activities. Students learn to say in English what they really want to say, ... What is new in a problem-posing approach is that ..... What's happening in class today?
Problem-posing: a tool for curriculum Mary J. Schleppegrell Brenda Bowman
renewal and
Posing problems to students for discussion can be an effective tool for curriculum renewal, especially in difficult teaching circumstances. This article reports on EFL curriculum renewal in African secondary schools, where teachers identified student interests, posed problems for discussion, and used the language generated by the discussions to develop language learning activities. We describe the steps in developing problemposing lessons, and address some of the issues faced by teachers who adopt this approach. In resource-poor educationalenvironments, problemposing can be a first step in making an EFL curriculum more responsive to student interests and needs. It generates discourse-level communication in the classroom which can be exploited to develop a pedagogically sound sequence of presentations of linguistic structures and vocabulary.
Curriculum renewal
Research in ELT most often takes place in university settings, funded by grants that allow for near-optimal situations for the introduction of educational innovations. This article, in contrast, reports on and explores the implications of experiments in ELT curriculum renewal that were carried out under far from ideal circumstances by teachers at the local level, who worked together to develop, pilot, and refine materials which supplement national curriculum specifications. Although this approach requires some methodological transformations in classroom practice, it also allows teachers to continue using traditional exercises in more effective ways. Since 1990, a series of curriculum renewal workshops sponsored jointly by the Ministries of Education and the US Peace Corps brought together African secondary school teachers and American volunteers who are teaching EFL in rural areas of Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé, the Comoros Islands, and Gabon. Participants identified topics that would motivate their students, planned lessons related to those topics, and practised problem-posing and co-operative learning techniques. They then returned to their classrooms to try out the new material, and through a process of exchanging ideas and refining drafts, collaboratively produced new lessons for a variety of levels, renewing and further developing the national ELT curricula. The lessons they created provided practice in English, while at the same time helping students develop critical thinking skills through discussion of key issues in their lives. In addition, teachers learned strategies for ongoing assessment of ELT Journal Volume 49/4 October 1995 © Oxford University Press 1995
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students’ interests and language needs, and for design and redesign of lessons to meet those needs. This paper illustrates the problem-posing approach by drawing examples from lessons developed in Guinea-Bissau. In that country, as in many parts of the world, secondary school EFL teaching often takes place in schools where the only resources may be the blackboard and students’ copybooks. Teachers who have little formal training work from sparse curriculum outlines to prepare students for exams that few will pass. The Ministry of Education, struggling to pay teachers’ salaries, has few resources for developing new material to update a curriculum that is still imbued with the thinking of the former colonial administration. In such situations, curriculum renewal faces difficult constraints to which a dialogic, problem-posing approach offers a remedy. As a tool for curriculum renewal, problem-posing requires few resources, builds teamwork among teachers and a sense of community among learners, and offers a much-needed dose of relevance in the materials developed. By posing problems, teachers can create an emergent curriculum and engage students in the development of materials (e.g. Auerbach 1992). As an approach to curriculum renewal, problem-posing can contribute to making teaching more learner-centered, and is an additional resource in developing process syllabuses and learner-negotiated syllabuses (Breen 1984, 1987; Budd and Wright 1992, Candlin 1984, Nunan 1992, Parkinson and O’Sullivan 1990), while still responding to national guidelines for ELT. What is problemposing?
