Proceedings W102 - Special Track 18th CIB World Building Congress ...

Proceedings W102 - Special Track 18th CIB World Building Congress May 2010 Salford, United Kingdom

CIB W102 - Information and Knowledge Management in Building CIB Publication 349


 
 
 



 
 
 
 
 
 CIB
WORKING
COMMISSION
 W102
‐
INFORMATION
AND
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
IN
BUILDING
 
 
 


PAPERS
AND
POSTGRADUATE
PAPERS
FROM
THE
SPECIAL
TRACK
 HELD
AT
THE
CIB
WORLD
BUILDING
CONGRESS
2010,
10‐13
MAY
2010


THE
LOWRY,
SALFORD
QUAYS,
UNITED
KINGDOM
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Selected
papers
from
the
Proceedings
of
the
18th
CIB
World
Building
Congress.
 Proceedings
edited
by:
Professor
Peter
Barrett,
Professor
Dilanthi
Amaratunga,
Dr.
Richard
 Haigh,
Dr.
Kaushal
Keraminiyage
and
Dr.
Chaminda
Pathirage
 
 W102
Special
Track
Papers
(excluding
Postgraduate
Papers)
reviewed
by:
Prof.
Charles
Egbu
 and
Dr.
Milan
Radosavljevic
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CIB
Publication
349



 
 
 



 
 
 
 





W102
‐
INFORMATION
AND
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
IN
BUILDING
 PAPERS
AND
POSTGRADUATE
PAPERS
FROM
THE
SPECIAL
TRACK



 Information
is
an
all‐pervading
ingredient
in
building,
common
to
research
and
practice.
By
 giving
 proper
 consideration
 to
 the
 flow
 of
 information,
 research
 results
 can
 be
 usefully
 translated
 into
 innovation
 and
 further
 adapted
 to
 provide
 the
 knowledge‐base
 for
 best
 practice.
 In
 an
 environment
 in
 which
 the
 tools
 for
 making
 information
 available
 are
 developing
 at
 breakneck
 speed,
 it
 is
 necessary
 to
 manage
 the
 whole
 spectrum
 of
 information
forms
in
a
way
that
reflects
the
realities
of
decision‐making
in
modern
building
 practice.
In
this
context
the
objective
for
the
Working
Commission
is
to
cover
concerns
that
 are
 related
 to
 information
 and
 knowledge
 management,
 both
 theoretical
 and
 practical.
 Special
points
of
attention
include
interface
between
general
information
and
the
building
 process
and
especially
the
dysfunction
in
the
flow
of
information
between
researchers
and
 practitioners.
 The
 questions
 why
 research
 results
 are
 not
 put
 into
 practice,
 and
 how
 research
 results
 and
feedback
information
 can
 be
converted
and
 refined
to
be
of
 practical
 use
 will
 be
 considered
 and
 contemporary
 information
 systems
 bearing
 on
 the
 information
 needs
of
the
building
industry.


CONTENTS
 
 Papers
 
 Harnessing
Knowledge
Management
in
Restless
Organizations
 1
 Burke,
M.E.
 
 Partnering
as
a
Process
of
Unlearning
 14
 Hartmann,
A.
 
 Extracting
Knowledge
from
Post
Project
Review
Reports
 25
 Carrillo,
P.
Choudary,
A.
Harding,
J.
Oluikpe,
P.
 
 Developing
and
Managing
Knowledge
of
Construction
Methods
in
the
Swedish
Building
 39
 Sector
 Persson,
M.
 
 Knowledge
Discovery
of
User
Requirement
as
a
Way
to
Reduce
Construction
and
 50
 Demolition
Waste
 Gonzalez,
M.A.S.
Kern,
A.P.
 
 Information
and
Document
Management
System
for
Construction
Sites
 59
 Ribeiro,
F.L.
Vera‐Cruz,
M.A.
Serra,
P.V.
 
 Using
Social
Networks
to
Understand
Knowledge
Creation
in
Project
Environments
 70
 Kurul,
E.
 
 Building
Supply
Chain
Capital
Through
Knowledge
Management
in
Construction
Industry
 80
 Khalfan,
M.M.A.
Maqsood,
T.
 
 Capturing
and
Using
Knowledge
from
Construction
Projects
 92
 Ribeiro,
F.L.
Ferreira,
V.L.T.
 
 An
Information
Platform
for
the
European
Construction
Sector:
A
Feasibility
Study
 103
 Pezzuto,
G.
Cioffi,
M.
Mastrodonato,
C.
Bourdeau,
M.
Zarli,
A.
Rezgui,
Y.
Wilson,
I.E.
 
 Postgraduate
Papers
 
 A
Review
of
Knowledge
Management
Strategies
‐
Issues,
Contexts
and
Benefits
for
the
 114
 Construction
Industry
 Zin,
I.N.M.
Egbu,
C.
 
 Fuzzy
Expert
System
as
a
Decision
Support
Tool
in
the
Visual
Examination
Process
in
 129
 Building
Diagnostics
 Molnarka,
G.
 
 


Construction
Methods
Selection:
Lessons
Learned
from
Chile
 Ferrada,
X.
Serpell,
A.
 
 Collaborative
Design
Workshops:
Evolution
of
a
Workshop
Method
 Quanjel,
E.M.C.J.
den
Otter,
A.F.H.J.
Zeiler,
W.
 
 Enhancing
Quality
of
Lessons
Learned:
Evaluating
Knowledge
Management
Practices
 in
Project
Management
 Lo,
T.K.M.
Fong,
P.S.W.
 
 Influential
Individual
Factors
of
Knowledge
Sharing
Behavior
in
Hong
Kong
Construction
 Teams
 Zhang,
P.
Ng,
F.F.
 
 Exploring
Knowledge
Sharing
Strategies
of
Design
Practice;
Co‐location
 Bektas,
E.
Heintz,
J.L.
J.W.F.
(Hans)
Wamelink
 
 Key
Issues
for
Implementing
Knowledge
Management
in
Relational
Contracting
Project
 Settings
 Bakri,
A.S.
Ingirige,
B.
Amaratunga,
D.
 
 Knowledge
Management
to
Improve
the
Sustainability
of
Refurbishment
Projects
 Leblanc,
H.
Nitithamyong,
P.
Thomson,
C.S.
 
 The
Impact
of
Organisational
Size
on
the
Implementation
of
Knowledge
Sharing
 Practices
in
Quantity
Surveying
Firms
in
Malaysia
 Nor,
F.M.
Egbu,
C.
 
 The
Role
of
Knowledge
Management
in
Extra
Care
Sheltered
Housing
Provisions
 Egbu,
J.U.
Wood,
G.
 
 Issues
Associated
with
Knowledge
Sharing
Initiatives
in
Government
Agencies
in
 Malaysia
 Mohamed,
O.
Egbu,
C.
 
 
 CIB
Brochure
 
 Disclaimer


144
 156
 168


179


191
 205


222
 234


245
 256


268
 270


Harnessing Knowledge Management in Restless Organizations Burke, M. E. University of Salford, Salford, UK (email: [email protected])

Abstract This paper introduces the idea of a new label for organizations which find themselves to be so full of diversity and differences that they can be characterized as being “on the edge” of danger; yet these organizations have found a way to be something which is separate from that of the urban character; important, flexible, dynamic, and playing a central role in the development of new ideas. Within this uncertain environment there is a strong need to harness the power of good knowledge management, in order to keep the organization in position. This work is introductory and used a small sample as a pilot. The characteristics of urban and edgy organizations were all found to be evident in the leader’s style in higher education. However, it was identified that this type of leadership rests on two critical axis–Knowledge management (shared and open) and the overarching style of leadership (empowerment and encouragement). Keywords: knowledge management; turbulent environments; leaders; higher education.

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1. Introduction The turbulent external and internal environments in organizations need to be managed carefully in order to survive. Managing information, what has come to be known as knowledge management is a powerful tool which if used properly can guide and harness the organization into a stronger position which stops “drift” and can enhance the success of the organization. In times of constant shifting change, organizations can become “tired”. Tired in the sense of feeling that nothing is really new; that the organization has changed so much that it is difficult to focus; and that the messages embedded in the visions are so deeply buried they are difficult to communicate clearly. These organizations are usually operating in an environment which is unstable, turbulent, and difficult to forecast. However, organizations that identify with this analysis often try to solve difficulties by creating an image, a culture, a type of organization which is seen as “smart and corporate”, i.e. a textbook image of success. Whilst this can be successful, there must also be consideration of an alternative, that of an organization characterized by diversity, controlled chaos and constant restlessness. This type of organization can be labelled as “urban and edgy” as an organization which thrives on change and which does not endeavour to unify the culture, the outlook or the overarching vision. This new type of organization succeeds through acceptance, tolerance, respect, and by the creation of a strong sense of belonging. Success in this type of organization can depend on many variables, but rests on two critical axis–the way in which knowledge is managed throughout the organization (shared and open) and the particular type of leadership prevalent in that organization (empowerment and encouragement). (NB Paper adapted from Burke (2008) International Journal of Organizational Analysis Vol 16 1/2 pp50-60 Permission granted.)

The paper aims to address issues surrounding leadership in turbulent environments. These include definitions of key terms, a discussion of some aspects of epistemology, a brief exploration of the relevant literature; a discussion of leadership issues such as the leader as artist, actor and explorer and an examination of the characteristics of these newly identified “urban and edgy” organizations. The final section of the paper presents empirical evidence of how leaders today are choosing to function in a very uncertain environment, that of the higher education sector and the implications for the future of knowledge management.

2. The nature of leadership-defining key terms First, it is useful to start with definitions of key terms. The three key terms for this paper are “revitalized (organizations)”; “turbulent (environments)” and “leadership”. “Revitalized” can be defined as “to give new life and vitality to” whilst the term “turbulent” can be defined as “involving much conflict, disorder or confusion”. (Oxford, 2006). Leadership is more difficult to define as it is sometimes problematic to separate it from management. Bryman (2007) interprets leadership as “influencing the goal directed behaviour of others” and Stoner and Freeman (2000) as “directing and influencing the task related activities of group members”. Both these definitions deal with influencing others and empowering others towards a common goal and are therefore satisfactory definitions for our purposes. So, within the context of this paper, what we are actually examining is:

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[…] the influencing of task related activities of group members in order to give new life and vitality to organizations which operate within conflicting, confusing environments. However, in order to assert this influence towards the people, the task and the organization, a leader needs to have information; information about the state of the environment; information about the position and growth phase of the organization and information about motivation of the people. What is really needed is therefore not information, but knowledge. Tacit knowledge which is inherent within the mind and explicit knowledge which is set out in papers, reports and so on. Access to quality knowledge is a critical factor in the success of a leader–and in particular for the success of a leader who aims to “give new life and vitality to an organization in a conflicting environment”. It is important that a leader has a thorough grounding then, in the origins and ideas of knowledge-i.e. epistemology. Although there is not space in this paper to undertake a comprehensive review of all the relevant theories, it is useful to consider several different viewpoints in order to set the paper into context.

