problematic aspects of foundational skills

WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS FOR THESES AND DISSERTATIONS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: PROBLEMATIC ASPECTS OF FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS C.J. Auriacombe Department of Politics and Governance University of Johannesburg

ABSTRACT

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his article focuses on the challenges associated with those foundational skills that are crucial in the initial phase of writing and submitting a research proposal for masters’ and doctoral degrees at universities. A brief outline is provided of the meaning of the concepts “research proposal”, “thesis” and “dissertation”, as well as of what a research proposal should ideally contain. Problems associated with the contents, writing and presentation of proposals are discussed, particularly with regard to the lack of skills in research design. It also briefly deals with the role of universities in assisting students with preparing research proposals. The article concludes by examining the implications for research of a more original nature on doctoral level, if the necessary skills are not adequately acquired on masters’ degree level.

INTRODUCTION his article is intended to provide a reflection on the challenges associated with those foundational skills that are necessary when drawing up research proposals for post-graduate studies in Public Administration. It is not meant as a treatise on metho­ dological terms, concepts and notions for the methodology gourmet. An attempt is made to put into perspective the overarching problems of all Public Administration departments and schools at universities that offer masters’ and doctoral degree programmes based on research. All institutions require students to develop and present research proposals for their intended post-graduate studies at some point during the initial stages of the study period. As the name suggests, a research proposal is a document that outlines how students propose to undertake and execute their research. It constitutes a crucial stage or milestone in the C.J. Auriacombe

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project cycle. Some institutions only allow students to register for post-graduate studies once a ­faculty or specialised committee of the university has accepted their research proposals. A research proposal suggests how work will be undertaken that will eventually be recorded in a written dissertation or thesis. This article focuses on the various steps and procedures in preparing research proposals. The steps are not discussed in a particular order, and they are not necessarily applied in a linear or chronological sequence. Sometimes activities undertaken and decisions made during one step overlap with the next step, and subsequent steps may lead to a return to previous steps. For the purposes of this discussion the building of a house will be used as an analogy to introduce the article. Any respectable architect or builder will concede that a house needs a proper plan. This implies that you do your homework to ensure that the plan will fit the plot of land, that the building material will be appropriate for the plan, that the house will be adequate for those who will live in it and that the foundations will be strong enough to support the house and withstand the elements of nature. The outline of the foundations will reflect the image of what the completed house will look like. This too is true of the initial stages of research. This article will therefore review the process that students have to follow when presenting research proposals in Public Administration at universities. The nature and the main aspects of the structure of research proposals are discussed and some practical suggestions are made about what should be done to improve the chances of the proposal being accepted. It also examines the lack of some general foundational skills that can make or break a student’s progress towards the completion of a dissertation or thesis. However, it should be emphasised throughout that the research proposal should be understood first and foremost as a document that embodies the logic of the research project. So, unless the basic principles of research design and research problem formulation are understood, students will find it difficult to develop a proper research proposal.

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL irstly, the research proposal is a document that outlines the student’s thoughts about a defined research problem. The questions that have to be studied and how this should be done are considered, as well as the approach to the study and what kind of resources will be selected. A proposal, therefore, usually gives a good indication of whether sufficient preparation for the study has been done (cf. Mouton 2001:45). Secondly, the research proposal forms the basis for the working relationship between the student and the supervisor. In this sense, the proposal is not unlike a contract or agreement. Once the supervisor has accepted the proposal and has given his/her approval for the student to continue, an agreement has been reached and a kind of contract has been drawn up to undertake the proposed study along the lines discussed and outlined in the proposal. The supervisor, in turn, agrees to provide the student with the necessary guidance and supervision to achieve this goal. Although not legally binding, a strong moral commitment is presupposed on the part of both parties. This commitment implies specific responsibilities and duties for both parties.

