexual by T h e well-known social anthropologist n a t u r e . In Cyprus, a male-female divinity M e a d who conducted extensive study of was worshipped a n d in obligation to this different primitive cultures recognising the cult a young m a n was to lie in childbed in bisexual n a t u r e of h u m a n behaviour stated imitation of a w o m a n in labour pain. I n t h a t ; " E a c h sex is shaped from the birth Greece god Aphroditos h a d been depicted by the presence of and behaviour of b o t h as a bearded person with the bodily form s e x e s . . . . " ( M e a d , 1949). a n d dress of a female, but with m a l e sexual T h e development of the relative p r o organs. At the time of sacrifices to this portion of masculinity a n d femininity in god, m e n wore female, a n d women male a n individual is dependent partly on bioclothing. In the fanciful legend behind logical and p a r t l y on learning factors. T h e learning factors are the products of : the emergence of god H e r m a p h r o d i t o s we (i) perception of the external genitalia ; find t h a t the beautiful son of Hermes a n d (ii) the a t t a c h m e n t and identification w i t h A p h r o d i t e was conjoined together with the the parents on their substitutes ; and (iii) beautiful nymph of the spring Salamacis, the attitudes of the parents, siblings, peers, when h e had a b a t h in the spring, i n t o people of the society at large, towards the a single being of two sexes as the n y m p h child's behaviour that is expected to be desired so. In several places in Greece shown in respect of masculinity or femini- there was a custom that y o u n g married nity in the particular society and culture. m e n would put on female dress to receive T h e presence of p r o p e r proportions their wives and the bride waited for her of the two sexual components in a balanced husband in male a t t i r e . In a festival men form makes a n individual healthy w i t h a n d w o m e n wore the clothing of the opposite good capaciy for adjustment. Disturbance sex. Another h e r m a p h r o d i t i c god, Leu-
D. N. NANDI
8
cippus, used to be worshipped in Greece was originally a male, but subsequently changed into a female with male genital. T h e Egyptian Isis-Osiris, the Japanese Izanami-Izanagi and many other Arab, Mexican, Hebrew doctrines regard their divinities as bisexual (Bhattacharya, 1978). I n primitive societies of Melanesia it is found that men and women in certain festivities, perform dancing in the dresses of the opposite sex (Malinowski, 1952). In another society, the husband imitates all the physical and mental features of his wife, which he develops during her pregnancy and lies in bed imitating her labour pain (Malinowski, 1927). M e a d (1949) observed : " . . . .how New Guinea Societies have built whole ritual systems on the imitation by males of childbearing and child-rearing, but throughout these are artificial systems, creation of the imagination of one sex to which the life of the other sex has appeared d r a m a t i c and challenging." A similar practice of wearing dress of the opposite sex during festive occasions is also observed in certain I n d i a n tribes (Sinha, 1979). In India there is a practice of worshipping a hermaphrodite deity in the form of 'Arddhanarisvara'. We shall discuss this a little later in great detail. T h e r e is a practice a m o n g certain Vaisnavites where men worship a n d meditate upon Krishna in female attire (Dasgupta, 1359 Beng. Year). BISEXUALITY : PHILOSOPHICAL In his extensive search for some clue as to the origin of sexuality, Freud (1920) found the available knowledge of biological science very insufficient. T h e n h e looked into the works of poet and philosophers for the same purpose a n d he referred to Plato's Symposium which described how the primaeval h u m a n being were cut up into two halves—man and woman—-and how these are always eagerly tending to unite again
in love. H e also mentioned an earlier I n d i a n text Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad which described the theory of origin of sexuality in the same way. Freud (1920) quoted Ziegler (1913) who collected a similar theory from a Babylonian source. Now, let us have a look into some of t h e ideas of the ancient thinkers. I n this respect I n d i a comes to our mind first of all. A journey through the chequered p a t h of Indian thought, which developed d u r i n g the period of last three thousand years or more, enables us to witness m a n y traces of the principle of bisexuality. T h e ancient I n d i a n thinkers in their a t t e m p t to find out a plausible cosmology harped upon the principle of d u a l i t y — t h e one divided itself into two for purpose of creation. Gradually, with the development of thought, this theory of duality took shape in various forms a n d was represented by the concepts, such as, Purusa-Prakriti, active-passive, masculine- feminine, Siva-Sakti a n d m a n y other. We shall find shortly t h a t the inner implication of all these concepts was the same a n d , populaily, they were represented by male a n d female