show how such strategies create tension in the region, since primary focus is given ... Tashkumur, Shamaldysai, and Uch-Kurgan, the most important one is the ...
Front. Environ. Sci. Engin. China 2009, 3(2): 221–225 DOI 10.1007/s11783-009-0015-6
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Problems of Syrdarya river basin management Serdar EYEBERENOV, Baijing CAO, Fengting LI (✉) UNEP-TONGJI Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag 2009
Abstract Prior to independence, Central Asian countries were closely interconnected through the regional management incorporating water, energy, and food sectors. This approach, supported by the central government of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), functioned effectively – meeting the needs of both upstream and downstream countries. However, after independence, Central Asian countries started prioritizing their own economic development policies without due account to regional concerns such as joint use of water resources, leading to instability. In this study, the case of Syrdarya basin was investigated to show how such strategies create tension in the region, since primary focus is given to national interests, without consideration for regional problems. To address this issue, an integrated approach to incorporating water, energy, and agriculture is needed. It is suggested that a single sector approach on water alone does not lead to stability, and a multi-sectoral approach is necessary to ensure sustainable development. Countries sharing benefits from the river have to be responsible for costs of operation and maintenance of the water facilities. Keywords Central Asia, energy, agriculture, water, Syrdarya basin
1
Introduction of Syrdarya basin
The five land-locked border to border countries Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan make up Central Asia today. Water resources in the region are mainly represented by Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers, both flowing into the Aral Sea. Syrdarya is one of the two main rivers serving Aral basin. It is formed by the confluence of Naryn and Karadarya tributaries both originating in Kyrgyzstan. The river originates in Tien Shan mountain of Kyrgyzstan and Received June 2, 2008; accepted December 30, 2008 E-mail: fengting@mail.tongji.edu.cn
passes through Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and south Kazakhstan, and discharges into the Aral Sea (see Fig. 1). The tributary Naryn has five reservoirs, Togtogul, Kurpsai, Tashkumur, Shamaldysai, and Uch-Kurgan, the most important one is the multi-purpose Togtogul reservoir built in the 1970s. The reservoir has a storage capacity of 1.451010 m3 and is used to regulate variations in river flows maximizing its irrigation potential. It is also used to produce hydropower. The operation of hydropower dams is the focus of water and energy conflicts in Central Asia. During Soviet times, utilization of water did not correspond to the interests and administrative boundaries of Central Asian republics. The largest rivers of the region were managed according to the borders of the river basin. Water management policies were set up by the Ministry of Water and Land Reclamation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR); and water authorities of Central Asia (CA), being extensions of the mentioned ministry, were responsible for fulfilling the programs and plans developed by the head office. Provision of data was their role in the decision making process. In the Soviet regional basin framework, dams were built in upstream mountain countries (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and irrigation areas (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan) in downstream countries in the valleys and steppes. Water from dams was released during summer and autumn for irrigation. The focus on production of cotton in the region was an issue since the time of the Tsars when Russia was a monarchy. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 did not bring change to the economic specialization of the region. Production of cotton was still given high priority. In 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, the general secretary of the USSR, initiated virgin land policy. The objectives of this policy were to increase the agricultural productivity of lands. Huge areas of land were cultivated in Western Siberia and Kazakhstan. Khrushev also promoted the idea of expanding the irrigated areas in Central Asia. Irrigated land in Central Asia had increased from 4.5106 hectares in 1965 to 7106 hectares by early 1990s.
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Fig. 1
Aral Sea basin of Central Asia1)
However, enhancing irrigation productivity equal to distribution of water was not taken into account (see Table 1). In the regional water management system of the former Soviet Union, upstream and downstream countries did not have conflicts. Priority was given to irrigation; therefore, upstream countries did not produce hydroelectricity even in winter season when it was most needed, and released water during summer for agricultural needs of downstream countries. The lack of energy in upstream countries was compensated by Russia and downstream countries with supplies of oil, gas, and coal for the release of water. Barter Table 1
Water flow in the Aral sea basin watershed/km3 [1]
country
Amudarya
Afghanistan
6.18
Syrdarya –
trade scheme was subsidized from Moscow. In addition, strong centralized form of governance allowed successful implementation of this scheme. However, with independence, the regional approach was at risk due to absence of subsidies. Water disputes over water use arose between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, resulting from the need of upstream countries to generate electricity and downstream countries for irrigation [2]. To address this problem, there was a need to urgently develop a new approach considering the interests of both countries for the use of water. The international approach to water management has
total
water used in agriculture
water used in industry
6.18
–
–
Kazakhstan
–
4.5
4.5
27.41
6.26
Kyrgyzstan
1.9
27.4
29.3
9.5
0.59
62.9
1.1
10.96
0.91
Tajikistan
64
Turkmenistan
2.78
–
2.78
23.29
0.49
Uzbekistan
4.7
4.14
8.84
54.37
3.68
78.46
37.14
125.53
11.93
total
115.6
1) ADB. The study on water and energy nexus in Central Asia. 2002. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/CAREC/Water-Energy-Nexus/water-energynexus.pdf
Serdar EYEBERENOV et al. Problems of Syrdarya river basin management
been suggested by the International Conference on Fresh Water held in Bonn, Germany in 20011). In particular reference to internal and international boundaries, the report suggested that: “Water should be equitable and sustainably allocated, firstly to basic human needs and then to the functioning of ecosystems and different economic uses including food security” [3]. “Water can promote regional co-operation. Such cooperation across internal and international boundaries should be intensified as a means to share the upstream and downstream benefits” [3]. The concept addressed human and ecological sustainability which could be reached through better institutions and emphasizing the principle of hydrosolidarity of upstream and downstream water users; however, it said little as to how it can be achieved. The “shared benefits” that the report portrayed have a crucial dimension that allows it to work for all, especially for the downstream countries. In the case of hydroelectric power plant situated upstream and irrigation downstream, a win-win situation can be achieved only when water is released during the time it is needed; otherwise, the win-win situation turns into the zero-sum situation. Also, the international water law does not consider hydrological facilities that exist on international rivers.