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The research proposal is a key document in that it looks both back and forward. It documents the student’s thinking thus far (primarily about the formulation of the research problem and research design), but also outlines the anticipated events (research methodology, timeframe and thesis/dissertation structure). This dual nature of the proposal is concretely reflected in the use of grammar: the past tense (sometimes the present tense) for the first two phases, and the future tense when writing about the research process to follow. Although many writers have commented on the dual nature of the research proposal, there is no question that, in essence, it is a project plan. A good research proposal gives the reader a clear and consistent outline of what topic is to be studied, what the objectives of the research are, what type of study will be conducted (the research design), how the research will be conducted (the research methodology), as well as the envisaged timeframe and resources required. Before discussing the problems associated with the presentation and writing of a good research proposal, it is necessary to give a brief explanation of the concepts “dissertation” and “thesis”.

DISSERTATIONS AND THESES dissertation or thesis is a specific contribution to and the result of the active participation in the overall academic discourse. It reports results of a scientific investigation of a defined topic selected by a student. The dissertation or thesis should communicate these results clearly and effectively. The requirements to which a thesis (for a doctorate) and a treatise/dissertation (for a masters’ degree) have to adhere, are that they should show the candidate’s ability to manage information, transform it into knowledge and give an adequate report of his/her research findings. A thesis should also make an original and meaningful contribution to the field of study. Regarding the research, the candidate should prove in any of the three cases (dissertation, treatise or thesis) that he/she is well acquainted with the methods and techniques of research used in the particular field of study and, that he/she is able to manage and apply these methods and techniques sufficiently. With regard to reporting, the student should convincingly be able to document the problem statement and objective(s), the research plan or design, working methods, results and conclusions (systematically, logically and persuasively). The work as a whole should testify to the candidate’s analytical abilities, critical focus and independent insight. The examiner is requested to adjudicate the thesis/dissertation/treatise thoroughly according to the above requirements (Auriacombe 2001:2).

WRITING AND PRESENTING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL ifferent methodology books and sciences have various frameworks that can be used when writing a research proposal. However, the actual headings used are not as important as answering the “What?”, “Why?”, “How?”, “Who?”, “Where?” and “When?” (Du Plooy 2002:88) questions: C.J. Auriacombe

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• What is to be researched/investigated? • Why is the research/study to be undertaken? • What are the aim and study objectives of the research? • What are the research questions or hypothesis (if any)? • How is the research going to be conducted? • Who is the target population (involved)? • Where will the study take place? • What contribution will the study make? • When will the research take place? Once the student is clear on all the above issues, the following information (cf. Du Plooy 2002:88) should be provided in the presentation of a proposal: • The main area of study (e.g. public administration); • The aim/goal and study objectives; • The main problem (statement of the problem) and assumptions (if any); • The research problems/questions; sub-problems/sub-questions or hypothesis (if any); • In quantitative research: operational definitions of the most important constructs (to clarify whether data will be collected by observing, questioning or measuring); • In qualitative research: the questions, processes, relationships or patterns to be disco­ vered and/or developed.

FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS ASSOCIATED WITH THE WRITING OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS here are five major issues that have been identified as contributory factors in the difficulties experienced by students when preparing research proposals.

Writing skills The writing “coin” has two sides. It is both an art and a skill. Skills can be learnt but, universally, the art of writing is only available to those with a talent for the word. In South African higher education, supervisors are confronted with problems in this area that originate from several contexts. Some concern education, whether disadvantaged or inappropriate. Some concern language proficiency, with students for whom English may be a third or even lesser language. To complicate this issue, language has different levels of authority. Poetry speaks to the heart, an essay reflects the person, and academic discourse should be distinctly authoritative and more formal. This is a skill and can be learnt. But too often bridging courses focus on teaching the rudimentaries of grammar and spelling, neglecting to pay attention to the more important issues involved in “register”, the level and tone in which a message is pitched to reach a specific target audience. This is also a skill and can be learnt.