3. Epistemological considerations Knowledge is important in leadership as accurate knowledge is essential in order to make good quality decisions. Today knowledge as a concept is viewed in many ways, such as procedural, declarative, semantic and episodic knowledge including, as mentioned earlier, tacit and explicit knowledge. Indeed there are so many theories about knowledge that it is perhaps helpful to trace a few early ideas and look at what philosophy can offer in terms of enhancing our understanding. One of the early ideas about knowledge was created in Greece around five BC by a group of Athenian “intelligent sages” who came to be known as “Sophists”. Together, after much thought and discussion they decided that it was impossible to tell if any thing was really true, and thus they developed a particular way of leading one's life. This was achieved by a consideration that all things should be measured according to man's needs and wants. Hence the saying “Man is the measure of all things” which was attributed to Protagoras, one of the founding members of the Sophist movement. The Sophist philosophy was based on “training for success” by establishing schools, which trained people how to speak and act in terms of the persuasiveness of the argument that could then be used to best advantage in, for example, the political arena. The criticism of this theory however was that it was not based on positive, sound, established knowledge and can be seen to lack integrity and to some extent honesty–although the Sophist would argue that their epistemology was more honest than most in that they were not alluding to know anything–but freely admitting that they knew nothing (for certain). Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) approached the theory of knowledge from a different perspective by considering the limitations of what we can truly know. He posited that there are two different kinds of limitations in existence. The first is concerned with the view that “what actually exists makes up total reality” The second limitation concerns the fact that human beings can only know of things which we are able to experience and understand. Kant believed that the most astute way of understanding the world and our knowledge of it–could be discovered through science–in that science was seen as a discipline which could measure, experiment and provide solutions to all things. Yet within this view

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of science, as humans we are still able to exercise a free will that is difficult to measure and quantify. Kant dealt with this problem by stating that science cannot be applied to all aspects of humans because science cannot reach what he termed the “noumenal world” (the world which science cannot measure). Kant tried to understand that it is not just the empirical world that exists and is governed by scientific laws–but that a non-empirical world also exists in which humans have free will–even if as a race we are not yet capable of fully understanding that world. Other writers, such as Weber writing in the 1940s was concerned with legitimate authority. He examined knowledge from a sociological viewpoint and considered the subjective meaning that people attach to actions in different social situations. He then attempted to classify the actions according to a typology that created a knowledge-base of actions associated with emotions. In his work, he was aiming to prove that emotions were becoming less important and that rationality based on logic and knowledge were becoming more important in the achievement of goals. This work formed the basis of Weber's push towards bureaucracies as the most efficient way of organizing tasks and thus achieving goal fulfilment. Weber was also viewed as an “idealist” in that ideology should mould the beliefs of society–yet Weber has been criticized for narrowness in his thinking–for being inward rather than outward looking in his views. How then, does Weber's controlled bureaucracy sit with Kant's notion of free will? It is difficult to align these views, yet by their very diversity we are able to note that problems of knowledge, reality and truth are difficult and what is important is that all facets of the epistemological problem are still pursued today. Leaders who are familiar with current and new developments will no doubt enhance their own performance as a leader and in doing so engage the people in the organization, thus helping to change, resurrect and revitalize a failing organization. Managers need knowledge in order to enhance competitiveness; “organizational learning” and “knowledge” are two of the key characteristics of successful organizations. Bhatt (2000) considers that although both individual knowledge and organizational knowledge are acknowledged, there tends to be a lack of procedures and cultures that could help to merge both these kinds of knowledge. He suggests that the leaders who operate in organizations which have turbulent environments need skills which would encourage mergers of these kinds of knowledge, e.g. ensuring that knowledge is shared and open; that sources are trustworthy; that people are treated with respect, that ideas are credited to individuals and so on. These skills are concerned with nurturing, fairness and transparency, but also with a need to instil a culture of openness and trust. The creation and nurturing of trust in an organization which is constantly in turmoil is a critical issue, and it is vital to achieve this through a leadership centred on empowerment and encouragement.

4. Analysis of the turbulent environment At the start of the paper we had identified the “tired” organization and that these types of organizations are usually operating in an environment which is unstable, turbulent and difficult to forecast. We will now further explore this area by considering the characteristics and solutions of organizations operating within this turbulent environment.

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Ideal types of organizational environments were originally conceived by Emery and Trist (1965). This classic work on types of organizational environments identified those that operate in turbulent fields as being dynamic and leading to an “increase in the organizations area of uncertainty”. They suggested one way forward was to respond by changing the organizations' structure and creating a kind of “organizational matrix” hierarchy, which is fluid yet stable enough to deal in a reasonably satisfactory way with the turbulence. Terreberry (1968) extended these ideas and considered that whilst organizational change is externally induced, what was (then) seen as important was the need for an organization to have the internal mechanisms to respond in a flexible way. Cameron and Mying (1987)) investigated attributes connected with organizational decline and turbulence. The research was carried out in US higher education establishments and the characteristics most notable in those establishments (then operating in an arena of decline and turbulence) were increased conflict; turnover; resistance to change; centralization and the “scapegoating” of the leader. The analysis showed that leaders are affected in their decision making process more by turbulence than by decline whilst other members of the organization were affected (in their decision processes) by decline but not by turbulence. The writers suggested that this was loosely connected to the effects of uncertainty on the different levels of the organization. Smart and Vertinsky (1984) suggested that the type of external environment in which the firm operates and the decisions made restrategic choice are ultimately dependant on the costs of introducing change into the organization. For example, if the costs are high and the change is already high risk, this would need to be balanced against the costs of maintaining the “status quo”. Other ideas have included the encouragement of dynamic competence (SubbaNarasimha, 2001)-i.e. the competent production of, and access to, knowledge, in order to improve the performance of the organization; strategies regarding oil companies and strategic planning in turbulent environments, stressing the importance of adaptativness and responsiveness (Grant, 2003) and a study on the effects of environmental turbulence on new product development strategy planning, (Calantone et al., 2003) concluding that an increase in risk taking (in terms of decision and investments) may help to alleviate the uncertainty inherent in this kind of environment. Souba (2003) writing about the US health service comments that “the emphasis is now on contracting, marketing, performance indicators and accountability,” and takes issue with the lack of training of leaders who can cope, perform and achieve in that kind of turbulent environment. In general terms, the literature broadly proposes that a more decentralized, fluid structure works best in changing, dynamic uncertain environments. The implications for leadership appear to be that adaptability, i.e. to be able to adjust to new external environmental conditions, and flexibility, i.e. the ability to change and adapt internally to different circumstances, at short notice, are critical factors in the success of leading such organizations. The organizations which are under discussion in this paper are those which operate within an arena of uncertainty, controlled chaos and constant restlessness and we have labelled this type of organization “urban and edgy” as an organization which may be “ on the edge” of other major players, and

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therefore enjoys the complexities of the competition, the constant thrill of change, encourages a diverse outlook, enjoys the danger of high risks and in doing so is able to display many differing visions of the future. However, one of the keys to leading such an organization is that there needs to be a strong brand image which somehow binds together the disparate influences, makes a strong statement internally and externally and encourages ownership of the values of the organization. We have now defined key terms, discussed some aspects of epistemology, and briefly explored the literature regarding organizations and their environments. In the next section of the paper, we will further examine the characteristics of these newly identified “urban and edgy” organizations.

5. Characteristics of “urban and edgy” organizations The aim of our paper is to address issues surrounding the revitalizing of organizations in turbulent environments and the suggestion is for a new identification of revitalized organizations, distinct from the standard, traditional image of organizational success. Yet what is the traditional image of a successful organization? Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) identified four major organizational models as follows. First, the “Team” a “human relations” model which places emphasis on people and their motivational issues, second, the “Ad hocracy”, an “open systems” model which emphasized the importance of systems and builds people and processes around those systems and third the “Firm” a “rational goal model” which emphasizes planning and sets out a deliberate strategy with plans to follow through. The fourth model is the “Hierarchy” an “internal process model” which encourages emphasis on the process and functions of the organization. All these models have their place, yet the model we are describing here does not seem to have a close fit with any of these structures. These new urban and edgy (Burke, 2008) organizational models thrive on change; celebrate differences although it is difficult to identify a particular model. For example, the evidence gathered for this study was based in higher education institutions which operate as reasonably standard bureaucracies and in doing so manage somehow to be successful. What then are the specific characteristics of urban and edgy organizations? They are not labelled as such in the literature, yet the brand of “dangerous, maverick, different, unstable” organizations has always been around. So, are we inventing a new label for an existing phenomenon? Yes, to some extent this is true. But what is also true is that all these characteristics have never been as prevalent as today in the 21st century. Organizations are now so competitive externally, so competitive internally for scarce resources and therefore heavily reliant on the ability of leaders to empower others, to organize processes and to manage change. It is rather the reaction and the response which is changing, rather than the problems. As an alternative to opting for a streamlined and controlled approach organizations are choosing an alternative more radical path. It is difficult as yet to fully identify all the variables of these types of organizations but that will be addressed in future papers. For now however we can attempt to define characteristics of those organizations which took part in the study, which were large, established higher education institutions. As with most institutions of this kind there are marked differences between the sub units–the characteristics listed are therefore those of the organization as a whole. For example, an analysis would include the following. Product is knowledge, organization is well established; in mature phase of organizational growth; attempts to extend product portfolio but rival competition for new markets; customers as paying clients; poor infrastructure; poor

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pay; autonomous; not just reacting to changes but planned response; undergoing harsh pruning; difficult to influence external environment; freedom encourages creativity; very bright, intelligent staff, opportunities available; very different product “flavours”. We noted earlier that urban and edgy organizations succeed through acceptance, tolerance, respect and by the creation of a strong sense of belonging, of a brand image which is acceptable to all facets of the organization. We also noted that although performance depends on a variety of factors, success rests on two important issues–the way in which knowledge is managed throughout the organization (shared and open) and the kind of leadership prevalent in that organization (empowerment and encouragement). It is the issues connected with this type of leadership which we will consider next.