aspects of h u m a n n a t u r e . T h e division of the world of experience into active and passive, or into masculine a n d feminine was ascribed by the I n d i a n seers as being the two aspects of the ultimate Reality. In the Vedas we find the two eternally co-existent substances, the golden egg or Hiraiya-garbha and the eternal " w a t e r " evolved out of one ultimate substratum (Dasgupta, 1922 ; R a d h a k r i s h n a n , 1929a ; Oasgupta, 1946), which were interpreted as the active puruia a n d the passive prakriti, were contemplated a t the root of creation (Radhakrishnan, 1929a). In the Rig-Vedas we get the mentioning of several p a i r concepts—-arising out of the ultimate reality, which were a t t r i b u t e d with universal parentage at different times. T h e pairs, composed of one male and one female, are Aditi a n d Daksha, Dyava and Prithvi, Narayana a n d Ananta, Purusa a n d Prakriti
THE CONCEPT OF BISEXUALITY AND PSYCHIATRY (Dasgupta, 1922). T h e second one was conjoined in the c o m p o u n d concept of Dyava-prithvi (Apte, 1951). In another legend of the Rig-Vedas, Tama was conceived as having the character of a h e r m a p h r o d i t e being. Afterwards this Tama was split into Tama a n d Tami, a male a n d a female, who were regarded as the first parents of h u m a n being (Dandekar, 1962). Tama and Tami are derived from the same root, which indicate that the " p a i r is just one single undivided entity, self-cloven into two halves, for the sake of c r e a t i o n " (Bhattacharya, 1978). Ha ( ? t f ) a n d lid (??rr) of the Purana is another pair of names of the two aspects of one h e r m a p h r o d i t e being. Such paired deities are also worshipped by certain I n d i a n tribes (Sinha, 1966). T h e Upanishads explain t h e course of creation by the principle of duality, in subordination to the principle of unity, a n d we get the pair ideas of form a n d matter, potential a n d evolved, active conscious and passive non-conscious (Radhakrishnan, 1929a). I n a n Upanishadic mythology the account of creation is given like this : "Prajapati tired of solitude, draws forth from himself everything t h a t exists, or produces the world after having divided himself into two, one half male a n d the other half female" (Brahadaranyak-upanishad, trans., R a d h a k r i s h n a n , 1929a). H e r e we get a very clear vision of bisexuality in the ultimate reality. This philosophy of duality in a unity regarding creation influenced the concept of marriage in ancient I n d i a which is maintained even today—the basic spirit of which was later visualised in the image of Arddhranariasvara (Bhattacharya, 1363, Beng. Year). In the Satopatha-brahman and in Byas-samhita it is said respectively, "Wife is one's half p a r t " , and " a m a n remains incomplete half u n t i l he gets his wife". T h a t the male a n d female together form a complete whole is m a i n t a i n e d here (Bhattacharya, 1363, Beng. Year). Now,
let us look into the
Samkhya
9
theory of cosmology which p r o p o u n d s the concepts of purusa a n d prakriti to be responsible for creation. T h e purusa is p u r e consciousness (Cit) a n d is above all change a n d activity, it has been ascribed as inactive or passive. T h e prakriti is the unconscious principle which procuces the world of objects. As it evolves the world, it is active. But its activity for the world evolution is roused only when it comes in proximity {samyogajsannidhi) with t h e purusa. Again, through the relation with the prakriti, purusa is roused to its self-consciousness. T h e purusa a n d the prakriti are mutually dependent. T h e y are inseparable. If we try to separate them, they become unreal (Radhakrishnan, 1929b). Now, t h o u g h a p parently the idea of masculinity a n d femininity is not ascribable to the purusa and the prakriti respectively, yet the analogies the Samkhya scholars used for the elaboration of their theory induce us to d o so. In an analogy the prakriti has been described as a d a n c i n g girl a n d the purusa as the m a n who enjoys her d a n c e ( R a d h a k r i s h n a n , 1929b ; B h a t t a c h a r y a 1979). Prakriti requires the presence of purusa in order to b e known or appreciated by some one (Chatterjee a n d D a t t a , 1960) T h u s ultimately masculine and feminine tones were tacitly given to the purusa and prakriti respectively. Again, activity and passivity as accompaniments of masculinity a n d femininity respectively, as per our commonsense view, are n o t found apparently in Samkhya purusa and prakriti. But a bit of reflection will help us to realise the situation. T h e projection of the ideas of activity a n d passivity upon male a n d female respectively is a matter—of perspective and t h e n it is viewed from the perspective of coition and the actions related to it. But if we examine the thing from the point of view of purpose a n d enjoyment and say that the female enjoys the male, the perspective is c h a n g e d a n d she becomes active, as enjoyment is an activity. Freud's (1933) idea of activity with passive a i m m a y be referred to.