Problem-posing is an approach developed by Paolo Freire (Freire 1970, 1978, 1991) and then elaborated for foreign language learning (Crawford 1978, Crawford-Lange 1987), teacher training (Lange 1979), and teaching English as a second language (Auerbach and Burgess 1985, Auerbach and Wallerstein 1987, Graman 1988, Wallerstein 1983a, 1983b). The first step in this approach is to identify topics of concern to students. The concerns are then presented to students through visual or linguistic input: a picture, dialogue, or other text. Criteria used for selection of this input are that it depicts a situation that students can easily recognize, and that it poses a problem with several possible solutions. The text or visual should not provide solutions, so that a discussion of the problem will encourage students to think of options and possibilities. The problems which are posed should not be overwhelming or unsolvable, and presentation of the problem should be sensitive to local culture and beliefs, so that students can consider steps they might take to address or resolve the problem. Teachers encourage discussion of the text or visual through questions which lead students to describe the situation, identify the problem, relate the problem to their own experience, analyse the causes of the problem, and seek solutions. Through this question and answer dialogue, students generate vocabulary and use structures that the teacher later draws on to
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develop a series of exercises, practice opportunities, and application activities which make up the rest of an instructional unit. The posing and discussion of problems provides teachers who have few materials with a focus on content and language structures that they can exploit in a series of language teaching lessons following the problem-posing sessions. This process enables teachers to renew and supplement curriculum outlines with language activities that develop students’ English language skills as they address interesting and meaningful issues. Since language learning in a problem-posing design evolves out of an issue that is relevant to students’ lives, it has the advantage of being highly motivating and providing a purposefulness to language-learning activities. Students learn to say in English what they really want to say, and structures can be acquired in the order students need them for authentic discourse creation. Problem-posing lessons allow for affective responses while building the language, critical thinking, and life skills students need, and providing them with opportunities to practise and apply those skills. There is nothing new in the scarcity of resources for ELT in African secondary schools. What is new in a problem-posing approach is that students are asked to help rectify this situation. They participate in their own learning by helping to define themes and topics. Then, through discussion of these themes or topics, they generate language which teachers use to develop exercises and learning materials centred on students’ needs. Students are also invited to identify actions they can take to apply their learning, often involving the community outside school. The failures or successes of the actions are then analysed in the English lesson, further reinforcing students’ perceptions of themselves as activists and researchers. An example from Guinea-Bissau
We present below excerpts from a unit developed for first-year English students in Guinea-Bissau (Zervos and Latsko 1993). Each unit at this level takes eight to ten hours of class time. The first two hours are devoted to the problem-posing activity. Each unit then has a language practice phase, when students focus on the vocabulary and structures generated by the problem-posing discussion, and an application phase, when the students use that language in a school or community activity based on the theme and content of the lesson.
Posing the problem
The theme for this unit is student illness and absence from school. The issues to be discussed concern different kinds of illness, health care options, and maintaining responsibilities at school. The unit begins with a dialogue (see Appendix), which poses a problem involving both health concerns and school performance anxiety, two topics of great interest to the African secondary school student. The credibility of the dialogue is established by the attitude expressed by the teacher. Rather than responding solicitously to Augusto, this teacher says ‘Well, we have a test today. Are you really sick?’ This poses a problem that students recognize, that has several solutions, and that is sensitive to local culture. Problem-posing for curriculum renewal
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More than one direction can be taken in discussion of this dialogue, as reflected by the questions in the Appendix. Augusto could be seen as a lazy student who wants to avoid the test, or as a student who is genuinely ill and needs medical attention. To reflect these possibilities, the questions developed for the problem-posing portion of the lesson focus both on student responsibility and on health care options. Underlying the health care options are the economic realities of a cash-strapped country, where payment for medical services is often in kind, and where Augusto could go to a traditional healer rather than to the hospital. The questions also focus students on taking responsibility for their own wellbeing, which keeps the problem from seeming overwhelming or unsolvable. Typically, the teacher writes the dialogue on the blackboard for students to copy into their notebooks. Then the five sets of questions for discussing this dialogue are posed to the students. The first two sets are written in very simple English. In early units this permits yes/no, either/ or, or other one-word answers, and allows students to use English to answer these questions from the beginning of the school year. The remaining sets of questions may initially be discussed in the students’ mother tongue or common language (in Guinea-Bissau, this would be Kriolu or Portuguese), to allow for active student participation. As the year progresses and students’ language skills improve, more of the discussion can take place in English. But using a familiar language to discuss these questions initially allows students to share their experiences and to develop a common knowledge base related to health care and student responsibility (Auerbach 1993). This prepares them to process the English language presented in comprehension activities later in the unit (Carrel1 and Eisterhold 1987). The key aspect of learner involvement is in the problem-posing segment. Teachers propose topics, but the ensuing discussion confirms whether the topics are meaningful and relevant to students. The success of this process depends on the degree to which students are allowed to transcend the insights of their teachers and generate their own solutions to the problems posed. After posing the problem