6. Leadership issues: leader as artist, actor and explorer For the purposes of this paper we have defined leadership as being about “influencing task related activities of group members” in order to give new life and vitality to organizations which operate within conflicting, confusing environments”. How might a leader might best function in this type of environment? The suggestions so far have included empowerment and encouragement, but the kind of organization that operates in this environment requires a leader that has bold imagination, a creative flair and a style which is different and therefore perhaps inherently risky. We can consider leadership in different ways by using metaphors to create images which are different, inspiring, active and positive and which would “fit” the urban and edgy organization. The first and probably one of the most common leadership metaphors, is that of the leader as an artist. Leadership can be seen as a creative artist, the art of realizing ideas through shared visions. For example, the humanitarian and philosopher Schweitzer (1956) talks in general terms about improving and bettering lives through openness and sharing. Leadership can be seen as modern art, not traditional, risky, not always easily understood but always having an impact. This metaphor can also be used to view leadership as fitting with the (urban) environmental surroundings, e.g. regarding green issues, whether as a bold all embracing organizational statement or in small reflective ways by encouraging staff to be ecologically aware. This vision of leadership is brave and courageous, willing to attempt new strategies and take risks. However, the leader as artist is not always a comfortable position as the leaders as an artist needs to be aware of “client” response and the “client” needs. The leader therefore needs to work to ensure there is appropriate understanding of the work, and this can be achieved by communicating in different ways and through different channels. Indeed, Abnell (1977) suggest that the methods used to train artists should be employed in the preparation of leaders. The second popular metaphor is that of the leader as an actor, where the organization forms a stage set, the characters the actors, where the leader is concerned with the preparation for the performance, the performers, the lines, tone, and audience response. Could a leader function as an actor in this uncertain edgy organizational environment? Manghas (2005) discussed the need for a wholehearted mutual influence to stimulate performance-in that unless all the “cast” are involved the performance will be dull and lacklustre instead of vibrant and lively. Certainly in a turbulent environment there is a need to pull together, yet within these kinds of organizations there is also a strong push towards appreciation of the awareness of individual talents and the need to let people flourish in their own way

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and with their own ideas. Gronin (2000), also ascertains that there is some value in the actor metaphor, in that it allows old roles to be discarded and new roles to be taken on in an enthusiastic way. This also encourages both flexibility and adaptability. The third metaphor approaches leadership from the perspective of an explorer. The leader takes new paths and is open to risk and enjoys travelling different routes. This explorer also plans new journeys in advance, yet leaves some element of flexibility which can lead to adventure. This can be seen as people focused leadership, almost transformational leadership which can be defined as “articulating a compelling vision for followers” (Bass, 1985) and encouraging “followers and providing them with individualized consideration” (Klein and House, 1985). In order to have followers the explorer must earn trust. In some ways this is probably the metaphor which best fits the urban and edgy organization as the leader as explorer is able to simultaneously adapt to new styles, change traditions and explore new territory whilst maintaining a clear sense of direction-that of the spirit of belonging to a group which, together, explores new territory. Each one of these metaphors has something to offer a leader-not all will sit comfortably. However, individual leaders can perhaps take something that suits their own style of leadership from these ideas. The leader as an artist allows a blank canvas to be painted which primarily requires understanding, the leader as actor encourages flexibility of roles, whilst the leader as explorer emphasizes a unified spirit of adventure, and seems to be the most useful metaphor for urban and edgy organizations. So, to summarise, we have now discussed key terms, explored several epistemological ideas, considered the relevant literature, attempted to chart the characteristics of these newly identified “urban and edgy” organizations and considered the relevance and usefulness of leadership metaphors. The empirical evidence is presented in the next section of the paper.

7. Empirical evidence This final section gives a brief insight into leadership of higher education institutions. The changing face of higher education demands that leaders meet considerable challenges at all levels of the organization, functionally, operationally and strategically. Higher education now operates in a fiercely competitive arena, characterized by such factors as competition for scarce resources, students as clients, student fees, expectations of stakeholders, checks on fitness for purpose and so on. These organizations are operating in very turbulent environments and fit the earlier analysis of the urban and edgy organizations. Locke's work (2003) identified the tasks of a top leader as being about the vision, the core values, the structure, the selection and training of staff, the motivation of employees, communication, team building and promoting change. These factors are relevant and appropriate and mirror some of the characteristics of both the smart and corporate organizations and the urban and edgy organizations. What seems to be happening, however, is that higher education organizations are becoming significantly more diverse and more restless and are moving towards the classification of “urban and edgy”. The research was carried out by conversational interviews. A small group of senior leaders from higher education were informally interviewed regarding general thoughts on leadership and leadership

8

styles. This was a micro research pilot project which will be developed on a larger scale in the future. The data was analyzed by comparing the key characteristics of smart and corporate organizations with those of urban and edgy organizations. Using grounded theory, key points from the data were then taken to consider how they best fit each of these characteristics. A decision was made not to attempt to totally fit the data to the exact factors; the results give a flavour of the kinds of comments made by the leaders. The results are discussed in the next section.

8. Results Communication - Smart and corporate organizations are focused on communication and communication strategies whereas urban and edgy organizations were focused on a sense of belonging, where the focus is on trust, not managing. The Interpretation and experience of senior leaders was that emphasis is on trust being given to senior colleagues. Abstractly people do want to agree to changes but concretely they do not. Many roles are ambiguous and unclear strong need to set objectives and then carry them out – and be seen to do so. Roles – Smart and corporate organizations are role orientated whilst urban , edgy organization are respect orientated where style is open and affectionate, pragmatic, giving support and encouraging collegiate activities. Other leadership styles were characterized by those that only took on jobs that matched competencies and a tendency to view distance and formality as important. Understanding – Smart and corporate organizations tended to be focused on understanding whereas urban and edgy organizations were focused on acceptance of all styles of working. There views in this category about the product of a university – most respondents characterized this as knowledge and innovation plus new knowledge. Urban organizations attempted to be politically sensitive to peoples needs. Tolerance and Style – The experience of senior leaders in this category was that leadership was about forging as broad a consensus as possible, not using positional power and giving credit where due. Emphasis was on equality and transparency. Training – Smart and corporate organizations were focused on training whereas urban organizations were focused on gaining ownership of values. Discussions under this section were around leadership traits and how much leaders can be trained. Comments from senior leaders also included thoughts around plotting where the institution is in terms of growth. This is a concise overview of the results; more details are available in Burke (2008) The characteristics of urban and edgy organizations (e.g. acceptance, tolerance respect creating a strong sense of belonging, etc.) were all found to be evident in the leader's style in higher education. However, we have identified that this type of leadership rest on two critical axis–they way in which knowledge is managed in the organization (shared and open) and the overarching style of leadership,(empowerment and encouragement). It can be argued that one cannot exist without the other and it would be interesting to study this aspect in future work.

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9. Conclusion Achrol (1991) considered that “the environment of the future will be characterized most notably by unprecedented levels of diversity, knowledge richness, and turbulence”. This is now that future and it is important to carefully consider the needs of these organizations in terms of leadership. For some time now there has been a trend for getting people on board by building a common vision, engendering trust, encouraging teamwork and clarity, and these traits have been seen as the true tasks of a leader. Yet different types of leaders are needed in organizations which strive to succeed in theses turbulent times. They need to be “tough yet emphatic” and display qualities which are facilitative, inspirational, energising, passionate, caring and pioneering. This paper has introduced the idea of a new label for organizations which find themselves to be so full of diversity and differences that they can be characterized as being “on the edge” of danger-yet these organizations have found a way to be something which is separate from a “central city role” that of the urban character-important, flexible, dynamic, fast growing and playing a central role in development of new ideas. We have considered aspects of philosophy which may be useful for leaders, presented an overview of relevant literature and analysed the important issues of these “urban and edgy” organizations. We have also thought about the relevance of leadership metaphors and found that the leader as “explorer” is likely to be the one most useful in these types of organizations. Higher education institutions were found to fit the major characteristics of urban and edgy organizations. Finally evidence was presented from a group of leaders in higher education as to what their general experience and views of leadership had been and a comparative table was devised which examined certain factors in “smart and corporate” organizations and how they compared to factors in urban and edgy corporations. This work of course only forms an introduction to the ideas and further work is needed in these areas. The way forward would be to undertake large-scale research and to fully investigate the key characteristics of urban and edgy organizations, across different sectors. The contribution made to the discipline of leadership is the introduction of a new way of looking at organizations-the work offers new ways of looking at established ideas, through new lenses which may assist leaders and all who work in large organizations. What is needed is new ways of harnessing the power of Knowledge Management which will help to revitalize organizations that operate in turbulent environments. Ideas for future research include a thorough investigation of the links between KM, Power and Leadership. This work could then lead to the creation of a best model of practice in order to calm and manage restless organizations. This work has recently been awarded funding by the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education which will allow wider studies in the area to be undertaken.

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References Abnell, R.L. (1977), "Educational management: art or science?", NASSP, Vol. 61 No.408, pp.9-14. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Achrol, R.S. (1991), "Evolution of the marketing organization: new forms for turbulent environments", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 55 No.4, pp.77-93. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Bass, B. (1985), Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, Free Press, New York, NY, [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Bhatt, D.G. (2000), "Information dynamic, learning and knowledge creation in organizations", The Learning Organization, Vol. 7 No.2, pp.89-99. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Bryman, A. (2007), Effective Leadership in Higher Education. Summary of Findings, Research and Development Series, London, Leadership Foundation for Higher Education, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Burke, M. (2008) From smart and corporate to urban and edgy: Revitalising organisations in turbulent environments International Journal of Organizational Analysis Vol. 16 1/2 pp50-60 Calantone, R. (2003), "The effects of environmental turbulence on new product development planning", Journal of Product Innovation Management., Vol. 20 No.2, pp.90-8. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Cameron, K.S., Mying, U.K. (1987), "Organizational effects of decline and turbulence", Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 32 No.2, pp.222-40. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Emery, F.E., Trist, E.L. (1965), "The causal texture of organizational environments", Human Relations, Vol. 18 pp.21-32. [Manual request] [Infotrieve]

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Grant, R.M. (2003), "Strategic planning in a turbulent environment: evidence from the oil majors", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 24 No.6, pp.491-517. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Gronn, P. (2000), "Distributed properties: a new architecture for leadership", Educational Management and Administration, Vol. 28 No.2, pp.317-338. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Klein, K., House, R. (1985), "On fire: charismatic leadership and levels of analysis", Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 6 No.2, pp.83-98. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Locke, E.A. (2003), "Leadership: starting at the top in Pearce", in Pearce, C.L., Conger, J.A. (Eds),Shared Leadership: Reframing the How's and Why's of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Manghas, I. (2005), "Vita contemplative", Organisation Studies, Vol. 26 No.6, pp.941-58. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] OUP (2006), Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus, OUP, Oxford, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Quinn, R.E., Rohrbaugh, J. (1983), "A spatial model of effectiveness criteria: towards a competing values approach to organizational analysis", Management Science, Vol. 29 No.3, pp.363-77. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Schweitzer, A. (1956), On the Edge of the Primeval Forest, Macmillan, New York, NY, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Smart, C., Vertinsky, I. (1984), "Strategy and the environment: a study of corporate responses to crises", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 5 No.3, pp.199-213. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Souba, W. (2003), "The new leader: new demands in a changing turbulent environment", Journal of the American College of Surgeons, Vol. 197 No.1, pp.512-20.