10
D. N. NANDI
Similarly, when the point of view is t h a t the male enjoys the female, then he becomes active. There is no pure activity or p u r e passivity, they are inseparable in reality, but recognised by the a t t i t u d e of the subject under study. According to the Samkhya the purpose of evolution is the enjoyment of the purusa (Radhakrishnan, 1929b ; Bhattacharya, 1979 ; Hiryanua, 1932). T h u s the purusa becomes the subject of enjoyment and the prakriti is the object ; consequently the purusa is active. T h e Patanjali School also maintains a similar view of duality. T h e Gita also accepts the Samkhya theory of purusa-prakriti (Radhakrishnan 1929a). In the Vedania we find that the principle of Maya or illusion is responsible for the multiple appearance of Reality. But Maya is included in the Brahman (Radhakrishnan, 1929b), Mythologically Maya has been given a feminine image. Gradually the purusa-prakriti concept of the Samkhya permeaded into the massmind of ancient India. T h e religion of the Puranas developed the concept of androgynous god and we find in the H i n d u pantheon of gods the image of Arddhanarisvara, Linga-Yoni, Hara-Hora or Hariarddha and their images of Vishnu-Lakshmi, Radha-Krishna, Siva-Parvati and others (Rao, 1916 ;Banerjec, 1956). Arddhanarisvara image philosophically represents the union of the creative principles of activity and passivity or masculinity and femininity (Rao, 1916). In the Vishnu-Purana, Vishnu as Supreme Being is identified with both spirit and crude matter, the purusa and the prakriti (Wilson, 1897). T h e Siva-Purana (or Upapurana) offers us these legends (Rao, 1916) ; Brahma after failing in the task of creation, as he created only male beings, meditated upon Siva for a way out. Siva appeared before him in the compo ;ite image of male and female, i.e. Arddhanarisvara. In another story Risi-Bhringi once vowed to Siva only and neglected Parvati, as he had a vow to worship one Being. Parvati became angry at tlus and in order to pacify her Siva be-
came united with her in one b e d y . I n the Bhagavata purana Mahadev h a s been described as the parama brahman or the Supreme Being and Sakti a n d Siva are his two agencies but one with Himself (Rao, 1916). I n the Markandeya-Purana, Rudra a n d Vishnu are conjoined in the composite figure of Hariarddha, in which Vishnu is identified with the female aspect (Rao, 1916). T h a t Vishnu is identical with Parvati is said in Somadeva Bhatta's Kathasraitsagar (Bengali version ; Vol. 1 : Sarbadhikari, 1977). O n e day Siva told Parvati in a story that being pleased with Narayana he m a d e h i m (Narayana) p a r t and parcel of his body by changing h i m into Parvati, JVarayana and Parvati are one and the same, the energy (Sakti) of Siva. In Padrna-Purana Lord Krishna has been ascribed as the male form of Radha (Dasg u p t a , 1359 Bei:g. Year). Wilkins (1882) gives some other versions of this episode which he collected from different Puranas. O n c e Vishnu in order to convince Lakshmi that he a n d Siva were equal, entered into the body of Siva, and they became one. Again in a n o t h e r story it is found t h a t Siva being c h a r m e d by the beauty of Vishnu, w h o changed himself into a beautiful w o m a n on one occasion (Sammudra-manthan), clasped the female b o d y of Vishnu a n d b e c a m e one with him. About Arddhanarisvara image Wilkins (1882) gives a separate story. O n c e Siva, being pleased w i t h Annapurna (a form of Parvati) embraced her intensely a n d becam" one with her. T h e real significance of all these images is t h a t the m a l e a n d the female principles are inseparable a n d are always found together in cosmic evolution. T h e symbol of linga a n d yoni together conveys the same idea (Rao, 1916). Even the Nalaraja statue of C h i d a m b a r a m , as explains Cooinaraswami (1956), is the representation of male a n d female forces together. I n his d r a m a " Malabikagnimitram", the poet Kalidasa recognises Nata-
THE CONCEPT OF BISEXUAL1TY AND PSYCHIATRY raja in the form of Arddhanarisvara. In the Mahabharata we get the concept of Arddhanarisvara (Anusasan Parva). It accepts the Samkhya cosmology and makes purusa and prakriti the two aspects of the ultimate reality (Sen, 1962 ; Radhakrishan a n , 1929a ; R o y c h o u d h u r y , 1962). In the Mahabharata we get a significant story of sex change of King Bhangasvana, told by Bhisma in answer to queries by Tudhistira, w h o asked, " w h i l e in union whose pleasure is more intense, male's or female's ?" a n d "whose love is more intense, mother's or father's ?". K i n g Bhangasvana once contrived by Indra bathed in a lake and was changed into a woman. H e had h u n d r e d sons and in her female life as the wife of a h e r m i t she begot another hundred sons. By a conspiracy of Indra all the two h u n d r e d sons of Bhangasvana were killed. But subsequently when Indra became pleased with her (at that time she was female) he gave her the option to ask for life for any h u n d r e d sons, hundred sons whom h e got as father or hundred sons whom she got as m o t h e r . She begged Indra to make alive the latter g r o u p because as mother her experience of love for t h e m was more intense. T h e n Indra offered to give her back her previous life as a male. But she declined, because in union with the opposite sex the experience of pleasure as a female was m o r e deep {Mahabharata ; Bengali Version ; Sinha, 1975 ; Meyer, 1930). By a little glance at Saivaism we find t h a t Siva and Sakti are inseparable. Sakti or Uma is the reflex of Siva a n d has no i n d e p e n d e n t existence ( R a d h a k r i s h n a n , 1929b). Similarly in Saktaism, Sakti (or Devi) became the world-mother, who is one w i t h Brahaman. She might by c o n t e m p l a t e d as male, female or attributeless ( R a d h a k r i s h n a n , 1929b). T h e concept of bisexuality took a n e w turn with the a d v e n t and g r a d u a l developm e n t of Tantricism, Vaisnavism and several other esoteric cults. These sects b r o u g h t the concept of bisexuality or Arddhanari-