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The five sets of problem-posing questions establish the context and sequence that guide the development of the unit. Following the problem-posing task, teachers analyse the language students used to answer the questions, identifying the grammar, vocabulary, and functions that students need to discuss the theme in English. These linguistic elements provide the language skills focus for the second phase of the unit, when teachers typically use more traditional language learning exercises for student practice of linguistic structures and vocabulary related to the theme. In this unit, for example, the grammatical focus is on the present progressive tense. Students learn activity verbs in order to answer the question ‘What are you doing?‘, and engage in question-and-answer mini-dialogues and short writing tasks to reinforce the structure. A functional focus on ‘Talking about how you Mary J. Schleppegrell and Brenda Bowman
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feel’ prompts students to learn vocabulary related to parts of the body and illness. While the exercise types are typical of traditional language classrooms, the content of the exercises is contextualized by the problem-posing discussion. The responses to ‘Relate the situation to your experience’ and ‘Analyse the underlying issues’ provide students with opportunities to explore the theme further while at the same time practising new language skills. Reading texts in this part of the unit describe the two options for medical care - the hospital and the traditional healer - that were the focus of the problem-posing discussion. Students demonstrate their comprehension by evaluating statements as true or false, and practise grammatical structures by correcting the false statements. Finally, each unit has an application activity that links classroom learning to the broader context in which the students live, engaging students in a project which concludes their study of the theme. Application activities are developed collaboratively by teachers and students as they reflect on the problems posed in each unit. Projects undertaken in Guinea-Bissau included writing letters to the editor, conducting community surveys, organizing poster competitions, and presenting skits to educate the school or community about important issues. For this unit, the responses generated by the ‘Do something’ questions led students to carry out a community survey of home remedies, conducted in Kriolu and presented in English in the classroom. This small step in the direction of participatory action research is well received by students, who enjoy the recognition given to the knowledge and traditions of their homes and community. Issues for teachers
Identifying
themes
The problem-posing aspect of this curriculum renewal project required new teaching skills. Teachers needed support and practice in identifying appropriate themes, learning how to introduce a problem, facilitating discussion, and using the language generated during the problem-posing phase to develop language-focused exercises. The teachers in this project developed those skills through workshops which brought them together to discuss issues, share lessons, and brainstorm solutions to the problems which emerged as they piloted new materials in their classrooms. Identifying the issues to pose as problems is a key concern. Curriculum renewal workshops can use a variety of techniques to help teachers focus on issues of interest to their students. In some cases, teachers may be able to return to their classrooms to conduct needs assessment, asking students to list current topics of discussion in the school and community, or other issues that they would like to address. Teachers can also share examples of class sessions that students especially enjoyed or found interesting, and analyse what caught the students’ interest. Teachers’ stories that describe something unexpected or significant that happened at school or in the community, such as incidents related to cheating, punishment, or attendance of girls at school, are good resources for developing problem-posing dialogues and discussion questions. This Problem-posing for curriculum renewal
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information-sharing process can itself be a very rich experience, often providing the teachers with new insights into local social and cultural realities. Cultural appropriateness is particularly important in problem-posing when teachers may want to address important but sensitive topics with their students, and we found that the key to cultural appropriateness is to build teams of teachers who work together to develop these units. Those teachers who are most familiar with the local culture can ensure that the issues selected are relevant and appropriate for the students who will use the materials. Ultimately, the relevance of the theme or topic is validated by students themselves, in their engagement or lack of interest in the problem when it is posed. Among the themes addressed by teachers in these curriculum renewal workshops were AIDS education, environmental concerns, family roles and authority, home and school responsibilities, students’ lifestyles and societal values, and gender issues. These themes generated problemposing units that provoked thinking and discussion in the classroom. Introducing the problem
Identifying or developing appropriate texts or visuals for posing problems is another challenge for teachers. Teachers evaluate the usefulness of a text or visual according to the criteria presented above that students will recognize the situation, that several solutions are possible but are not provided by the text or visual, that the problem is not overwhelming or unsolvable, and that presentation of the problem does not offend local culture and beliefs. Dialogues are a common way of posing problems. They can be written by teachers or developed by students. Problems can also be posed through stories, pictures, or cartoons from newspapers. For example, a photograph of a sports car in action can prompt questions about the value of fame and wealth, the role of sports in society, and students’ plans for their future. A drawing showing women and girls at work in the village can introduce a unit on reasons for the frequent absences of girls from school. An unfinished story can be completed by students as a problem-posing exercise. Using student-generated texts or visuals can be especially effective, and further involves students in the materials development process. After identifying a resource for presenting the problem, teachers write sets of problem-posing questions, like those described earlier, that move students from simple description to taking action for change. Initially, teachers may find it difficult to develop questions that lead students to explore a variety of options rather than steer them into reaching a particular conclusion. Teachers may also have difficulty at first developing questions that leave the problem unresolved, so that it will provoke discussion. Practice and trial of problem-posing with students can help teachers to refine the materials.