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Where the art of writing is concerned, help is more readily at hand than most people think. A good editor with an understanding of the subject matter and a flair for words will help most students on their way to present work of much better quality. This should be actively encouraged by supervisors/promoters in their dealings with post-graduate students. Students who can command the language in which they present their dissertations and theses, whether with the help of an editor or not, mean that supervisors/promoters can focus on matters of content. Presenting a well-written piece of research to an examiner also pays off – a myriad of grammatical errors distract the eye from the research contribution that a student has tried to make.

Critical thinking Critical thinking means reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe and/or do. Critical thinking involves questioning the available information to enable the student to go beyond it and form independent evaluations and opinions. Critical thought is independent thought. In short, it involves continually challenging what is learnt from newspapers, television, textbooks, instructors and other sources. At the same time, it implies the willingness to have a student’s own ideas tested by others as well as by him/herself. However, this calls for some fortitude; looking at the source of ideas and convictions is not always easy and may require personal courage. While critical thinking involves hard work and some degree of personal discomfort, it is a valuable part of the educational experience; essentially, it is what higher education is all about. There are several components or skills that are involved in critical thinking, including reasonableness, discipline, political correctness, open-mindedness, and creativity and courage.

Reasonableness Many argue that to think critically means to be objective. However, it is important to remember that no one reads, writes, or speaks completely objectively. For example, a textbook is a product of the knowledge and viewpoints of the authors. In fact, this very article is a product of the value the author places on readings, interests and preferences, as well as on readers’ independent thought and decision-making capability. Evaluations of material are also coloured by individual experiences and knowledge. Consequently, it must be acknowledged that it is difficult to expect people to rid themselves of personal perspectives and biases in an effort to be objective. However, the influence of these perspectives and biases can be minimised through attempts to remain reasonable. To say that some are reasonable is to say that they can be reasoned with. Thus, critical thinking is neither a solitary activity nor is it static. It involves processes of social interaction, good sense and practicality as well as idealism. One of the best challenges to illusion and dogma is to expose them to the light of open critical discussion in order to realise practical and realistic solutions to social problems. Another important point is that there are always at least two sides to every issue and every argument. If this were not true, there would be no need for critical thinking because everyone would agree. Moreover, other C.J. Auriacombe

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intelligent and well-meaning people can and often do disagree; answers are not always clear and disagreement is legitimate. Consequently, it is always best to acknowledge the reasonableness of the position of others. This is difficult for students to grasp. It is clear from proposals that they forget or do not realise that the capacity for reason is often limited by good judgement; being overly critical of the position of others fails to pay respect to their reasonableness, so too does a complacent acceptance of everything and anything that another has written or said. The art is to acknowledge the potential and constructiveness in arguing, and yet remain free to disagree. This is seriously lacking among post-graduate students.

Discipline Critical thinking is not simply checking a box or filling in a word. It involves thinking things through where linkages may neither be clear nor the path well laid. It requires a dedication to the realm of “ideas”; conviction to reasoned thought as opposed to illusion. This is where the “science” part of the discipline Public Administration comes into play. Science assumes common experience, rigour and exploration. Again, this is obviously lacking among many students.

Open-mindedness Critical thought is not possible in a closed mind. This does not exclude having settled beliefs and commitments, but it does imply openness to new perspectives and a willingness to listen to, and possibly learn from others. Students have to be stimulated to get an idea of where they stand on an issue. They should be encouraged to try to find someone with a very different view. Finally, these should be weighed up against each other with an open mind; if there is some common ground for agreement or disagreement, the potential to make an original contribution to a chosen discipline through research increases significantly.

Creativity Formulating hypotheses, alternative ways of viewing a problem, question, possible solution, and plans for investigating something, for example, are all creative acts that are linked to creative thinking.

Reading and viewing critically It is impossible to think critically about any topic if a student does not know enough about it. Reading, study and discussion are vital parts of the learning process. As students engage in the process, however, they should question and take notes on the following issues: • What are the major points? • What is the supporting evidence? • How good is the evidence (does it support the statement)? • Does the evidence address possible counter-arguments? • What are some additional counter-arguments? • Is important information left out of the argument? • Is unnecessary information included in the argument?