11
svara to the life of every m o m e n t of a n individual. T h e concept of bisexuality became a reality i m m a n e n t in individual which was to be realised by the whole personality. It was realised further through their Sadhana t h a t the more n e a r m e n would be to t h e realisation of the concept of Arddhanarisvara, t h e more poise, e q u i l i b r i u m a n d t r u t h they would attain in life. T h e Tantra is a cultural discipline in a wide sense, a n d when taken in a limited sense it means spiritual K n o w l e d g e of a technical nature (Bagchi, 1956). It believes in the principle of duality in the absolute Oneness. The Brahman has two aspects in its n a t u r e , the negative a n d the positive, the static and the d y n a m i c . T h e s e two a r e represented by Siva and Sakti, the m a l e a n d the female principles (Dasgupta, 1974). Tantra holds t h a t the h u m a n body is t h e best m e d i u m for the realisation of t r u t h . I t imagines the left side of the h u m a n being as female a n d the right side as m a l e . The u n i o n of these two forces, female a n d male, leads one to the realisation of self-knowledge—"the uncoiling of the coil of N a t u r e , technically called the a w a k e n ing of the serpent-power or Kundalini" ( P r a t y a g a t m a n a n d a , 1956). Kula-Kundalim Sakti serpent-power) is the female force, which resides in the lowest c a k r a , called Muladharacakra. T h e seat of the m a l e force (Siva) is the Sahasrara or the lotus with thousand petals. T h e purpose of Sadhana is to rouse this female force (Sakti), lying d o r m a n t , and m a k e her u n i t e with the male force (Siva) in the Sahasrara (Woodroffe, 1928 ; Dasgupta, 1946 ; P r a t y a g a t m a n a n d a , 1956 ; Bose & H a i d e r , 1973). T h e T a n t r i c Buddhists (Sahajiyas) believe t h a t the R e a l i t y is revealed in the world in the form of male a n d female. According to t h e m the principles of male and female are represented by Upaya a n d Prajna respectively. Therefore, all m e n a n d women are Upaya and Prajna in their u l t i m a t e n a t u r e . T h e central p o i n t in the
12
D. N. NANDI
Sadhana of the T a n t r i c Buddhists is the principle of union of the two aspects of male a n d female (Dasgupta, 1974). Vaisnavism stands for devotion or Bhakti a n d unconditional love [or god. T h e Bhakti of the Bhagavatapurana was transformed into love in the Radha-Krishna cult. Vaisnavism without the emphasis on the cowherd element of Krishna and Radha was developed in the South by the Alvaras a n d Acharyas. Lakshmi is the creative energy of God ; she is the corresponding idea of the Prakriti a n d Vishnu is the Purusa. N i m b a r k a , a south Indian saint infused the RadhaKrishna cult in it. Later a p p e a r e d the great Vaisnava teacher Gaitanya, who was the concrete embodiment of the Vaisnava philosophy (Radhakrishnan, 1929b). In him was a perfect manifestation of Arddhanarisvara or the concept of bisexuality. He was believed to be, by his followers, of having the ultimate n a t u r e of Krishna "hallowed with the lustre of the supreme emotion of R a d h a " (Dasgupta, 1946). H e was thus, Krishna and Radha combined. His way of Sadhana was based on the a t t i t u d e of Radha (Radha-bhava) towards Krishna. Another Vaisnava sect, which appeared, with some striking features, in the eastern region prior to Caitanya, is called the Vaisnava Sahajiya sect. Poets like J a y a d e v a , Vidyapati, Chandidas a n d teachers like R u p a , Sanatana, J i v a Goswami and others were the upholders of Sahajiya cult ( R a d h a krishnan, 1929b). This school of thought was influenced by the Tantrika thought. T h e Siva-Sakti philosophy was transformed by this sect into Krishna-Radha philosophy. Radha is in the nature of Krishna and the two are one and the same. Again this Radha has a correspondence in the Parvatihalf a n d Krishna has a correspondence in the iSizw-half of the Arddhanarisvara concept. T h e Kundalini Sakti of the 7'antra philosophy ,is represented by Radha in this sect (Dasg u p t a , 1946). Union of Radha a n d Krishna, like the union of Sakti a n d Siva, produces the state of realisation of the Absolute or
the state of Sahaja, which is the inborn nature of m a n (Dasgupta, 1946). The duality of masculinity a n d femininity is contained in every m a n a n d w o m a n . Because of the predominance of masculinity in him a m a n is a m a n ; a n d a woman is a woman because the principle of femininity predominates in her. T h r o u g h Sadhana both m a n a n d woman must first of all realise both Siva a n d Sakti or the male a n d female principles in themselves. T h e n the m a n and w o m a n will realise through each other the Siva a n d Sakti principles, even in their earthly bodies. T h e Vaisnava Sahajiyas, as well as other Sahajiyas, believe t h a t as the duality in the ultimate ' O n e ' has been reflected in the earthly love between m a n and w o m a n , it can be taken as a starting point for Sadhana a n d can also be lifted to Divine Love. A Sahajiya looks upon his or her consort, w h o is chosen from the outside of social relations, as Radha or Krishna, as the case may be. T h e a p p r o a c h that m a n is Krishna, and w o m a n is Radha, is technically called the m e t h o d of aropa or attribution. I n their bodily love there is the experience of ''where e a c h is b o t h " (Goomaraswami, 1948). Intense h u m a n love is the basis of Sahajiya Sadhna. I n Bengal there flourishes a sect of bards (lyric poets) who sings in love for the ' M a n of the h e a r t ' . This sect is called the Bard. T o the Bauls the u l t i m a t e t r u t h is the eternal Beloved, w h o m they call the ' M a n of the heart'. T o be united with this beloved is their ultimate a i m a n d in this union there emerge personal existence in the Beloved. T h e Baul himself or herself is the passionate lover a n d is u n d e r a maddening desire to be united with the ' M a n of the heart'. H e r e it is i m p o r t a n t to mention that poet T a g o r e , w h o is designated as the greatest of the Bauls', struggled throughout his whole creative process for the establishment of bond of love w i t h the ' M a n of the h e a r t ' . T a g o r e , like a r o m a n t i c woman in love with h e r beloved, experienced the pangs a n d ecstasy