2
Water management problems
2.1
Institutional aspects
After independence, new mechanisms of cooperation were developed very quickly. In 1992, Central Asian countries have reached an agreement “On Cooperation in the Field of Joint Water Resources Management and Conservation of Interstate Sources” reflecting principles of transboundary cooperation and emphasizing the need for joint actions in addressing the problems of the Aral Sea [4]. This agreement confirmed the rights of each country for its share and limits for water that existed during the USSR. On the basis of this agreement, an Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) was established. The commission was composed of ministers or delegates entrusted to represent state interests at quarterly meetings. The ICWC is the highest water management body in Central Asia and responsible for the joint management of Amudarya and Syrdarya basins [5]. There are two main executive bodies called Basin Water Organization (BVO) for Syrdarya and Amudarya, respectively. BVOs are responsible for the day-to-day operation of water supply facilities in both basins as well as monitoring water quality.
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Forecast provided by Hydrometeorology services is used to prepare water allocation plans for ICWC’s approval. These plans set the water releases from reservoirs and delivery to each country. Data collection and analysis on water resources in the basin are not comprehensive or transparent. Previous information system has not been replaced by a newly effective one. The speed of data analysis also remains inadequate. BVOs were originally established as regional organizations, whereas in fact they are subordinate to national water agencies; therefore, operation control and management are not totally in their hands. Both BVOs are located in Uzbekistan and staffed with Uzbeks specialists. This creates mistrust of other BVO countries in the region. 2.2
Resource allocation
Central Asian countries agreed to adhere to the water allocation which existed in USSR, and manage the basin water according to International Water Law which implies equitable and mutually beneficial water resource use. As shown in Table 1, the current water allocation is not equal. After independence all countries in the region started their own national strategy and food security. Downstream countries need to divert water away for cash crop and food crop production, and any upstream shift in water demands could reduce agriculture water availability in downstream countries. Privatization of land and collective farms in Kyrgyzstan only increased demand for water, since the number of water users has increased [6]. Agricultural sector is the largest sector of Kyrgyzstan’s economy and accounts for 36% of the country’s GDP [7]. The employment share of the sector accounts for 53% of the entire country’s population. However, water allocation for Kyrgyzstan did not increase. Some authors pointed that the allocation was the main cause for potential conflicts. “The key source of tension between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and between Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan is (water) allocation” [8]. The increase in water demand did not lead to state disputes over water. Disputes were related to different uses of water, such as water releases from Togtogul reservoir for hydropower in winter. When Uzbekistan stopped gas supplies in order to bargain about border delimitation with Kyrgyzstan, it was followed by water releases. Disputes on unequal water distribution did not occur. Release of water during winter has three consequences [9]: – causing floods; – making reservoir dry in summer;
1) Water—key to Sustainable Development: Recommendations for Action. Bonn: International Conference on Freshwater, 2001. http://www.water-2001.de/ outcome/BonnRecomendations/Bonn_Recommendations.pdf
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– reducing the available water for the Aral sea because of discharge to Arnasai depression (Uzbekistan). The changes in water utilization gave rise to disputes among upstream and downstream countries. In 1998 Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan adopted an interstate agreement “On the use of water and energy resources of the Syrdarya basin”; according to which Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan agreed to buy electricity from Kyrgyzstan and sell gas, coal, and oil to Kyrgyzstan in the winter. However, as some experts point out, this agreement “did not provide means of enforcement”. The price of hydropower is lower than that of oil and gas; hence, energy exchange leaves downstream countries at an advantage [10, 11]. 2.3
Service provision
As was mentioned earlier, the hydrological facilities during Soviet times were built in favor of enlarging irrigation. Therefore, dams were built according to basin sheds, not according to administrative shed management to benefit downstream users. Barter agreements are still conducted by the concerned parties, on the basis of which Kyrgyzstan can annually get gas from Uzbekistan and coal from Kazakhstan in exchange for water for irrigation during summer and autumn [12]. When the amount of water in the coming year is not known exactly, signing of the protocol is delayed. During high water level periods, irrigation needs of Uzbekistan are satisfied by small rivers and its tributaries; therefore, the country is not interested in fulfilling its obligations under the agreement on barter exchange. During low water level periods Kyrgyzstan tries to store water to generate electricity for its own needs. According to Article VII of the signed agreement “The Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers”, Kyrgyzstan alone is responsible for the maintenance of Togtogul reservoir. The water facilities are in very poor condition since they were all built in Soviet times, and thus reducing the amount of available water in the basin. Poor condition of the water facilities is attributed to economic difficulties in Kyrgyzstan. As a result of the poor condition of infrastructure, water is lost not only for downstream countries but also for Kyrgyzstan itself. The Agreement has no provision for possible low level of water, or economic changes in the region. Also, it has no provision for the protection of ecology in the basin. Kyrgyzstan, having no energy resources, regards water as a national good comparable to other natural resources such as oil and gas. On July 23, 2001, the president of Kyrgyzstan signed a law “On interstate use of hydrological facilities and water resources in Kyrgyzstan”. This law supports the idea that downstream countries should pay for the water they use, whereas until now this law has not had any effect on the downstream countries. Downstream