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• How does the information presented relate to what is already “known” and to other information sources? Students can only engage in critical thinking if they can prepare the way through critical reading. Again, this is a skill that can be learnt. Its absence, however, is often quite clearly reflected in the proposals that are submitted for post-graduate research. Students fail to remember that a strong argument will identify, address and refute the opposing position. Critical thinking is a tool that can be used to arrive at reasoned conclusions based on a thoughtful reasonable process. This process incorporates passion and creativity, but guides it with discipline, practicality and common sense.

Purposes of research Students are sometimes unaware of and often do not have an understanding of the overarching purposes of research. For example, the three purposes served by common social science research are briefly outlined below.

Exploration An exploration is conducted to explore a topic and to provide some familiarity with the topic. This approach is typical when a researcher is examining a new interest, or when the subject of study is itself relatively new and unexplored. Three purposes of exploratory studies are to: • satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding; • test the feasibility of undertaking a more detailed study; and • develop the methods to be employed in a more detailed study

Description A major purpose of many social studies is to describe situations and events. The researcher observes and then describes what was observed. Polls conducted during South African political election campaigns have the purpose of describing the voting intentions of the electorate.

Explanation Reporting voting intentions of an electorate is a descriptive activity, but reporting why some people plan to vote for candidate A and others for candidate B is an explanatory activity. While it is useful to distinguish the three purposes, it should be mentioned that most studies would have elements of all three.

Research planning and design Students often do not have the necessary insight into and background of what a research design entails when undertaking research at masters’ level. A research design is simply a plan – or blueprint – to allow the student to test the validity of a hypothesis or answer C.J. Auriacombe

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research questions, taking into account the factors that might affect the relationship between dependent and independent variables. There are many kinds of research designs. Some are qualitative, others are quantitative, and some combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. During the planning phase the student needs to answer the several questions. What kind of data is required? Secondary data is data on the research project/study already collected by others. Often there is a wealth of information and data available on a research question, in which case it may not be cost effective or necessary to conduct a whole new research project to answer the research question. Primary data is original data gathered through a research study. Under primary data two types of data can be distinguished: • Qualitative data aims not to generalise about the specified population, but to uncover new ideas from, or hidden feelings/beliefs of respondents. Qualitative data collection is usually done with small numbers of respondents using unstructured (not unplanned) interviews. This includes methods such as focus groups, one-on-one in-depth interviews and observational methods. • Quantitative data aims to generalise about a specific population, based on the results of a representative sample of that population. Quantitative research generally involves the collection of primary data from large numbers of individuals and projecting the results to a wider population. Some methods are mail surveys, telephone interviews, personal interviews, panels and diaries.

Variables The issue of variables is the bugbear of many students. They often do not understand the concept or how it is used in research. Simply put, a variable can be seen as something that can take on different values, e.g. gender, age, social and economic status, political power, educational level. Independent variables can be thought of as a potential cause, influence, or something that affects outcomes. Dependent variables are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variable. Intervening variables intervene between independent and dependent variables. It is the relationship between these varia­ bles that is the weakest link in students’ control over the material they have gathered for analysis. Variables are also connected to the unit(s) of analysis.

Unit of analysis Issues concerning the unit of analysis in a research proposal are usually evident in the title of the proposal. It is one of the challenges in preparing a research design that students often fail to come to grips with. The title may include several units of analysis, which would indicate a potentially unfocused topic and one that is too wide in scope. This is reflected in the problem statement and the subsequent study objectives. The unit of analysis refers to the object(s) being studied; e.g. individuals, groups, geographical units, or any other issue on which information can be gathered. Research focused on individuals