THE CONCEPT OF BISEXUALITY AND PSYCHIATRY
of love with the 'Man of the heart'. The Bauls give stress on the love for the Guru or preceptor (Dasgupta, 1946). The Sufis of North India take the human love as the basis of their Sadhana. Music is their mode of expression. They also give great emphasis on the love for the preceptor or Murshid. With the Sufis the search for God is accompanied with the same emotion and romanticism as are found in the Vaisnavites and the Bauls. They maintain the same principle of duality in their philosophy. They welcome worldly love—"God plays hide and seek with His lover" (Bhutani, 1956). Another North Indian religious sect, the Nath sect, believes in the dual aspect of Reality. In the method of Sadhana it takes human love and human body as its starting points. Agni and Soma, or the Sun and the Moon represent the nature of Sakti and Siva in it. The unity of the Sun and the Moon has to be realised in the body (Dasgupta, 1946). The Sikh religion approaches Truth or God through love which is in the innate nature of man. The Guru in this religion has a special significance. "The love existing between the Guru and the Sikhs", says one Sikh scholar (Singh, 1956), "was more intense than has ever existed between the most romantic lovers of the world". The aim of a Sikh is to obtain the grace of God. God is manifesting Himself in creation enters into the realm of relation. He "is diffused everywhere in all directions in the form of love" (Gobind Singh's Jap, 80). His creative agencies, like Maya, the World, and Brahma and He Himself are one (Singh, 1956). In India, throughout the ages, a host of saints preached the religion of love. In the later history this love-religion was influenced by the philosophy of Ramanuja, which infused it with dualistic out-look. Ramananda, Ravidas, Mirabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Dadu, Rajjab, Lalan Fakir and many others brought this love
13
approach towards reality into the heart of the masses (Radhakrishnan, 1929b ; Das, 1978 ; Sen, 1350 Beng.). The principle of duality in the sense of bisexuality in man and nature was envisaged not only by the ancient Indian seers, but also in the early thoughts of some other ancient civilizations. We shall come to realise, that by and large, it is a worldthought. Like Indian thinkers of the past, the ancient Greek Philosopher Empedocles conceived dual principles of active spirit and passive matter working behind creation. Plato also harboured on a dualism between being and non-being, or Ideas and Matter (Stace, 1950) for cosmology. But this creation is a unity of the whole containing all the diversities within it. It is like a single living creature (Gornford, 1952). The Chinese thinkers of ancient times thought of the twin principles of Yin and Yang. Yin is the female principle and Yang is the male. These two principles are included in Tao, which is the rational law of things. The activity of Yin and Yang is responsible for the process of man and nature (Max Muller, 1966 ; Radhakrishnan, 1929a, 1955 ; Woodroffe, 1918). In the Bible, in the Book of Genesis, we find that the female partner of Adam was created out of his rib. And as it was the rib of the man, she was called woman (The Bible). CONCLUSION
So far we have traversed a long way through a variety of facts, ideas and thoughts. Our observation during this journey leads us to conclude that bisexuality in the phenomenal and noumenal world is a fundamental concept. The more we understand and realise in our life this concept, the more we approach the fundamental truth. The culture which attempts to realise this concept through its various ways of living must have a better relevance for humanity than a culture which move
14
D. N. NANDI
away from it. I n this respect, we have seen that I n d i a n culture as a whole, and particularly the Sahajiya culture in its wider connotation, has chalked out a way of living with this aim in view. It points out that each of us is an 'Arddhanarisvara'. I t aspires to resolve the p a r a d o x of opposites into a unity, not by negation, but through positive experiences of life, which is best reflected in the words of R o m a i n Rolland (1952) : " T h e matching of opposites produces the true r h y t h m of life. Spiritual purity may not shrink from allying itself with sexual joy, and to most licenced sexualism m a y be joined the highest wisdom. (The amazing Sahaja is a n extreme example, a paradoxical challenge to forces opposed and m a t e d ) " . Therefore, now, out of a n inescapable logic we m a y accept the relevancy of the perspective of bisexuality in our individual a n d social life as it is a fundamental fact. Everywhere in n a t u r e , a n i m a t e or inanim a t e , we find in every individual or particle a tremendous urge to be united with something else, outside or inside. T h e urge comes from within as the individual is composed of opposites and through the union there is a resolution of the opposites. T h u s through union we resolve our own duality. U n t i l there is union, there is tension which sometimes m a y prove to be disastrous. W h a t is a n unconscious urge with n a t u r e is transformed into conscious love with h u m a n being. This love is the vehicle for the realisation of duality in unity. T h e seers of different ages, through their experiences and experimentations, m a d e love the method of communion between m a n and god. And as men are the reflections of God, so love is the mode of communication between m a n and m a n . T h e wise men of the world used this love relationship in their attempt to realise the fundamental concept of duality in m a n and n a t u r e . And ultimately, to them, in a n experience of union through love everything was merged a n d transformed into an experience of one-