countries reacted negatively on this law. Treating water as a resource equal to oil and gas induces the question of transit payment, since the river is transboundary and passes through the territory of several countries. Oil is extracted from the ground, and in contrast water is not extracted and flows by itself. Although parties have committed not to violate the agreement, there is no effective mechanism for solving possible conflicts among the riparian countries. Principles stipulated in the preamble such as: – “countries followed the agreed procedure of Syr Darya Basin Water and Energy Uses” – Noting … water and energy resources to promote the economic growth of the countries “…benefits derived from the joint operation of the reservoirs of the Naryn-Syr Darya Cascade, through a multiyear flow regulation and flood control measures, including the use of water for irrigation and power generation” – “water and energy resources of the Syr Darya basin must be implemented with regards to the environmental safety of the region” – “the urgent need for the development of an efficient and coordinated water regime in the Syr Darya basin, taking into account the problems of the Aral Sea;” were not implemented in practice as portrayed in the article. As a result of this situation, both downstream countries are trying to solve this problem by building dams in order to lessen dependence on Togtogul reservoir of Kyrgyzstan. Uzbekistan, for example, is speeding up construction of reservoirs which would allow storage of water, i.e., absorb additional discharge water from Togtogul Reservoir in winter and release water for irrigation in summer. Kazakhstan has a similar approach to the problem.
3
Conclusions
Although the agreement is unable to resolve disputes among the countries, the positive side of this agreement is an attempt to manage transboundary resources in a sustainable manner by incorporating issues of energy and irrigation [13]. Speeding up the process of creating an international Water and Energy Consortium (WEC) proposed earlier by CA governments could facilitate optimal operation of reservoirs in accordance with the signed agreements, and bring investment in water and hydropower facilities. Once WEC is in place, given the plans of Kyrgyzstan to build more dams to meet its energy demands, it could promote trade in energy resources not only in the region, but also outside of it. Downstream countries could benefit from transmitting electricity to upstream countries, as the existing power grid of Central Asia allows this scenario.
Serdar EYEBERENOV et al. Problems of Syrdarya river basin management
Potential countries interested in importing energy could be Russia, China, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. However, consensus has not yet been achieved due to different views of countries on the role and the concept of the consortium1). The concept of integrated approach, taking into account interests of all the countries, has not found practical implementation. The study of Syrdarya river conflict has shown that unequal allocation of water is only one issue, which has not led to disputes so far and cannot be attributed to hydropower shortage alone. The main disputes between upstream and downstream countries rises when a win-win situation turns into a zero-sum game, namely when energy is detached from the water sector. The problem arising between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan can be overcome by joint use of the Togtogul reservoir. Expenditures for the maintenance should be shared by all countries. As was shown, reduction of repair works has resulted in decrease of water facilities and losses of water. It has negative effects on the population and the economy of the downstream countries. All the countries in the region are on the international river basins and in accordance with the Helsinki rules of 1966, acknowledged by all Central Asian countries, “a basin state may not be denied the present reasonable use of the waters of an international drainage basin to reserve for a co-basin state a future use of such waters”. Utilization and construction of new hydro facilities should be carried out on the basis of mutual agreement among the countries in the basin. It can be achieved only by signing a multilateral agreement among all the countries in the basin and initiating a commission on joint administration of transboundary water resources. Such a commission, among others, could serve as a mechanism addressing the issues of hydropower and irrigation, then mitigating the possibility of conflict between upstream and downstream countries. This study showed that the complex integrated water management disintegrated as a result of disintegration of the political economy. Therefore, dialogue should be continued with the assistance of international agencies such as United Nations (UN), and with the financial assistance of donors. The subsequent steps should be undertaken first of all in bringing closer the positions of the countries, and achieving consensus on joint use of water and hydro energy resources of the Syrdarya basin. Measures aimed at maximizing water and energy saving technologies should be given the highest priority.
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Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge financial support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) office in Asia and the Pacific.
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