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is referred to as the individual level of analysis. With groups or geographical units, this is called the aggregate level or aggregate analysis. Students often confuse the concepts “variable” and “unit of analysis”. Variables are properties of units. For example, “years of education” (a variable) is a property of an individual (unit of analysis). An ecological fallacy occurs when conclusions are drawn about one unit on the basis of information about another. For example, a false conclusion will be drawn if a student studies at the University of Johannesburg and makes conclusions about university students at another institution based on this information. An example is a hypothesis that states either that: • The 1998 Housing Act will decrease homelessness in South Africa; or • There will be no positive relationship between the 1998 Housing Act and homelessness in South Africa. The dependent variable is the 1998 Housing Act. The independent variable is homes/ homelessness in South Africa. The unit of analysis may be either individuals or organisations/government providing homes for the homeless.

Control variables One of the purposes of conducting research is to be able to test hypotheses. Testing simply occurs to determine whether the collected data support the hypothesis. Many times, the hypothesis may appear to be valid only because of the effects of one or more other variables (intervening variables). For example, homes in South Africa may decrease due to reasons other than the 1998 Housing Act, e.g. urban-related factors or economic factors. Control variables are intervening variables that must be accounted for in testing the strength of the hypothesised relationship. In choosing control variables to be considered in an analysis, the following question applies: What factors are most likely to be related to both the independent and dependent variable? The following are common factors to consider: • Demographic characteristics of the individual, state, or locality – differences in e.g. educational level, urbanisation, social class, ethnicity, age, gender, are related to differences in the kinds of outcomes that are explored. • Historical trends – before making any conclusion on the impact of the 1998 Housing Act, historical patterns should be considered. • Political and economic factors – ask whether there are policies or political and economic circumstances beyond what are examined that might affect the dependent variable.

PROBLEMS ARISING IN THE RESEARCH DESIGN PHASE OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES AT UNIVERSITIES ut what are the challenges raised by inadequate proposals submitted to universities? To refer back to the analogy of the architect or builder: to plan a house and its foundations that will comply with prescribed standards and will withstand the test of time, specific tasks need to be fulfilled first before the plan is drawn. There is a certain C.J. Auriacombe

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sequential logic to this process, a logic that all students have not yet grasped. Proposals often seem to be a mere idea of a potential topic, without considering how this will be addressed in practice, whether there is enough information available to provide the context and background for such a study. In short, before a proposal can be made, specific research needs to be carried out to be able to draw the “plan”. It is clear that certain research issues constantly hamper the process of drawing up acceptable research proposals. More specifically, the inability of some students to define a specific problem clearly and to translate this into research questions often gives rise to proposals that are inadequate. Some students are caught up in what they want to do about the specific problem to such an extent that they have difficulty in stating the purpose or objective of the study. Students also often experience difficulties in creating the statement that will be the guiding and organising principle of the study. Once the problem has been identified (for example, described in the background and rationale), it needs to be transformed into a general research question. This is the single question or hypothesis that best states the overall objective of the research. The use of such a question serves to focus the study more keenly and produces research results of a much better quality. However, without this guiding question or the statement of a hypothesis, executing the actual research becomes a process in danger of veering wildly off the mark. Once the overall objective or research question has been defined, this needs to be broken down into its constituent parts or the relevant investigative questions. Investigative questions are those that will provide answers in different parts that will, in combination, answer the overall question or fulfil in the overall objective. This is usually where students make the real contribution to research. On masters’ level, they prove that they can master information and on doctoral level that they can do original research. However, failure to break an overall objective into its constituent parts seems to indicate that students need significant support in achieving this. Further, students often fail to show clearly how they are going to proceed with their research to achieve the purpose. In this regard, the theoretical foundation is often lacking and the methodology not sufficiently outlined. The rationale of whether it will be a qualitative or quantitative study, or a mixture of the two, is also not always clearly explained. This may be caused by a lack of insight but may also be the result of insufficient foundational skills in critical thinking. This would allow the student to identify whether a study would be descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, evaluative, comparative, historical, theory building or applied. This list is not exhaustive, but merely an indication of the wide range of potential approaches available to students. Resulting from the point just raised, the task of data collection and data analysis could proceed with greater clarity. However, proposals have shown that analytical, evaluative and assessment skills are not always evident. Key questions, such as whether the data supports, confirms or disproves a hypothesis, cannot be asked if the question is not clearly defined and the way in which data and information will be gathered to address this question not adequately mapped. In turn, this can only be answered if a proper literature review has been done. Other matters of concern include writing; for example, writing style appropriate for formal research; proper documentation (referencing and bibliographies); and conforming