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[Manual request] [Infotrieve] Stoner, J., Freeman, R.E. (2000), Management, Prentice Hall, NJ, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] SubbaNarasimha, P.N. (2001), "Strategy in a turbulent environment: the role of dynamic competence", Managerial and Decision Economics, Vol. 22 No.4/5, pp.201-12. [Manual request] [Infotrieve]

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Partnering as a Process of Unlearning Hartmann, A. Department of Construction Management and Engineering, University of Twente, The Netherlands (email: [email protected])

Abstract Over the last decades interest in partnering arrangements has increased enormously. Recent critics have stated that prescriptive approaches dominate the discussion on partnering in construction. There is a lack of multiple perspectives on the partnering phenomenon including its economic, social, organisational and institutional context. Taking this criticism as a starting point, this paper investigates the partnering of a road maintenance contract from an activity-theoretical perspective. The results of the case study show that partnering can be described as a process of unlearning. That is, the implementation of a closer relationship between client and contractor contradicts and challenges the behaviour and working style that project team members had internalized and been used to. Team members are trapped by the beliefs and values they had cultivated throughout the years. Hence, establishing partnering is not only a matter of learning new knowledge and adjusting existing working processes. First of all, it requires discarding old routines and behaviour and overcoming vicious circles of reinforcing perceptions. Keywords: partnering, unlearning, activity theory, case study

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1. Introduction For some decades the partnering phenomenon has attracted practitioners and academics alike. Insufficient project performance, arm-length relationships, conflicts between project parties and a pronounced blame culture have resulted in the search for new forms of collaboration in construction projects. Partnering has emerged as a general term embracing a variety of such cooperative working relationships. The main principle of partnering is the commitment of organisations to achieve specific (project) objectives on the basis of trust and the understanding of each other’s values and expectations (CII, 1991). Driven by the enthusiasm of the early years and the success stories with their promising performance improvements, much attention has been paid to the factors contributing to the success and the implementation of partnering (e.g. Black et al., 2001; Chan et al., 2004; Cheng and Li, 2004). In recent years more critical voices have been heard that cast doubts on the successful impact of partnering relationships on construction project performance. Although research has indicated that the outcome and process of partnering projects are regarded to be beneficial (Wood and Ellis, 2005), it has also shown that the actual benefits achieved in terms of cost, quality, time and avoidance of disputes hardly differ from non-partnering projects (Nyström, 2008). It is argued that the contrary findings mainly rest upon an instrumental view of partnering which obstructs the underlying mechanisms and the economic, social, organisational and institutional context of partnering (Bresnen and Marshall, 2002). Instead, it is proposed to view partnering as being enacted and embedded in local practices and negotiated between parties (Bresnen, 2009). Following this understanding of partnering, the paper at hand examines partnering in the context of a new road maintenance contract. It uses an activity-theoretical perspective to analyse the evolvement of the partnering relationship between the client and contractor. Empirical data are collected in an ethnographic case study lasting 8 months. In the next section the theoretical framework is presented followed by the case study results. The paper finishes with the discussion of the findings and the concluding section.

2. An activity-theoretical view on partnering If partnering is understood as a complex and dynamic relationship which is highly localized and involves the management of contradictions and paradoxes (Bresnen, 2007; Bresnen, 2009), activity theory represents a fruitful epistemological framework for gaining deeper insights into the partnering phenomenon. Activity theory has its roots in the work of the Soviet psychologists L. Vygotsky and A.N. Leont’ev. Vygotsky (1978) introduced the concept of mediation, which suggests that individuals do not directly interact with their environment but that their interactions are mediated by technical and psychological tools. Leont’ev (1978) extended the idea of Vygotsky by viewing human activity as socially created and historically embedded. In this sense activities are socio-cultural interpretations of individuals which place meaning onto the object of activity. These interpretations are developed through involvement and are imposed by individuals on particular circumstances (Blackler et al., 2000). Activities incorporate the specific objectives and motives of individuals in a particular context. Activity theory neither understands individuals in isolation from the context of their practice nor is the context seen as independently existing from individuals. Activities emerge through social practice within a culturally and historically formed setting, and at the same time the interpretations about the

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nature of these activities may change (Blackler et al., 2000). According to activity theory, dynamic forces of change and opportunities for further development are contradictions and misalignments within and between activity systems which are manifest in the performance of the system (Virkkunen and Kutti, 2000). Such contradictions may occur when individuals interpret situations differently or single components of the system change due to external developments. Based on the work of Vygotsky and Leont’ev, Engeström (2001) developed the structure of a human activity system which includes individual and group actions and reflects the social and cultural aspects of human activity. His general activity system consists of six components (Figure 1): •

Subject or the individual involved in human activity

•

Object or the societal motive of activities

•

Tool or the physical or conceptual artifact through which an individual’s interaction is mediated

•

Community or the social nature of individual activities which are embedded in communities

•

Rule or the mediator of the interaction of the individual with the community

•

Division of labour or the mediating aspect of the relationship between the community and the object of an activity

Tools

Object

Subject

Rules

Community

Outcome

Division of Labor

Figure 1: System of human activity (Engeström, 2004) From an activity-theoretical perspective partnering can be regarded as an activity system aligned between construction parties. In other words individuals engaging in a partnering relationship have a common motive for their actions, apply the same tools, rely on shared rules in their interaction, and agree upon the division of responsibilities and actions. The managerial challenges associated with this

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view are twofold. First, alignment of activity systems between different construction parties is not very likely at the beginning of a relationship. Alignment and thus partnering will emerge through the social interaction of those actors involved in the activity (e.g. construction project) (Bresnen, 2009). This process of developing meaning and understanding is dependent on the historical and cultural background of the different actors and is rooted in the local circumstances of the practice (Bishop et al., 2009). Second, alignment is not expected to remain very stable over time (Wood and Ellis, 2005). The components of the activity system may change since the system itself is part of and influenced by other activity systems. Possible changes are, for example, the replacement of project team members, the introduction of new technologies or the adjustment of contract documents. Both challenges stem from contradictions, disturbances and conflicts induced in existing activity systems which need to be cooperatively addressed and by doing so a partnering relationship is established and maintained. Rather than being a formal procurement mechanism, partnering is a dynamic and interactive process characterized by sense-making and learning (Bresnen and Marshall, 2002).

3. Case study of partnering in road maintenance 3.1 Case study design An ethnographic case study approach was applied to explore the process of sense-making and learning in partnering relationships more in depth. The case chosen is a new performance-based contract for road maintenance implemented at Rijkswaterstaat (RWS), the executive arm of the Dutch Ministry of Transport. Since 2004 RWS has been undertaking tremendous efforts to develop into a professional public-oriented network manager by focusing on the needs of the infrastructure users and increasingly engaging the private sector in the design, construction and management of its infrastructure. Driven by policies of the national cabinet, RWS realigned its procurement strategy and organisational structure in order to increasingly assume the role of a commissioning authority. New forms of contracts were introduced with the primary aim of reducing the direct engagement of RWS in designing, building, operating and maintaining infrastructure assets and putting suppliers in charge of integrated service packages. In 2007 RWS introduced a new generation of performance-based contracts for road maintenance which is an expression of the aforementioned strategic reorientation and explicitly emphasises partnering as approach for carrying out the contracts. The first performance-based contract of the new generation was awarded in Zeeland, one of 10 regional areas of RWS. The ethnographic case study covered a period of 8 months starting 1 year after the tendering. During this period 31 observations, 10 interviews and 2 focus group meetings took place. Observations were carried out during the biweekly meetings of the operational staff of client and contractor and the meetings of the management staff of both organisations every six weeks. The observations aimed at determining behavioural aspects of the relationship, uncovering the underlying perceptions and values of both contract parties and identifying the ways problems are dealt with. Interviews were used to explore the expectations and motivation of each team member. The focus group meetings addressed specific problems and tried to understand why these problems were difficult to solve.

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3.2 Case study results Zeeland is the first regional area of RWS to implement the new generation of performance-based contracts for road maintenance. The contract replaces 14 smaller contracts and includes the daily maintenance of the main highways in Zeeland, some renovation work such as the renewal of parking areas and the setup of a maintenance management system. It was awarded in May 2007 to Heijmans (HIM), a large Dutch contractor, for a period of 5 years with the possibility of extending it for another 3 years. The contractor was evaluated on price (weighted 40%) and quality (weighted 60%). With the contract a new way of contract controlling was introduced. The most important change is that RWS employees no longer directly control the work done by the contractor. The contractor takes on a much more active role. He writes a project quality plan and has to prove constantly that he complies with what he promised in this plan. RWS, on the other hand, occasionally audits the process and the product provision of the contractors. Partnering is another central element which has been propagated to be essential for the success of the Zeeland contract. The aim of RWS and HIM was to supersede the traditional and mostly adversarial separation of roles between principal and agent in road maintenance. On the basis of common goals, mutual trust and openness, the quality of the Zeeland road network was to be increased. In order to establish a partnering relationship, the team members of RWS and HIM went on a three-day journey to the UK where they set up and signed a partnering agreement. The underlying intention was for all team members to collaborate and learn from each other. However, unexpected problems and occurrences challenged this initial intention. Typical problems were, for example, a clogged drainage which could not be easily rinsed and had to be replaced or potholes which constantly reoccurred and required a new road surface. In other words some road assets deteriorated faster than estimated. How both contract parties reacted to these occurrences and which perceptions these reactions evoked is depicted in Figure 2.