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In posing problems, the emphasis is on acknowledging and validating the cultural, historical, and daily realities of life for the students. This Mary J. Schleppegrell and Brenda Bowman
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requires teachers to take a non-traditional approach as facilitators who pose problems rather than present solutions. The successful posing of problems requires the establishment of a non-authoritarian relationship between teachers and students as they discuss and share viewpoints on issues for which there is no single correct answer. It is important that students feel secure in their right to express their ideas, so teachers need to model tolerance of other viewpoints. This requires an ability to synthesize ideas without necessarily endorsing them, and may take some trial and practice by teachers who have never used this approach before. In Guinea-Bissau, the process of developing a different style of interaction with students required practice and trial over a period of months, in which teachers were testing lesson ideas they had drafted during the workshops. Teachers sometimes had difficulty in clearly identifying problems that students raise. Some found that by asking students to write their responses to the problem-posing questions first, they were better able to facilitate discussion of the problem in a subsequent class period. Students do not always identify the specific problem that teachers have anticipated, so teachers have to be flexible in responding to issues that students raise - listening, letting students react to each other, and allowing a consensus to emerge. It takes a planned and practised effort on the part of teachers only to facilitate discussion, rather than to direct students to a particular solution. Teachers also have to be prepared to deal with opinions they find offensive or disagree with. The discussions sometimes touch on uncomfortable topics, as students refer to perceived injustices, to dashed expectations, and to shifting assumptions. Letting students respond to each other is one way to take the pressure off the teacher, but ground rules about how to disagree - dealing with social skills as well as language skills - are needed, to socialize students into what may be a new type of classroom discourse for them. Through problem-posing, teachers get to know their students better, and often discover concerns they might not otherwise have known about, as students debate issues and share viewpoints. The depth and animation of these discussions demonstrate that ‘meaningfulness’ is more than a notion of intellectual understanding. For students to engage in their learning, they also need to connect emotionally with a topic. Teachers who participated in this project were sometimes surprised at the views students shared. Students also asked teachers to share their experiences, which some teachers found uncomfortable. But through discussions and interaction with other teachers, participants came to recognize that this sharing was developing a community of learning in their classrooms. Developing language skills
The five sets of problem-posing questions progressively develop students’ abilities to talk about a theme as they move from description to action. Discussing topics related to their lives develops students’ skills in organizing and presenting ideas in longer spans of connected discourse, rather than just short answers to pre-packaged questions. Students develop interactional and critical thinking skills as they share Problem-posing for curriculum renewal
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viewpoints and debate issues, and the contextualization of the language in each unit provides a content base for ongoing use of the new language skills. The problem-posing approach is particularly well suited for helping teachers to identify the language needs of students, and to use that information to develop lessons that address specific gaps in their skills in English. Prior to the curriculum renewal workshops, these teachers worked from sketchy curriculum guidelines that generally specified grammatical structures and a set of functions to be taught at each level. Teachers needed to translate these outlines into a set of lessons that would be relevant to their students and that would correspond to the Ministry of Education’s guidelines for English language teaching. With a problem-posing approach, teachers still follow the official curriculum, but they use it as a checklist rather than as a lesson outline, checking off structures, functions, and vocabulary as they come up in the problemposing units, until they have covered all the skills students need to prepare for their examinations. In this way teachers can address national curriculum goals in contexts driven by content rather than structures. The lessons have a more pedagogically relevant sequence, as teachers present grammar and vocabulary when students need the language to express their ideas. The syllabus becomes a ‘retroactive record’ (Candlin 1984) of the interaction that comes from the posing of the problem, the ensuing dialogue, and what develops from them.