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to the formatting requirements of the university. What are the criteria for an acceptable proposal or, in other words, what are the building blocks of research assuming each part is well conceived, well written and substantively presented in steps where appropriate? In the case of qualitative studies, some of these building blocks will not apply, for example, sampling. However, there is a clear sequential logic in the issues listed below, with one leading to the next: • A clearly defined purpose or objective: This is one of the most important parts of the foundation of any study. What do you want to achieve and why? • The statement of the research problem or question (reflecting, for example, an ­interest, idea or theory): The purpose of the research will indicate whether the answer to the research question requires any of the following activities: an exploration, description, explanation, evaluation, or a combination of these types. • Unit or units of analysis: What or who is being studied? Is it a group(s), an organisation(s), an individual, or individuals within a specific group? Is it a phenomenon, an event or series of events, piece of legislation, history, etc.? • Conceptualisation: What is the meaning of the concepts and variables to be studied? • The literature review: What literature is available? What is missing from the literature? What kinds of literature are available? • The selection of the research method: Is the study mainly qualitative, quantitative or a combination of both? • Research: What kind of research is required to fulfil the objective of the study? Field research, survey research, content analysis, comparative or evaluative research? • Level(s) of measurement: To what degree does the collected data have to be m ­ easured? • Population and sampling: Who are to be included in the research to be able to draw conclusions about what? Who will be observed and for what purpose? • Observations: How should data be collected for analysis and interpretation? • Data processing: How will the collected data be transformed into a form appropriate for manipulation and analysis? • Analysis: How will this data be used for analysis and to draw conclusions on the findings of the analysis? • Application: How will the results be reported and their implications assessed? The difficulty is that universities are sometimes confronted with students who are clearly not presenting proposals of an adequate standard. However, some of them show potential and provision has to be made for the fact that external factors often contribute to the quality of their work.

ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN ASSISTING STUDENTS WITH PREPARING RESEARCH PROPOSALS f students show potential, universities would be wise to approach this as an opportunity to contribute to their learning and growth by mentoring them. For example, academic tailor-made workshops and educational material relevant to writing proposals and planC.J. Auriacombe

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ning research, as well as language centres go a long way towards addressing students’ language and research skills needs (cf. Science and Technology Policy Series 1995:79). Subject librarians provide assistance to students with literature searches, information on the use of libraries and linkages to electronic sources. Good supervisors/promoters are also scholars and will most probably have many ideas on research topics that they have come across or thought about, but will never have the time to work on. If not this, they can at least tell students where to start reading and searching. Like an architect, some supervisors/promoters have developed a kind of “blueprint” or model that students can apply to their proposals. Where this has been applied, it has become evident that such a model assists them in developing the skills necessary to undertake and document research even if they are not able to undertake a more difficult empirical study (cf. Science and Technology Policy Series 1995:xii, 61,62). This sometimes leads to criticism from colleagues who might feel that students should be left to show their own mettle. This is a difficult choice to make. Should students with potential but not enough skills be left to their own devices, or should a blueprint be provided to them while simultaneously increasing the gradient of their learning curve significantly to equip them to do such research more independently in future? Without fail, however, the end result can be students who are able to complete their studies successfully. A blueprint or model consists of an outline for the research proposal that is quite simple. It provides a logical order for the contents of the proposal, although there is some room for the unique requirements of individual proposals. The proposal forms the basis of the first chapter of the actual dissertation or thesis, and if it is well thought out and presented initially in this phase, should be appropriate to use in the final document with some small amendments. The outline should include the following: • Title – this should be succinct, to the point and stating clearly what will be the topic of the research. • Introduction – this is meant to introduce the proposal and what it will contain. • Background/rationale to the study or research problem – this should provide any relevant information that leads to the definition of the research problem. A rationale usually serves as a succinct statement of how the researcher came to develop an interest in the proposed topic; and why the researcher believes the proposed research is worth doing. It also briefly describes the background to the research problem so that the reader will be able to understand the context of the problem. The rationale in the research proposal should be brief and to the point. Long background descriptions that are not immediately relevant to the research problem(s) should be avoided (Auriacombe 2001: 44). • Motivation for the study – this should indicate reasons why the student believes it is important to undertake this research and what kinds of problems and solutions it could possibly address. The importance and practical relevance of the research for public administration practitioners must also be motivated. This section can also be integrated into the background and rationale for the study, if it is included in the proposal. The following general aspects offer some ideas which can be elaborated upon, depending on the nature of the study: it must contribute to existing knowledge (in practice, policy