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HIM perception: “Road condition is improved”

Pointing to extra work (done)

Fire-fighting by HIM

HIM perception : “We do more than expected”

HIM perception: “RWS asks for more””

Additional work to sustain functionality of road assets

HIM perception: “RWS provides answers and insights”

Conflict with maintenance planning and budget of RWS

HIM waits for answers of RWS Increase of complaints about condition of road network

Unexpected occurrences

Increase of maintenance work

RWS waits for (re)action of HIM Combination of maintenance work by HIM

RWS perception: “HIM takes care of our business”

Service provision of RWS not guaranteed

RWS perception: “HIM does not do what is expected”

Long reaction time

Pointing to work yet to be done

RWS perception : “HIM main objective is extra money for extra work” RWS perception: “Road conditions have declined”

Figure 2: Vicious circles of reinforcing perceptions

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It became obvious that problems and occurrences as described above revealed contradictions the new contract evoked in the existing maintenance regime. The performance-based contract tried to rearrange the way road maintenance is carried out, but interfered with the familiar behaviours, understandings and roles of public and private parties. It even reinforced contradictions already known from previous maintenance regimes which finally led to opposite perceptions of RWS and HIM which continuously confirmed themselves in a self-energising manner. On one side, team members of HIM had the perception that RWS needed to clarify how to deal with unexpected situations. The extensive prescription and controlling of their work in the past induced a strong passive behaviour. On the other side, RWS team members gained the perception that HIM takes care of the business of RWS. They thought they no longer needed to engage in maintenance work. The expectation prevailed that the contractor completely and independently manages all maintenance aspects but also problematic situations. As a consequence, team members of both organisations adopted an inactive and reserved behaviour. HIM waited for answers on their posted questions and RWS waited for action taken by HIM. Not surprisingly, the number of complaints and reports about the bad conditions of the road network increased. For RWS that meant that they could not fulfil their role as service provider for the road user and specific complaints were not complied with (e.g. water remains on the road). Since the work of the contractor is longer directly controlled by RWS, the increase in complaints for RWS was a direct consequence of a contractor that did not deliver what RWS expected to be delivered. When confronted with complaints, HIM tried to carry out the required maintenance work in order to prevent financial consequences. However, that fueled the perception of HIM that more work was done than contractually defined. In order to carry out additional maintenance activities most efficiently, HIM scheduled these activities along with other work, which meant that activities could not be immediately undertaken. The process of planning and optimising maintenance work and the rationale behind it was not comprehensible for RWS, amplifying the perception of RWS that HIM was not acting as demanded. On the other hand, doing maintenance work earlier than planned was in conflict with the maintenance budget available. RWS, however, was not able to provide additional financial resources. The consequence for HIM was that measures had to be applied that sustained the functioning of particular road assets, whereas the replacement of these assets would have been the economically and qualitatively preferable option. Again, the perception of HIM that they were engaged more than required was further confirmed. When HIM pointed to the additional work, that was an indication for RWS that HIM was more interested in earning extra money than in satisfying the contractual obligations. The vicious circles of reinforcing perceptions were closed which finally led to opposite views about the condition of the road network. According to RWS, the quality of the network deteriorated whereas HIM claimed a quality improvement.

4. Discussion With the new generation of performance-based contracts, RWS integrates maintenance work, and one contractor becomes responsible for the execution of the work. At the same time the duration of these contracts is extended. With increased contract complexity, situations with unexpected incidents or problems which are not covered by the contract also increase. Cooperative solutions of these problems between public and private parties become more important for the success of the maintenance contracts. Although the importance of a partnering relationship is recognised, the case study results

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suggest, in line with previous research, that it remains difficult to establish and maintain such a relationship. Particularly the view on the behaviour of the contract partner that team members of both organisations cultivated throughout the years acted as barrier. At the RWS, for a long time the perception dominated that many contractors potentially show opportunistic behaviour. The RWS team members therefore entered the relationship with behaviour of high mistrust, notwithstanding the initial partnering statement. At HIM the perception prevailed that the client is instructing the contractor, and the HIM team members therefore showed behaviour of strong passiveness and information keeping. The case study also shows that the introduction of the new performance-based contract in the RWS regional area of Zeeland disturbed the existing maintenance regime. The required alignment of the maintenance regime between both contract parties was first of all impeded by contradictions of the new contract with the historically grown rules, responsibilities, knowledge and competencies. The new way of contract controlling intensified the contradictions in the maintenance regime. RWS team members were accustomed to directly observing and controlling in situ what the contractors were doing. As mentioned above, their relationship with the contractor in the past was primarily characterized by mistrust, and this mistrust is reinforced by the passive role they are now expected to play. These employees believe that they lose control of the infrastructure quality. They experience more uncertainty about the work the contractors deliver. Their beliefs are not only rooted in mistrust but also in capabilities and competencies that are no longer suitable for the new way of ensuring the requested work to be delivered. The changed contract controlling requires thinking in processes on a high level of abstraction instead of detailed knowledge about technical solutions. In addition, other communication and negotiation capabilities need to be developed. For the RWS employees, the focus is shifting from saying what to do to asking how work is done. HIM employees, on the other hand, need to change from passively reacting on the client’s instructions to proactively informing the client about their work. They need to revise the assumption that exploiting information imbalance is the most beneficial means to ensure their financial results. Although the disturbances and contradictions in the existing maintenance regime can be regarded as trigger for learning and behavioural change, the case study results suggest that they rather blocked the learning or partnering process by activating deep-seated views and perceptions which are reinforced in vicious circles. Team members get trapped in their cultivated values and beliefs and rely on the associated routines. The initial journey to the UK and the signing of a partnering agreement was not successful in removing old behavioural patterns. It only emphasised in a somewhat rhetorical fashion the willingness of the contract team to work collaboratively. Unexpected occurrences immediately recalled the internalised practices and behaviour and were used to underpin already existing perceptions. That substantiates the difficulty of converting formal partnering agreements into a changed way of working (Bresnen and Marshall, 2000). Here, the argument is put forward that establishing a partnering relationship in construction is not only a matter of learning new practices. It is also a matter of discarding old routines, attitudes and habits. Unlearning even becomes a precondition for learning and consequently for partnering. Although the concept of unlearning is given limited attention in scholarly literature compared to the opposed concept of learning (Tsang and Zahra, 2008), since the seminal work of Hedberg (1981) it has been acknowledged that previous knowledge potentially impacts learning processes and therefore

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unlearning is a necessary means to allow for the inclusion of new information and behaviour (Becker, 2008). The results of the case study are in line with previous studies, which emphasise the impact of an individual’s frame of reference upon the chance to change (e.g. Oreg, 2003; Becker, 2008). However, the case study extends these findings which mainly refer to the individual level. It shows that partnering covers different aspects of the activity system of construction parties and unlearning relates to the interplay of the individual and the intra-organisational and inter-organisational context. Particularly the rules expected to be employed in a partnering relationship between team members of client and contractor organisation contradict internalised individual behaviour and beliefs and the often adversarial nature of construction teams. When interacting in teams, individuals have to become aware that certain behavioural patterns are no longer useful and beneficial. In other words, unlearning – like learning – is an interactive process of team members from different organisations through which interpretations of behavioural motives of other team members are changing and are based on the abolishment of own practices. However, sense-making through interaction makes unlearning a vulnerable process, since perceptions of previous behaviour often recall the same routines used in the past. It seems that routines are not completely erased but are still available (Klein, 1989).

5. Conclusion Partnering is a concept widely promoted to be able to overcome the hostile relationships in construction practices. However, deeper insights into the evolvement of partnering relationships are rare. This paper took the view of partnering as a complex and locally situated activity which emerges through the social interaction of individuals. By doing so it showed that unlearning represents a crucial ingredient for the emergence of a partnering relationship. The cultivated routines and habits prevented team members from resolving contradictions which are caused by unexpected occurrences or other changes in the maintenance regime. Only through the interaction itself will team members be able to recognise the (in)appropriateness of their behavioural patterns. However, reflection appears to be critical for raising awareness for the roots of divergent perceptions. If partnering is not only a rhetorical lip service, but driven by the willingness to cooperate, reflection moments may help reveal the internalised behaviour and rethink the way practices are carried out. Future research should take a closer look at the process of unlearning in partnering by investigating its relation to the organisational context, the interplay with the learning process, and the mechanisms through which the unlearning process were mediated.

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References Becker K (2008) “Unlearning as a Driver of Sustainable Change and Innovation: Three Australian Case Studies”, International Journal of Technology Management 42: 89-106. Bishop D, Felstead A, Fuller A, Jewson N, Unwin L and Kakavelakis K (2009) “Constructing Learning: Adversarial and Collaborative Working in the British Construction Industry”, Journal of Education and Work 22: 243-260. Black C, Akintoye A and Fitzgerald E (2000) “An Analysis of Success Factors and Benefits of Partnering in Construction” International Journal of Project Management 18: 423–434. Blackler F, Crump N and McDonald S (2000) “Organizing Processes in Complex Activity Networks”, Organization 7: 277-300. Bresnen M (2009) “Living the Dream? Understanding Partnering as Emergent Practice”, Construction Management and Economics 27: 923-933. Bresnen M (2007) “Deconstructing Partnering in Project-Based Organisation: Seven Pillars, Seven Paradoxes and Seven Deadly Sins”, International Journal of Project Management 25: 365–374. Bresnen M and Marshall N (2002) “The Engineering or Evolution of Co-operation? A Tale of Two Partnering Projects”, International Journal of Project Management 20: 497-505. Bresnen M and Marshall N (2000) “Partnering in Construction: A Critical Review of Issues, Problems and Dilemmas”, Construction Management and Economics 18: 229-237. Chan A P C, Chan D W M, Chiang Y H, Tang B S, Chan E H W and Ho K S K (2004) “Exploring Critical Success Factors for Partnering in Construction Projects”, Journal of Construction Management and Engineering 130: 188-198. Cheng E W L and Li H (2004) “Development of a Practical Model of Partnering for Construction Projects”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 130: 790-798. Construction Industry Institute (CII) (1991) In Search of Partnering Excellence, Special Publication No. 17-1, Rep., Partnering Task Force of CII, Austin, Texas. Engeström Y (2001) “Expansive Learning at Work: Toward an Activity Theoretical Reconceptualization”, Journal of Education and Work 14: 133 -156. Hedberg B (1981) “How Organizations Learn and Unlearn”, In Nystrom P C and Starbuck W H (Eds.), Handbook of Organizational Design, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

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Klein J I (1989) “Parenthetic Learning in Organizations: Towards the Unlearning of the Unlearning Model”, The Journal of Management Studies 26: 291-309. Leont’ev A N (1978) Activity, Consciousness and Personality. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall. Nyström J (2008) “A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of Partnering”, Construction Management and Economics 26: 531-541. Oreg S (2003) “Resistance to Change: Developing an Individual Difference Measure”, Journal of Applied Psychology 88: 680-693. Tsang E W K and Zahra S A (2008) “Organizational Unlearning”, Human Relations 61: 1435-1462. Virkkunen J and Kuutti K (2000) “Understanding organizational learning by focusing on “activity systems”, Accounting, Management & Information Technology 10: 291-319. Vygotsky L (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, Harvard University Press. Wood G D and Ellis R C T (2005) “Main Contractor Experiences of Partnering Relationships on UK Construction Projects”, Construction Management and Economics 23: 317-325.

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Extracting Knowledge from Post Project Review Reports Carrillo, P. Loughborough University, UK (email: [email protected]) Choudary, A. Harding, J. Oluikpe, P.