ness. T h e wise m e n of the world teach us to experience love, and due to a n inevitable logic this experience of love must be of bisexual n a t u r e , as we are grounded in bisexuality. I n love there are bipolarities—to give a n d to receive, active a n d passive experiences. Sometimes, as a m a t t e r of convention, we call them male-love a n d femalelove respectively. So like any other experience, the world of love-experience is also ingrained in the bipolaritics of active a n d passive. I n I n d i a n Sadhana it was realised that love and bisexuality are b o t h ends a n d means at the same time. T h e love a n d bisexuality together are not only objects of experience, b u t also perspectives of real vision, perspectives for understanding the total man, biological, psychological a n d sociological. T h i s is a perspective belonging not to any p a r t i c u l a r culture a n d race. I t encompasses the whole h u m a n i t y , nay, t h e whole creation, animate or inanimate. I t surmounts any limitation or barrier of t i m e and place. I t is a universal perspective which we can apply anywhere. Again, the perspectives of love a n d bisexuality have deep relevance for understanding the m a n in distress. Moreover, the love relationship between the physician and the p a t i e n t is the only m a t r i x where the conflict of bisexuality can be resolved. T h e results of biological research supports this theme. I n our profession we should approach problems biologically as well as psycho-socially to achieve o u r goal. T o apply this principle we must h a v e a clear understanding of ourselves ; we must realise our own bisexuality. T h a t self-knowledge is the basic requirement for understanding others was pointed out in the U p a n i s h a d i c dictum—'atmanam biddhi', 'know the self. That I a m advancing this, here, as perspective is nothing esoteric or occult. Bisexuality has a cosmic or transcendental aspect as well as an empirical aspect. T h e realization of cosmic bisexuality is n o t t h a t we are talking about here. B u t r e a l i z a -
T H E C O N C E P T O F B I S E X U A O I T Y AND PSYCHIATRY
tion of bisexuality in its empirical aspect is for all men to lead a healthy life with mental equanimity. To apply this in our life and practice is not an easy task indeed. But this need not dishearten us. If we sincerely desire to reach this goal, efforts must be made with devotion. And I believe that sincere efforts do not go in vain. Let the words of the Upanishad inspire us : ^X\ $ JTtf fa*SfcT TCT l l f T S * ^ I ^qST 79^ ***TT"if *ft ^ cH^T^T ^
II
^t#fa ^ttfa I It is through activity that you come to realise the Bliss. Work only would produce perfection. Look at the might effulgence of the Sun which has never paused in its activity. So, go ahead, go ahead. On our onward journey we need not be afraid of committing mistakes as mistakes will be corrected with the advent of fresh knowledge of experience. Let us remember at this point the saying of poet Rajjab—
15
Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture ; Calcutta-700029. BANERJEA, J . N. (1956). Cult-Syncretism ; in T h e Culture Heritage of India ;Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta700029. BANERJEA, J . N . (1941). The Development of Hindu Iconography ; Univrsity of Calcutta, Calcutta. BANERJEA, J . N. (1968). Religion in Art and Archaeology (Vaishnavism and Saivaism) ; University of Lucknow ; Lucknow. BASU, M.( 1976).—Tantras—A General Study ; 50B Halderpara Road, Calcutta-700 026. BHATT, G. H . (1953). The School of Vallabha ; in the Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 3 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcuttaa-700 029. BHATTACHARJI, S. (1978). The Indian Theogony ; Firma K L M P V T . LTD., Calcutta. BHATTACHARYA, G. M . (1979). T h e Concept of Evolution : An Indian Approach ; in the Bulletin of the Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture ; J a n . , 1979 ; Calcutta-700 029. BHATTACHARYA, B. (1363, Beng. Year, a book in Bengali)—Vib.iha-mangal : General Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta-700 013. BKUTANI, N . B. (1956). Sufism ; in the Cultural Heritage of India : Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. (The) Bible ; Published by the Gideons. BOSE, G. (1921). Concept of Repression ; Calcutta. BOSE, D . N . & HALDER, H . (1973)—1,256—Tantras
:
Their Philosophy a n d Occult Secrets ; Firma Only that which is coherent with all K L M Pvt. L t d . , Calcutta. other truths is true, which is not, is false. BOWLBY, J . (1960). Ethology and t h e development of object relations; in Int. J . Psycho-anal. : mvitt spTct: 4 1 , 313-317. BROWN, C. M . (1974). G o d a s Mother : A Feminine Theology in India ; Claude Stark & C o . , REFERENCES Hartford ; Vermout. APTE, V. M . (1951). The age of the Rik-Samhita : BURNS, R . K . (1961). Role of hormones in the differentiation of sex ; in Sex and Internal SecReligion a n d philosophy ; in T h e History a n d retion ; Ed., W. G. Young ; 76-158 ; Baltimore; Culture of the Indian People : T h e Vedic Md., Williams a n d Wilkins Co. Age ; Vol. I ; Ed., R. C. Majumder ; George CHAKRABORTY, C. (1362). (Beng. Year ; a book Allen & Unwin ; London. in Bengali)—Tantra-Katha ; Viswa-Bharati ; APTE, V . M . (1951). T h e Age of the Later SamCalcutta. hitas : Religion a n d Philosophy ; in The History and Culture of the Indian People : T h e CHATTERJEE, S. & DATTA, D . M . (1960). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy ; University of Vedic Age ; Vol. I ; Ed., R . C . Majumder ; Calcutta. George Allen & Unwin ; London. APTE, V . M . (1951). T h e Age of the Upanisads CHAUDHURI, R . (1953). T h e Nimbarka School of Vedanta ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; and Sutras : Religion a n d Philosophy ; in Vol. 2 ; The Ramkrishna Mission Institute of T h e History and Culture of the Indian People : Culture ; Calcutta-700 029. T h e Vedic Age ; Vol. I ; E d . , R . C . Majumder ; CHOPRA, H . L. (1956). Sufism ; in T h e Cultural George Allen & Unwin ; London. Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna M i BAGCHI, P . G. (1956). Evolution of the Tantras ; ssion Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. in the Culture Heritage of India ; Vol. I V ;