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and/or theory); if applicable to policy areas, it should make a contribution to new policy guidelines; it could contribute to information that can be used to solve real-world problems (cf. Du Plooy 2003:89). Arguments about how the proposed study will solve a problematic issue or will assist people, for example, with sustainable development, must be specified. The motivation must therefore contain a clear indication of who will ultimately benefit from the findings. • Problem statement and research problem/research questions – these are the underlying guides for the study and should focus on the specific route that the student will take to reach conclusions or answers at the end of the study. The research problem can be formulated as an open-ended question. An open-ended question is one in which the content or nature of the answer or response is not specified (Du Plooy 2002:1). A research problem can also be formulated as a statement with proposed methods, a statement with action and/or a statement specifying variables. Each research problem should be analysed and broken down into related sub-problems that can facilitate the solution of sub-sections of parts of the main problem (Du Plooy 2002:52). To identify sub-problems relevant to the main research problem, those factors (or variables) that are relevant to solving the main problem need to be identified. • Hypothesis (optional) – where possible and appropriate, the problem statement can be translated into a hypothesis that can either be proved to be true, false or inappropriate to the specific study. Hypotheses are tentative answers to research questions (problems). Hypotheses represent informed “suppositions” relating to the topic, which are still to be verified or proved wrong by means of logical testing as well as analyses of data and information (Auriacombe 2001:48). As in the case of research problems, the main hypothesis to be proved should be formulated precisely, so that the reader will understand it. Any sub-hypotheses derived from the main hypothesis that will receive attention should be related to the main hypothesis, must be consistent in terms of available facts and theories, and described as simply and concisely as possible (Auriacombe 2001:48). • Study objectives – these would indicate the specific constituent parts in the process of answering the research question and, most of the time, will refer to the sequence of specific chapters. When a study has several objectives in answering the research questions, they should be presented in order of importance (e.g. if a descriptive objective depends on undertaking an exploratory study, the latter should be described first (Du Plooy 2003:89). Study objectives can also be presented in the chronological order of chapters. Descriptions of the objectives can be guided by answering the following questions (Du Plooy 2003:88): If the objective is exploratory: what is to be explored? If the objective is descriptive: who/what is to be described, when, where and, sometimes, why? If the objective is explanatory: what, who, when, where, how and why does X (independent variable) affect the what, who, when, where and why of Y (dependent variable)? Note that each objective can be investigated using a different research design and different methods of investigation. For instance, focus-group interviews can be conducted with an availability sample to test initial assumptions (exploratory objective), followed by a survey questionnaire of a representative sample of a specified population (descriptive objective) (Du Plooy 2003:89).