The value of problem-posing
Problem-posing has much to offer teachers who are working in difficult circumstances. It helps teachers learn more about their students’ needs, it gives students experience in dealing with real issues, and it establishes a community of learning in the classroom. As an approach to teaching, problem-posing enables teachers to conduct participatory action research with their own classes, which allows them to examine their practice and adapt it to the needs of their students (Allwright and Bailey 1991, Nunan 1990). As an approach to curriculum development, it empowers teachers to take control of the curriculum and to generate discourse-level communication in the classroom as the basis for materials development. Problem-posing provides a framework for lesson design. It helps teachers give new direction to familiar topics, with continual change and evolution of the curriculum from year to year as each group of learners approaches the issues in new ways. Teachers in Guinea-Bissau responded creatively to the challenge of implementing a learner-centred, problem-posing approach that contextualizes the teaching of linguistic structures. Their collaborative efforts have resulted in the development of new materials which are now a central part of the materials development course at the National Teacher Training College (e.g. Zervos and Latsko 1993). When teachers graduating from the College do not have access to developed materials, they will have the skills they need to create emergent curricula with their students.
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Some readers may see a contradiction in the use of problem-posing for curriculum renewal. After a unit has been developed using a dialogic, learner-centred approach, will it stop being responsive in the same way to student input? If lessons are written and reproduced for other teachers, will they be used as a traditional exercise book, short-circuiting the process used to develop the exercises and activities in the first place? The experience of the teachers we have worked with indicates that the process of curriculum renewal through problem-posing will ensure that the materials remain meaningful to students at particular levels in particular cultural settings. The exercises developed from the problemposing discussion continue to be highly relevant for subsequent groups of students in the same circumstances, because they have emerged from a process of needs assessment and dialogue, and because the problemposing questions are open-ended, with no ‘right’ answers at hand in a teacher’s manual. In resource-poor environments, where teachers have few materials to work with, lessons developed through problem-posing bring life to sketchy curriculum outlines. They enable teachers to present vocabulary and structures in a sequence embedded in thematic units that contextualize discourse in ways that are meaningful and relevant to students. The process of development of these units illustrates how collaboration among teachers, and a dialogic approach to working with learners, can result in ongoing curriculum renewal. Received
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References
Arendt,
Allwright, D. and K. M. Bailey. 1991. Focus on
Foreign Language Learning, Today and Tomorrow. New York: Pergamon: 169-92.