Abstract Post Project Reviews provide an opportunity for organisations to have a retrospective view of their projects. However, there are many shortcomings with these in terms of the structure and content of the reports, how widely the reports are disseminated to aid learning and indeed whether the organisation has the resources to adequately analyse the content of multiple reports. Data mining is the systematic searching and identification of valid, novel, potentially useful and understandable patterns in data. Data mining has traditionally involved numerical data and has been widely used in a number of business sectors e.g. banking and aerospace. Text mining, a subset of data mining, examines large volumes of unstructured text, instead of numerical data, to identify patterns and trends in order to extract useful information and knowledge that could improve processes, and identify both good and bad practice. Text mining is thus an approach ideally suited to overcoming the problem with organisations possessing a large number of Post Project Reviews that may provide very useful information and knowledge without the requirement for extra human resources to analyse them. This paper investigates the application of text mining to Post Project Reviews (PPRs). Two construction companies were used as case studies. The companies’ PPR processes were mapped with the aim of understanding the context, format and terminologies used. Interviews were conducted to understand the reports’ contents and the companies’ perception of important knowledge areas that could assist future projects. The PPRs were then analysed using text mining techniques. The results highlighted a number of process issues including the need for companies to carefully consider the structure and contents of the PPRs, and the disparity between what the organisations consider as important knowledge areas and the topics discussed during Post Project Reviews. The research adopted four techniques, namely Text Analysis, Rule Application, Link Analysis and Dimensional Matrix Analysis to identify correlations between key words and phrases that appear across a range of different Post Project Review reports. The identification of these correlations/relationships would provide organisations with knowledge that would facilitate improving the outcome of projects.

Keywords: project reviews, knowledge, text mining and lessons learned

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1. Importance of post project reviews Post Project Reviews are one of the most important and common approaches for the capture of project knowledge. They provide an opportunity for project teams to share and even explicate their tacit knowledge through the face-to-face interactions facilitated before the team is dissolved. PPRs allow teams to critique a project to determine both positive and negative aspects and to use these learning points on future projects. In addition, the debates amongst the project team members during PPRs may lead to innovation and better ideas than can possibly be captured from an individual. This is crucial as everyone only knows bits of the whole story about a project (Kerth, 2000). PPRs have been used since the 1970s in the US Army (called After Action Reviews). The concept has now been adopted in many organisations under a number of different names. Disterer (2002) identifies these as post-project reviews, post-project appraisals, project post-mortem, debriefing, reuse planning, reflection, corporate feedback cycle, experience factory, etc. Kleiner and Roth (1997) also introduced the term “learning histories”. These allow organisations to reflect on past experience leading to effective future actions. In the UK, major companies such as BP Amoco, BAA plc, National Grid Transco and construction companies such as Bovis Lend Lease, and Buro Happold have adopted this methodology in an effort to learn from experience (DBA, 2003). DBA claims that, for construction, a learning programme can be one way to address the improvements required by the Egan agenda. However, Kamara et al. (2003) and Orange et al. (1999) highlighted PPRs could potentially be exploited much more thoroughly. Disterer (2002) highlighted IT projects where “after finishing the project team members are spread all over the company, project documentation is stored in some folders without retaining the essentials for later use”. In a study of PPRs of other industry, Busby (1999) found that there are a number of potential benefits and drawbacks and concluded that “postproject reviews were important learning mechanisms and their value seems to be underestimated by individuals who do not appreciate the need to disseminate insights throughout the organization”. The problem lies with PPRs being conducted as part of a company’s quality system but with insufficient resources to act on the outcomes of the PPRs (Carrillo, 2005). Whilst companies may have individuals with responsibility for PPRs, companies do not have individuals or teams who analyse the PPRs collectively to identify any areas of improvement across a range of projects. Thus individually PPRs may be conducted and stored but not exploited over a company’s portfolio of projects. Examples of areas for improvement based on the results of the knowledge discovery and data mining include construction and manufacturing processes, methods statements and individual expertise.

1.1 Benefits of conducting PPR Benefits accrue to organisations from conducting PPR. Some of these are highlighted in Tan et al. (2006) and Carrillo (2005):

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•

Facilitating collective learning: Post project reviews provide an opportunity for people involved in the project to come together and examine what went right or wrong during the project or during a particular stage of the project. It gives an opportunity for hindsight with the aim of learning from what works and what doesn’t work. The idea of collective learning presupposes that when people come together to discuss a project the forum provides the atmosphere for knowledge sharing, exchange of ideas, brainstorming and contributions which would lead to learning. Experiences of staff who were involved with the project are useful in learning about the project.

•

Provide utilisable knowledge: PPRs embody the knowledge of the project. The outcome of a review process is knowledge that can be utilised for future projects. Recommendations about activities that were carried out well or badly during the project are often made during the PPR process. These recommendations could be taken on board and utilised in the future.

•

Benefit client organisations: Provides enriched knowledge about the development, construction and management of their assets. Review processes often aim to provide greater insight into how an organisation functions in managing its assets. This helps the project organisation develop its processes and also manage its assets better.

•

Better project phase management: Reviewing each phase of a project would provide an opportunity for better project management at the phase level, rather than lumping the whole project together for a review at the end. It gives opportunity to correct mistakes earlier at the phase level which might impact on the remaining part of the project.

•

Prevent knowledge loss: When a project team disbands, most staff are reassigned to other projects and they carry with them knowledge which is very vital for the project. It is important that a PPR process captures this knowledge about the project and make it explicit for others to utilise in future (similar) projects.

1.2 Problems in conducting PPR Despite the benefits of conducting PPRs, there are some constraints in the PPR process. Tan et al. (2006), Carrillo (2005) and Garon (2006) highlighted the problems of PPR processes. Staff turnover and redeployment of staff to other projects and the difficulty of remembering issues that happened long ago pose problems for PPR. The lack of an established format for representing knowledge and the time lag between the generation of knowledge and its capture might cause some knowledge loss to the organisation. As a result, Carrillo (2005) recommends that PPRs should be done as soon as the project ends or at intermediate stages. Knowledge should also be captured as the project goes along. This is in consonance with Sowards (2005) view that reviews ought to be done in phases rather than at the end of the project.

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1.3 Identified approaches to PPR Some typical recommendations on how to conduct PPRs exist in literature. Gibson et al., (2007) start by proposing a three step programme to develop a culture for PPRs. Baird’s (1999) process proposes a phased approach although it stopped short at going into details; Sowards (2005) five stage process focuses on establishing criteria, involving key people, discussing an agenda, documenting key learning points and disseminating these to people who should see them; Freedman and Weinberg (1977) recommend categorisation of project processes and analysis of each constituent part for lessons learned, but this is a viewpoint which Busby (1999) does not share as this could be disjoint and not holistic; Roth and Kleiner (1998) advocated a six stage process which begins with planning and then reflective interviews, distillation, writing, validation and dissemination. Sowards (2005), Roth and Kleiner (1998) and Schindler and Eppler (2003) are more specific in the sense that they categorise the processes into simple and measurable steps. However, these steps are not broken down into constituent units of activity (who, what and how).

2. The role of text mining Text mining offers tremendous opportunities for organisations that have PPRs and few resources to identify trends or patterns and be able to act on them. Hidden knowledge and experiences could be captured using knowledge discovery and data mining, which are used to uncover patterns, associations, and trends in data. The results can then be used to enhance processes, improve customer relationships, identify specific problem areas, etc. Data mining techniques are commonly used by other sectors such as banking and retail to improve customer services. The PPR reports will be required in electronic form and these will have to go through a number of stages as shown in Figure 1 before text mining.

Preparation

Run

Analyse

• Pre-formatting reports • Pre-processing

• Checking relevancy

• Manual examination

• Checking

• Apply algorithms

Disseminate/ • Consultation collaborators

with

consistency

• Checking Figure 1: The Text Mining Process Preparation stage: This involves tasks such as removing unwanted text, the tabular layout, colour coding schemes and photographs as well as converting the .doc files into .txt files. Run Experiments stage: This involves pre-processing which is particularly important to improve the relevancy of the

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results achieved, and two types of pre-processing are carried out. Firstly, frequently occurring words which are unlikely to contribute to the identification of any useful knowledge are identified and subsequently “ignored” in the analysis. Secondly, synonyms or different representations of the same word are identified and marked in the text mining dictionary so that they are treated as being the same word. In the Analyse Results stage the results of the text mining are checked for relevancy, consistency and completeness using an iterative process of review within the project team. For the Disseminate/ Evaluate stage individual consultations are held to determine the quality of the results.

3. Research method adopted The research involved using the PPR reports of two construction organisations. Company A is a services, building and maintenance group which provides services across the whole life of many types of buildings and infrastructure such as hospitals, schools, offices, industrial plant, bridges, waterworks or roads. Company B is an architectural and construction company which works with financial, property and retailing companies. The research involved a number of steps as follows: 1.

Obtain PPR reports: Both companies were asked to provide copies of PPR reports for the purpose of text mining. In total 48 reports were obtained, 27 from Company A and 11 from Company B.

2.

Conduct Interviews: The research team used interviews with key company personnel to investigate the process of conducting and recording PPR as well as the subsequent dissemination the PPR reports within the two companies. This was done in order to obtain a rich picture of how the PPR reports were produced and the extent to which they were used to provide knowledge on other projects.

3.

Identify Key Knowledge Areas: The PPR reports were manually examined in order to identify keywords that were used frequently. These keywords were then given to the companies for them to identify “key knowledge areas” and to rank them in order of importance. The key knowledge areas would then be used for text mining. The key knowledge areas were also subdivided into more detailed areas e.g. “Contract Sum” falls within the key knowledge area of “Finance”.

4.

Run Text Mining Experiments: The PPR reports were text mined to identify trends and important correlations that would provide knowledge to the companies based on past projects. The PolyAnalyst software was used based on a study completed, as part of the research, of the five most popular data mining tools.

5.

Evaluate Results: The companies were consulted individually to investigate the relevance and importance of the results obtained.

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4.

Research findings

This section will address the findings of each of the five steps highlighted above. The original aim of using text mining to provide knowledge inadvertently highlighted some flaws within the PPR processes adopted by the companies. These flaws were sufficient to raise questions regarding the potential success of the text mining.

4.1 Obtain PPR reports The quality of the PPRs reports used for text mining is of major importance and this was an area of concern. Several observations were made as shown below • Availability and Format of Reports Company A had corporate processes for the conduct and format of PPR reports but this was not universally followed by several regional offices. This caused problems in that the various reports had different contents and style. In addition, Company A had problems sourcing PPRs reports from their main office, leading to questions on how these reports were subsequently used within the company. Company B’s approach to PPRs was consistent throughout the company because the PPR reports were done by one team. However, Company B’s reports could only be of benefit to those attending the meetings because of the very brief manner of reporting (i.e. they used very short statements without any context). Indeed, most of the reports consisted of graphical images and colour coding according to the contributors’ organisations. •

Reliance on key individuals

The PPR processes for both companies relied on very few key individuals (one for Company A and two for Company B). This has the advantage of consistency in the format and structure of the reports, but a major disadvantage is that when such staff leave the organisation, all that tacit knowledge will be lost in terms of running PPRs, recording and disseminating the findings. •

Dissemination of results

Company A’s lessons learned are normally uploaded to the intranet for staff and project managers to look up. It is not apparent how useful this method is in disseminating the lessons learned. On some projects individuals are relied on to print the lessons learned and pass these on to project managers at the commencement of similar projects. Interviews with one of the regional offices indicated that the lessons learned are fed back to pre‐commencement meetings and dissemination of the lessons learned is done using general education and the best practice library on the intranet. Company B’s PPR outcome are disseminated using communities of practice and individual contacts. The organisation emphasises the people perspective of sharing knowledge and this informs the method of carrying out PPRs whereby communication is emphasised more than documentation. Although the key learning points are stored on the intranet for people to access, the company observes that most people do not retrieve this information.