16
D. N . N A N D I
(A) Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry ; 1972 : P-33 ; M T P ; Edinburgh. COOMARASWAMI, A. (1948). T h e Dance of Shiva ; Asia Pub. House ; Calcutta. CORNIORD, F . M . (1952). Plato's Cosmology ; Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London. COPPER, A. J . AND R A Y , J . H . (1959). Distribution of androgyny in mental patients; Brit. Med. J . 5, 1445-1447. DANDEKAR, R . N- (1962). Indian Mythology ; in The Cultural Heritage of India ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. DAS, P . (1978). (a book in Bengali) Sahajiya O Gandiya Vaisnava Dharma ; Firma K L M ; Calcutta. DASGUPTA, S. B. (1956). Some Later Yogic Schools ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta700 029. DASGUPTA, S.|B. (1946). Obscure Religious Cults ; Firma K L M ; Calcutta. DASGUPTA, S. B. (1974). An Introduction to Tantric buddhism ; University of Calcutta. DASGUPTA, S. B. (1359). (Beng. Year), (a book in Bengali) —Sree-Radhar Krama-bikash ; A. Mukherjee & Co., Calcutta. DASGUPTA, S. N . (1922). A History of Indian Philosophy ; Vol. I ; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge. DUTTA, X. (1951). Religion and Philosophy—Buddhism ; in T h e History and Culture of the Indian People - V o l . 2, Ed., R. C. Majumder ; Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. (The New) Encyclopaedia Britannica, (1979). P908; Vol. 19; 15th Edn., William Benton; London.
GANONG, W . F . (1977). Review of Medical Physiology; 8th E d n . P-313. GHOSH, B. K . (1951). T h e Aryans in India : (1) Indo-Iranian Relations ; in T h e History a n d Culture of the Indian People ; Vol. I ; George Allen & Unwin ; London. GiRi, Virananda K. S. (1978). Constructive Philosophy of India ; Vol. 1, 2, ; Firma K L M Pvt., Ltd., Calcutta. G R A Y , P. H . (1958). Theory a n d Evidence of imprinting in human infants; J . Psychol.; 4 6 , 155-166. H A Z R A , R . C ( 1 9 6 2 ) . ThePuranas ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India; Vol. 2 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta 700 029. H E A T H , R. G. (1963). Electrical Self-stimulation of the Brain in M a n ; Am. J . Psychiat., 120, 571579. HIRIYANNA, M . (1932). Outlines of Indian Philosophy ; George Allen & Unwin ; London. HIRIYANNA, M . (1953). T h e Samkhya ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 3 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. IYER, K. V K. (1953). Philosophy of the Advaita ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 3 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. JANOWSKY, D . S.; EL-YOUSEF, M .
K . ; DAVIS, J . M .
AND SEKERKO, H . J . (1972). A Cholinergicadrenergic hypothesis of mania and depression Lancet, 2, 632-635. JANOWSKY, D . S. AND DAVIS, J . M . 1978.
Adrenergic-
Cholinergic balance in affective disorders; Psycho-pharmacology bulletin; 14 (4), 58-60. KARMAKER, A. P . (1962). Religion a n d Philosophy of the Epics ; in The Cultural Hreitage of India ; Vol.2 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of CulFISHER, C , GROSS, J . AND Z U C H , J . (1965). Cycle of ture, Calcutta-700029. Penile Erection Synchronous with dreaming (REM) Sleep, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 12, 29-45. KABIRAJ, G. (1963). Tantra O Agama Saster DigFREUD, S. (1905). Three Essays on Sexuality ; Standarsan (in Bengali) ; Vol. I ; Sanskrit College. dard Ed., 7 ; 220. KIEFER, O . (1932). Sexual Life in Ancient Rome. FREUD, S. (1920). Beyond t h e pleasure principle ; T h e Standard Literature; Calcutta. Standard Edn., 18 ; 57-58. LICHT, H . (1952). Sexual Life in Ancient Greece ; FREUD, S. (1923). The Ego and the I d ; Standard The Standard Literature Co., Calcutta. Edn. 19 ; 33. LORENZ, K. (1952). King Solomon's Ring ; Thomas FREUD, S. (1925). Some Psychical Consequences of Y. Crowell Co., New York. the Anatomical Disinction Between the Sexes ; MACCLEAN P . D . (1963). Phylogenesis in Expression Standard Edn., 19 ; 258. of emotions i n m a n ; Ed. P . H . K n a p p ; InterFREUD, S. (1933). New Introductory Lectures ; St. national U . Press; New York. Edn. 22 ; 115. (The) Mahabharata ; Bengali Version ; Vol. 6 ; FREUD, S. (1940a). An Outline of Psychoanalysis ; Kaliprasanna Sinha ; 1975 Print ; Paschim St. Edn. 23 ; p . 188. Banga Niraksharta Durikaran Samiti, Calcutta. FREUD, S. (1940b). An Outline of Psychoanalysis ; MAJUMDER, R . C. (1951) Religion and Philosophy, St. Edn. 23 ; p-194. General Introduction ; in T h e JHistory a n d FULLER, W . AND DREZNER, N . (1944). T h e Results of Culture of the Indian People ; Vol 2 ; BhaSurgical Castration in Woman Under Forty; ratiya Vidya Bhavan ; Bombay. Am. J . Obstet. Gynee; 47, 122-124. MAJUMDER, R . C. (1956) Evolution of Religio-
THE
CONCEPT OF MSEXUALITY
Philosophic Culture in India ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029 MALINOWSKI, B. (1927). Sex and Repression in Savage Society ; Kegan Paul ; London MALINOWSKI, B. (1952). T h e Sexual Life of Savages; The Standard Literature Co., Calcutta. MAX MULLER, F. (Editor). 1966. T h e Sacred Books of the East ; Vols. 16, 27, 39, 40 ; Motilal Banarsidas ; Delhi. M E A D . M . (1949). Male and Female ; p-368 ; Victor Gollancz Ltd., London. M E Y E R , J . J . (1930). Sexual Life in India ; V o l . 2 ; p-376 ; George Routledge ; London. MICHAEL, R. P. AND H E R B E R T , J . (1963).