the Language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Auerbach, E. R. 1992. Making Meaning, Making Change. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Auerbach, E. R. 1993. ‘Re-examining English only in the ESL classroom’. TESOL Quarterly 27/1: 9-32. Auerbach, E. and D. Burgess. 1985. ‘The hidden curriculum of survival ESL’. TESOL Quarterly 19/3: 475-95. Auerbach, E. and N. Wallerstein. 1987. ESL for Action: Problem-Posing at Work. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Breen, M. P. 1984. ‘Process syllabuses for the language classroom’ in C. J. Brumfit (ed.). 1984: 47-60. Breen, M. P. 1987. ‘Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design’. Language Teaching 20/2: 81-92; 20/3: 157-74. Brumfit, C. J. (ed.) 1984. General English Syllabus Design. Oxford: Pergamon. Budd, R. and T. Wright. 1992. ‘Putting a process syllabus into practice’ in D. Nunan (ed.). 1992: 208-29. Candlin, C. N. 1984. ‘Syllabus design as a critical process’ in C. J. Brumfit (ed.). 1984: 29-46. Carrell, P. L. and J. C. Eisterhold. 1987. ‘Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy’ in M. H. Long and J. C. Richards (eds.). 1987: 218-32. Crawford, L. M. 1978. ‘Paolo Freire’s philosophy: Derivation of curricular principles and their application to second language curriculum design’. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota. Crawford-Lange, L. M. 1987. ‘Curricular alternatives for second-language learning’ in M. H. Long and J. C. Richards (eds.). 1987: 120-44. Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. Freire, P. 1978. Pedagogy in Process: The Letters to Guinea-Bissau. New York: Seabury Press. Freire, P. 1991. ‘The adult literacy process as cultural action for freedom’ in M. Minami and B. P. Kennedy (eds.) Language Issues in Literacy and Bilingual/Multicultural
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Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review Reprint Series No. 22: 248-65. Graman, T. 1988. ‘Education for humanization: Applying Paolo Freire’s pedagogy to learning a second language’. Harvard Educational Review 58/4: 433-48. Lange, D. L. 1979. ‘Suggestions for the continuing development of pre- and in-service programs for teachers of second languages’ in J. D. 306
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Long, M. H. and J. C. Richards (eds.) 1987. Methodology in TESOL. New York: Newbury House. Nunan, D. 1990. ‘Action research in the language classroom’ in J. C. Richards and D. Nunan (eds.) Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 62-76. Nunan, D. 1992. ‘Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study’ in D. Nunan (ed.) 1992: 230-53. Nunan, D. (ed.) 1992. Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parkinson, L. and K. O’Sullivan. 1990. ‘Negotiating the learner-centred curriculum’ in G. Brindley (ed.) The Second Language Curriculum in Action. Sydney NCELTR, Macquarie University: 112-27. Wallerstein, N. (1983a). Language and Culture in Conflict: Problem-posing
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The authors
Mary J. Schleppegrell is Assistant Professor of Linguistics and Director of English as a Second Language at the University of California, Davis, CA. She was Education Specialist for the Peace Corps for three years and has been developing EFL curricula and training EFL teachers for twelve years. Brenda Bowman is Education Specialist for the Peace Corps in Washington, DC, and has conducted ELT materials development workshops in numerous countries around the world. She taught English in Africa for eighteen years at primary, secondary, teacher training, and university levels.
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Appendix
Dialogue and Problem-Posing Questions Dialogue In this dialogue Augusto and his teacher are at school. Teacher: Augusto: Teacher: Augusto: Teacher:
Augusto, we have class now. What are you doing? I’m going to the hospital. I’m sick. What’s the matter? I have a headache and my stomach hurts. Well, we have a test today. Are you really sick?
Problem-posing
questions
Describe the situation:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Does Augusto have class? Is Augusto going to the hospital, or is he going home? Where is the teacher going? Does the teacher want Augusto to go to class today?
Identify the issue:
1. What’s the matter with Augusto? 2. What’s happening in class today? Relate the situation to your experience:
1. Do you get sick often? 2. What hurts when you’re sick? Your head? Your stomach? What else can be wrong? 3. What do you do when you’re sick? (Examples: stay home, go to the hospital or health center, go to school...)
4. What happens when you miss school? When you miss homework? When you miss a test? Do you talk to someone about the work you missed? Analyze the underlying issues:
1. Why does the teacher ask if Augusto is really sick? If he isn’t sick, why might he want to miss school? 2. Why is Augusto going to the hospital? What could they do for him there? How can the hospital help? What would happen if he didn’t go? 3. Where else do people go for medical help? What about traditional medicine? 4. What illnesses do people get? What can cause headaches, stomachaches, and other health problems? What causes illnesses? Do something:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Can illnesses be avoided? Which illnesses? What can you do to prevent them? Should people work when they are sick? If you are sick, what can you do? If you miss school, what can you do about the work you miss? From Zervos and Latsko 1993: 234.
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