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The above issues, although peripheral, will impact on the usefulness of the data used text mining. Text mining encourages users to be more systematic in their reporting process in terms of content and format; two items that were problematic for the case study companies.

4.2 Conduct interviews Interviews were held with key personnel in the company (three from Company A and two from Company B). The aim of the interviews was to understand each company’s PPR processes leading up the PPR, the format of the PPR session and subsequent activities that would lead to the dissemination and use of the PPR reports. Both companies had clear processes that could be mapped by the research team (although this was had not previously been done by either company). Both were also able to identify review activities that took place at the pre-construction, construction and postconstruction phases. Through the consultations with key personnel, the research team was able to gain a greater understanding of when the PPRs were conducted, who participated in the review meetings, the agenda for those meetings, the main documents required for those meetings (e.g. customers reviews, sub-contractor reviews, etc.) and how they involved other supply chain members, including clients. The outcome of each PPR was Lessons Learned for Company A and Key Learning Points for Company B. Process maps were developed for each company; these were subsequently validated by each company as a true reflection of their processes.

4.3 Identify Key Knowledge Areas A manual examination of the 48 PPR reports identified 43 keywords for Company A and 22 for Company B. These were discussed with the collaborators to determine which of these terms constitute key knowledge areas. An excerpt of the companies’ ranking of their key knowledge areas is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Ranking of Companies’ Key Knowledge Areas Company A

Company B

Rank

Key Knowledge Area

Rank

Key Knowledge Area

1

Financial Issues

Very High

Change

2

Time

Communication

3

Safety

Lead in Times

4

Environmental Issues

Learning

5

Quality

Planning

6

Individual Trade Packages

7

How Work was Won

High

Cost Design Information Team work Quality

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The above terms were then used for the text mining to extract knowledge from the PPR reports.

4.4 Run text mining experiments The text mining experiments involved four processes which are Text Analysis, Rules Application, Link Analysis and Dimensional Matrix Analysis. These are explained below along with the results of that process. •

Text Analysis

Text Analysis is a semi-automatic process that is applied to the PPR reports to try to identify important keywords and phrases that can then be used to extract knowledge from the body of the reports. The results from the Text Analysis would then be compared with the keywords and phrases identified during the manual process, so that the accuracy and relevancy of the Text Analysis results could be judged. It was possible that manual identification would not identify all the keywords and phrases in the body of the reports, in which case, Text Analysis would be seen as useful in helping overcome the limitations of the manual process. Text Analysis uses frequencies to identify keywords and phrases, a potential limitation of this method is that the frequency may or may not be a good indicator of the relevance or importance of a word or phrase in any particular report. The results of the Text Analysis were checked against keywords that had been identified by manual inspection. Figure 2 shows the Text Analysis results for Company A. •

Rules Application

Rules application is a text mining procedure which uses keywords and phrases extracted by Text Analysis to generate criteria for identifying a subset of reports which have similar features. A rule can be applied for example using the keyword “Finance”. This rule will identify all words and phrases that relate to “Finance” such as “additional cost”, “budget”, “contract sum”, “liquidated damages”, “profit in excess of regional targets”, and “tender allowance”. Rules are applied to the dataset to enable us to statistically summarise the dataset based on the frequencies of certain words. This step is an iterative step. For example, if unimportant keywords are found, the rules application procedure can be refined and then repeated, but with these keywords avoided by using the “ignore term” feature.

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Figure 2: Results of Text Analysis for Company A •

Link Analysis

Link Analysis was applied to visualise the correlation between a set of keywords and phrases identified during the Text Analysis stage. Text Analysis needs to be done before Link Analysis so that the generated rules can be applied to the dataset. The identified keywords/phrases under each high-level hierarchy are stored in the form of rules, which are then applied to the dataset. Figure 3 shows Company B’s Link Analysis results. Figure 3 shows a large set of correlations, based on the occurrence of keywords and phrases, were found in the PPR reports. Each key knowledge area is colour coded to group the sub topic in that area. The strength of a correlation is indicated by the thickness of the lines linking the words or phrases. For example, Figure 3 shows a strong correlation between “Security” and “Loss” and “Safety” and “Personnel”. Some of these correlations constitute useful knowledge and may merit further examination. •

Dimensional Matrix Analysis

Dimensional Matrix Analysis compares a number of keywords in the reports and investigates their influence on each other. A Dimensional Matrix was created using columns to represent each key knowledge area with several key words and rules. Each column consisted of different cells where each cell represented the keyword(s) to be searched for within the PPR reports. Figure 4 shows the results obtained from this analysis. Keywords that come under the “Finance” column might have occurred with other combination of keywords in different columns (such as time, quality, health and safety, etc.) in the matrix. In Figure 4 the phrase “Additional Cost” occurred in six reports. When combined with “Extension of time” in the column Time, both terms appeared in four reports. The knowledge derived can be interpreted as due to the “Extension of time”, four projects incurred “Additional Cost”. Furthermore, these two can be combined with “Quality” to identify how “Extension of time” and “Additional Cost” affected the “Quality” of the project.

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Figure 3: Company B’s Link Analysis Results

Figure 4: Dimensional Matrix Results for Company A

4.5 Evaluate results The results of the text mining were presented to both companies at a project meeting. Subsequently, individual reports on the Text Analysis, Link Analysis and Dimensional Matrix Analysis were prepared for each company and individual consultations were carried out with each company. Both were impressed with the type of information obtained and saw how these could be further investigated. However, the following issues were raised: •

Revision of the key knowledge areas was required as not all these were used in the PPR reports;

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•

Threshold values for the Link Analysis correlation needed further experimentation;

•

Companies had a tendency to focus on negative issues and gloss over positive outcomes; and

•

Some keywords were irrelevant and should be removed from the various analyses.

5. Discussion The research set out to explore the feasibility of using text mining to extract knowledge from PPR reports. The results show that text mining can play an important role in extracting knowledge from PPR reports. However, a number of issues related to the PPR process and the Text Mining process were identified.

5.1 Post project review process issues The following issues were identified as important before the text mining process commences. •

Structure of PPRs

Post Project Review reports can be structured to maximise the benefits from text mining; ideally these should focus on addressing the key knowledge areas identified by the companies. In some cases the companies identified key knowledge areas that did not appear in PPR reports. The format of the reports should also be taken into consideration e.g. segmenting of the reports according to different topics and according to the type of project e.g. Local Authority, Retail, Residential, etc. There should also be a decision on how much text should be used to provide a context in the reports. •

Number of Reports Available

The number of reports considered during the text mining process is a limitation. Ideally, there should have been more reports across a broad range of projects undertaken by companies. This would have provided an ability to look for correlations within sub-sets of reports that were grouped according to criteria such a type of project or client. •

Length of the report

The length of report was also one of the limitations as long reports can contain more irrelevant information. The reports used were typically between 8 to 20 pages long. The length of the reports should ideally be between 3 and 8 pages to enable better text mining results, particularly for techniques such as Link Analysis and Dimensional Matrix Analysis.

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5.2 Text mining process issues The text mining experiments identified some useful and relevant knowledge within the reports. It is also possible that text mining will identify some irrelevant knowledge. However, this can be minimised by careful use of the set up parameters for individual text mining techniques. The final judgements as to the value and use of identified knowledge must always lie with the human user. However, the text mining approach reduces the effort required by users when making those decisions, as it highlights potentially relevant reports or sections of text, hence substantially reducing the quantities of documentation that need to be read before useful knowledge is found. The experiments and subsequent evaluation of the results highlighted the following issues. •

Data mining is an iterative process

The process of extracting knowledge from PPRs is iterative. Keywords and Key Knowledge Areas needed refinement and this was based on companies’ input as to what was closely aligned to their business process. This was necessary to ensure that results are relevant to the business context of companies. •

Experiments used

The Text Analysis, Link Analysis and Dimensional Matrix Analysis worked best in analysing the PPR reports of the companies. The reason was that the companies structured their reports consistently across various headings. Text Analysis identified the keywords and key knowledge areas in the form of rules which were important for analysis purposes. Application of these rules enabled Link Analysis to consistently identify the linkages between the chosen knowledge areas. It was also possible to compare results and link key knowledge areas across different reports over time, because of this consistency of approach. •

Threshold Values

The research found that Link Analysis is sensitive to threshold values set during the text mining process. When a threshold value is set, certain keywords are excluded because they fall below the defined threshold. •

Distance between keywords

Caution should be exercised in making decisions using the relationships between keywords because the distance between keywords and their relevance to each other needs further exploration. The final decisions as to the value and worth of the identified knowledge must be made based on human judgement and experience.

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•

Pre Processing Issues

One major issue for companies wishing to adopt text mining will be the amount of effort required to convert their electronic PPR reports into a format suitable for text mining. At the moment this is done manually but is time consuming and involves removing, words, formats and conversion into .text documents.

6. Conclusions The research undertaken was exploratory in nature and sought to investigate whether PPR reports from construction organisation could use text mining to help discover knowledge that could be used on future projects. The results were found to be quite useful as the experiments were able to highlight correlations between keywords within PPR reports. However, it must be stressed that these findings act as pointers that will require further investigation by users. For example, one company’s results highlighted a correlation between “Losses” and PFI projects that they decided to explore further. The experiments did highlight a number of issues regarding the PPR process such as (1) the availability and format of the PPR reports (2) the heavy reliance on key individuals for conducting PPRs and reporting the results in a useful manner and (3) the dissemination of the PPR reports was particularly problematic because the reports are cannot be found, are in unattractive format or there are no procedures for sharing knowledge from past projects. There was also a disparity in what companies claimed to be their key knowledge areas and what was discussed and reported at the PPR sessions. These issues will have to be rectified if text mining is to play a role in analysing useful and numerous PPR reports. With regard to text mining, different techniques were used which provided some useful preliminary results given the limited sample size. However, again there were further modifications to be made in terms of refining the key knowledge areas used, the threshold values used to find correlations and scrutinising the distance between keywords to verify that the findings reflect potentially useful knowledge. In conclusion, the experiments were very useful but further testing needs to be done with different software tools and more reports to show wider applicability.

References Baird, L., Holland, P. and Deacon, S. (1999) Learning from action: imbedding more learning into the performance fast enough to make a difference. Organisational Dynamics, vol. 27(4),1 9-31 Busby, J. (1999). An assessment of post-project reviews. Project Management Journal, vol. 30(3), 23-29 Carrillo, P. (2005) Lessons learned practices in the engineering, procurement and construction sector. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, vol.12(3), 236-250 Disterer, G. (2002) Management of Project Knowledge and Experiences. Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 5, 512-520.