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• Terminology – this provides the opportunity to clarify the meanings of specific terms used throughout the study. However, if a specific term(s) have to be defined as part of the objectives of the study, such terms would not be discussed in the proposal, but would warrant a longer exploration and explanation, before arriving at a single definition to be used throughout the study. Precise definitions should be given for the particular terminology to be used in the study, especially if these terms are unfamiliar. • Method of research and/or data collection – these would provide information about how literature and information will be collected and studied and, if quantitative methodology is used, how this will be applied in the course of collecting data. The theoretical premises to be followed in the research should be reviewed. The research design to be applied, and research method to be used, with reference to secondary and primary sources, also have to be described (Du Plooy 2003:91). In a quantitative study, one or more of the following methods is selected and must be motivated: a survey, one of the field research methods, content analysis, an experimental or a quasi-experimental design. The motivation of the selection must be related to the nature of the problem to be studied, study objectives, population parameters, the geographic area and the time dimension. The research methods should also include an indication (and motivation) of the probability or non-probability sampling methods to be used. The data-collection method (observing, questioning, measuring, or a combination of these) also has to be briefly described (Du Plooy 2003:91). • Demarcation of the study – this would provide details of the limitations that would apply to the study, and could include e.g. gender, age, groups, for example cultural groups, geographic borders, time limitations, hierarchic dimensions, statistical sampling. Acknowledging limitations empowers the reader to appreciate what constraints were imposed on the study, and to understand the context in which the research claims are set (Auriacombe 2001:49). • Proposed classification of chapters – this would provide the framework or summary of the research presented in the thesis or dissertation. There are many other examples that will apply. The above serve as samples of the issues that are involved in assisting students to prepare research proposals of a s­ uitable standard.

CONCLUDING REMARKS niversities seem to be shifting toward a more facilitative approach with special attention being paid to assist students in overcoming historical and other disadvantages. However, universities should more directly confront the question of what norms are relevant in making and evaluating decisions with regard to students who have completed programmes such as the MPA degree – with a dissertation of limited scope as requirement – when they enrol for doctoral studies that require a full research thesis. Beyond this, universities should seriously reconsider not only the requirements for admitting students to masters’ and doctoral research degrees, but also how they will assist them in developing the appropriate skills at undergraduate level that will prepare them

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for further studies. The danger of too great a focus on overcoming the present challenges is that those involved forget to pay attention to the students rising from below through the ranks of undergraduate programmes. Unless universities act proactively to provide them with solid foundational skills, the current difficulties will only be perpetuated. This responsibility can be likened to Dror’s (1994:xv) division between “ordinary” and “higher order” tasks in governance. He said: “In contrast to the ‘ordinary’ tasks of governance, such as collecting taxes, assuring security, transfer payments, providing social services, etc., higher order tasks involve significant efforts to shape the future and put societies on a new trajectory.” To equip a student to think critically and clearly, and to plan and execute a research project that addresses a clearly defined objective and problem can only serve to enhance the quality of the public service and of policy implementation in South Africa in the longer term. It is the responsibility of universities to undertake this task. In small part, this may be an important legacy that universities can leave behind for the well being of future generations and this country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Auriacombe, C. J. 2001. Guidelines for drawing up research proposals and preparing theses/dissertations. Pretoria: University of South Africa. Bell, J. 1990. Doing your Research Project. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Dror, Y. 1994. The Capacity to Govern. London: Frank Cass. Du Plooy, G.M. 2002. Communication Research: Techniques, methods and applications. Pretoria: Juta. Krathwohl, D. 1988. How to Prepare a Research Proposal: Guidelines for Funding and Dissertations in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York: Syracuse University Press. Mouton, J. 2001. How to succeed in your Master’s and Doctoral Studies: A South African Guide and Resource Book. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Musiker, R. 1980. Style guide for theses and dissertations. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand. Science and Technology Policy Series. January 1995. Strategic Issues in the Development of High-level Human Resources. (4). Pretoria: Directorate for Science and Technology Policy, Foundation for Research Development. Vithal, R. & Jansen, J. 1997. Designing your first Research Proposal: A Manual for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences. Kenwyn: Juta & Co Ltd.

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