Menstrual
Cycle influences grooming behaviour and sexual activity in Rhesus Monkey; Science; 140, 500-501. MICHAEL, R. P. (1964). Biological factors in the organisation and expression of sexual behaviour; in T h e Pathology a n d treatment of sexual deviation; Ed. I. Rosen; 24-54; London a n d N . York.; Oxford University Press. NATH, R. G. (1956). A Survey of the Chaitanya Movement ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Calcutta-700 029. O L D , J . (1958). Self-stimulation experiments and differential reward systems; in Reticular foundation of the brain; Eds. H . M . Jasper, L. D . Proctor, R . S. Kringhton, W. C. Noshay and R. T. Costello; Little, Brown a n d Co., Boston. PARKES, A. S. AND BRUCE, H . M . (1961).
Olfactory
stimuli in mammalian reproduction; Science; 134, 1049-1054. PRATYAGATMANANDA, SWAMI. (1956).
T a n t r a as a
Way of Realization ; T h e Cultural Heritage of India; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta 700-029. PRATYAGATMANANDA, SWAMI. (1953).
Philosophy of
the Tantras ; i n T h e C u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e of India; Vol. 3 ; Ramrishna Miss on Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. RADHAKRISHNAN, S. (1929a). Indian Philosophy ; Vol. I ; George Allen & Unwin ; London. RADHAKRISHNAN, S. (1929b). Indian Philosophy ; Vol. 2 ; George Allen & Unwin ; London. RIOHAKRISHNAN, S. (1955). East and West ; George Allen & Unwin, London. RANGACHARYA, V. (1956). Historical Evolution of Sri-Vaisnavism in South India ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India : Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. RAO, GOPINATH, T . A. (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography ; Vol. 2 ; Part I ; T h e Law Printing House ; Mount Road, Madras.
17
AND P S Y C H I A T R Y
RAYCHOUDHURY, H., (1962). The t Mahabharata : Some Aspects of Its Culture ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 2 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. ROMAIN ROLLAND (1952). Foreword of 'Dance of Shiva' by Coomaraswami ; Ref. N o . 25 of this list. SASTRI, K.A.N. (1956). An Historical Sketch of Saivism ; i n T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol.4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Intstitute of Culture, Calcutta-700-029. SEN, K. (1350). (Beng. Year). Bharater Samskrit (Beng. book) ; Viswa-Bharati, Calcutta. SEN, N . (1962). T h e influence of the Epics on Indian Life a n d Literature ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 2 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta. SEN, S. (1956). T h e Nath Cult ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Calcutta-700-029. SHERFEY, M. J . , (1966). T h e evolution of nature of female sexuality in relation to psychoanalytic theory ; J . Amer. Psychoanal. Assocn.; 14, 28-128. SINGH, T . (1956). The Religion of the Sikh Gurus; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Instt. of Culture, Calcutta700-029. SINHA, J . (1956)—Bhagavata Religion ; T h e Culture of Bhakti ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Instt. of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. SINHA, T . C. (1966). Psychoanalysis in India ; In The Lumbini Park Silver Jubilee Souvenir ; Calcutta. SINHA, T . C. (1966). T h e Psyche of the Garos ; Anthropological Survey of India ; Calcutta. SINHA, T . C. (1979). Pesrsonal Communication. SIRCAR, D. C. (1956). Early History of Vaisnavism ; in The Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 4 ; Ramkrishna Mission Instt. of Culture, Calcutta-700 029. STACE, W. T. (1950). A Critical History of Greek Philosophy; MacMillan & Co., London. STOLLER, R. J . (1968). Sex and Gender; P 15; T h e Hogarth Press a n d T h e Instt. of Psychoanalysis; London. TANNER, J . M . (1962). Oxford U . P .
Growth at Adolescence;
TYAGISANANDA, SWAMI. (1953).
Philosophy of the
Bhagavata ; in T h e Cultural Heritage of India ; Vol. 13, Ramkrishna Mission Instt. of Culture. Calcutta-700 029. VAIDYA, P. L.
& PUSALKER,
,