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Freedman, D. P. and Weinberg, G.M. (1977) Handbook of Walkthroughs, Inspections and Technical Reviews, Evaluating Programs, Projects and Products, 3rd, Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. Garon, S. (2006) Space project management lessons learned: a powerful tool for success. Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 10(2), 103-112 Gibson, G.E., Caldas, C.H., Yohe, A.M., and Weerasooriya, R., (2007) An Analysis of Lessons Learned programs in the construction industry. Construction Industry Institute Research Report 230-11. Kerth, N. (2000), The ritual of retrospectives: how to maximise group learning by understanding past projects, Software Testing & Quality Engineering, September/October, 53-57. Kamara, J.M., Anumba ,C.J., Carrillo, P.M. and Bouchlaghem, N.M. (2003) Conceptual framework for live capture and reuse of project knowledge in Amor, R. (ed.) Construction IT: Bridging the Distance, Proc. CIB W78 International Conference on Information Technology for Construction, Waiheke Island, New Zealand, 2335 April, 178-185. Kleiner, A. and Roth, G. (1997), How to make experience your company’s best teacher, Harvard Business Review, September-October, 173-177. Orange, G., Burke, A. and Cushman, M., (1999), An approach to support reflection and organisational learning within the UK construction industry, Paper presented at BITWorld’99: Cape Town, SA, 30 June -2 July (http://is.lse.ac.uk/b-hive) Roth, G and Kleiner, A.(1998). Developing organisational memory through learning histories. Organisational Dynamics, Autumn, vol.27(2), 43-60 Schindler, M. and Eppler, M.J. (2003). Harvesting project knowledge: a review of project learning methods and success factors. International Journal of Project Management, vol. 2, 219-228. Sowards, D. (2005). The value of post-project reviews. Contractor, vol.52(8), 35-36. Tan, H. C., Carrillo, P., Anumba, C., Kamara, J.M., Bouchlaghem, D., Udeaja, C. (2006). Live capture and reuse of project knowledge in construction organisations, Knowledge Management Research and Practice, vol. 4, 149-161.

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Developing and Managing Knowledge of Construction Methods in the Swedish Building Sector Persson, M. Halmstad University, Box 823, SE-30118 Halmstad, Sweden (email: [email protected])

Abstract In the 1960s and 1970s the construction industry made an effort to develop shared knowledge and performance measurement tools within the industry. This effort ceased as the bigger enterprises began to see information generated at their companies as enterprise assets and competitive resources. In recent years, the construction industry has begun to acknowledge the importance of detailed planning and work preparation on construction sites. The fragmentation of the construction process, with increased specialisation and involvement of many interested parties and actors calls for a shared format for creating, converting, and exchanging knowledge. There is a need for better documentation and control of what is actually done on the construction site, and of how it is done. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how knowledge about construction methods is created, converted, and shared in the Swedish construction sector. It examines past efforts to share information and how the efforts have developed over time. New initiatives are examined and analysed, looking at how well knowledge is managed and applied on construction sites. A web portal developed at Lund University (www.ByggAi.se) in close cooperation with the construction industry exemplifies a new initiative in this respect. The paper will also present end users’ analysis regarding the accessibility of information from the web portal. The web portal has a great potential to disseminate information to various actors: construction enterprises, manufacturers, consultants, and clients. The web portal has also developed to include other areas of interest, promoting issues such as health, safety, and ergonomics; energyefficient buildings; energy-efficient construction work; and handling of moisture issues. The main advantage of the portal is its packaging of situational knowledge, so that workers at all levels can find all of the relevant information about specific construction methods before they begin work on the construction site. Moreover, the portal makes the information available on a “just-in-time” basis, so workers can continue to access it throughout the project, taking what they need to know at the time they need it. Keywords: knowledge management, workers’ instructions, knowledge transfer, continuous improvement.

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1. Lack of knowledge leads to mistakes Studies of the frequency and effects of flaws and errors in the Swedish construction process indicate that these accounts for some 6% of the total production costs and that about 10% of working time is spent on correcting errors and reworking what has been done or planned (Josephson & Hammarlund 1999). A portion of the errors were caused by deficiencies in the design work; such deficiencies include shortcomings in the knowledge available to those engaged in production. A considerable proportion of the errors can also be traced to difficulties caused by vagueness or imprecision in the instructions that the design team provides (Josephson & Saukkorpi 2005). Construction firms are expected to conduct work at the construction site in accordance with agreedupon drawings and specifications. The client expects this to be done in a professional manner, even if this is not explicitly expressed in the contract. The specifications and the contract are normally based on national standard reference frameworks (such as NBS in the UK and AMA in Sweden). Basic workmanship and knowledge of the regulations applicable to building and construction work are essential pre-conditions for performing the work in accordance with the contract.

1.1 The knowledge situation on site Those in charge of work at the site and others engaged in the practicalities of a construction project need adequate knowledge in order to carry out their work properly; moreover, they need to continuously update their working knowledge to keep abreast of the latest technologies (Persson & Bergh 2006). Typically, operatives on construction sites will receive at most some 4 hours of training a year, in contrast to their supervisors, who undergo about 40 hours of training a year. The education obtained in upper secondary school remains the most important component in the training of the majority of construction workers. When new methods and materials are developed, new knowledge is needed. In order to acquire the information needed at a construction site, the personnel (both management and operatives) should be provided with relevant information and be motivated to learn and generate such knowledge themselves (Persson & Bergh 2004, 2006). Designers base their specifications on standard reference works and directions from suppliers, whereas site operatives (i.e., construction workers, craftsmen, etc.) almost never have direct access to information sources of this type. Any contact they do have with these sources is usually superficial, such as an introduction to such matters in upper secondary school (Persson & Bergh 2004). The individual’s knowledge, then, is scarcely renewed although the standard reference framework may be updated continually. Knowledge concerning a task that has been completed can be of genuine help at a later time (positive feedback) and may result in a new and more effective approach to the task (Persson 2006).

1.2 Management of knowledge on site The knowledge management of site operatives tends to be very much neglected (Larsson et al. 2005). As employment is in many cases contract/project based, many employers are not willing to invest in

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further training for the workers. This is further magnified by the nature of construction, with many specialised subcontractors constituting a temporary organisation on site (Persson 2006). Before starting any work, the site operatives and the site management usually discuss the planning and execution of the work (Persson & Bergh 2003). Although this could in principle lead to optimising of plans, sadly, the lack of adequate knowledge on the part of both workers and management could undermine efforts in this direction. According to project managers who were interviewed in a project performed in Uganda, the most important steps in improving productivity involve eliminating incompetence among supervisors and addressing the lack of knowledge and skills on the part of many workers (Alinaitwe 2006: see appendix III p 10). The present system of knowledge management for the on-site personnel of construction companies (operatives, management, and supervisors) can be characterised by the following statements (Persson & Hansson 2008): •

The large numbers of errors occurring at construction sites (and the considerable costs that result) appear to be largely due to insufficient knowledge transfer on the part of the personnel involved.

•

Information obtained from clients, designers, suppliers, and the contractor that could potentially further the knowledge development of the on-site personnel appears not to be well adapted to this purpose, or to be only partially suitable for it.

•

A management function (process) supporting the system for knowledge development appears to be either poorly developed or missing entirely.

The flow of information to personnel at construction sites concerning how the tasks at hand can best be carried out is highly important for the development of knowledge of work procedures generally. With better knowledge of this sort, errors can be minimised or eliminated.

1.3 Aim, objectives, and methods The aim of this paper is to investigate typical features of knowledge management systems for construction sites and to propose a guide to improve the coordination of various components of such systems.

2. Problem analysis A process model of flows of information, machinery, tools, and materials for tasks at construction sites is shown in Figure 1. The site managers prepare for the task, and the site operatives carry it out. The preparations include studying the drawings and specifications with reference to standard reference works and relevant information accumulated regarding the task at hand in the project organisation. There should also be some kind of check before the task is handed over to the next step in the construction process.

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Figure. 1: A generic process model illustrating the flow of information and resources needed to perform Task A at location n on the construction site. (Adapted from CIB78 1997 by Persson & Hansson 2008) In an effort to gain an understanding of how various tasks are actually performed by those who carry them out, 41 cases of task performance of this sort were studied (Persson & Bergh 2006). Compared with the generic process model described in Figure 1, results revealed that flows of information of the following types were usually absent: 1. Information from a standard reference work being made available to the site operatives, 2. Information from relevant legislation and building codes being made available to the site operatives, 3. Information about labour safety regulations being made available to the site operatives, and 4. Further education being provided for the site operatives.

3. Knowledge management system as support to the construction site The knowledge transfer that takes place in a construction firm should be supported by a capable quality management system, as well as by the systems for cost estimating, time scheduling, and labour safety. The site operatives should possess sufficient knowledge to be able to demonstrate good workmanship, and to make effective use of contract documents, drawings, and specifications as the starting point for their work. They should also have the support of the site management and the firm’s overall management system, being enabled to draw on lessons learned and knowledge accumulated.

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The task of the knowledge management system is to direct, enhance, and coordinate knowledge development in the firm, using the relevant subsystems and ensuring that the knowledge needed to carry out the construction work is made readily available. A clear objective of the knowledge management system is to develop the knowledge of the staff in such a way that the conditions of each and every contract will be met and clients’ requirements will be satisfied in an effective and professional way. In most construction companies, however, no explicit knowledge management system has been developed. Most take an ineffective approach to collecting and storing knowledge within the organisation, placing little emphasis on developing the competence of workers. The large numbers of errors made in construction work and the virtual lack of further training suggest that knowledge management, in whatever form it may be present, usually does not function well. Individual site operatives should continually acquire new knowledge so as to maintain a satisfactory level of workmanship. A major part of the knowledge site operatives need to perform their tasks is obtained during their initial professional training and apprenticeship. Formal training provided after that is usually very limited. To be well prepared for the tasks they will perform, workers require ready access to further sources of knowledge, both general and project-specific. The following are certain important considerations pertaining to this: •

Drawings and specifications (in a form that the individual can readily comprehend) pertaining to the work at hand should be provided.

•

A work execution plan (or detailed plan of the work to be done) should be made known, at the latest by the time the work gets underway.

•

General descriptions of the work to be carried out should not only be accessible but also be easy to read and understand.

•

There should be ample access to suppliers’ instructions on how to assemble and use the materials and equipment involved.

•

The laws and regulations that apply should be clear to everyone.

•

Inspection routines should be clarified, and any checklist to be used for control purposes should be handed out to everyone.

The construction site knowledge management systems studied indicated the following problems for the individual site operative (Persson & Bergh 2004): •

Planning sessions and toolbox talks regarding how work is to be carried out are seldom attended by site operatives, even though they are the ones who perform the work.

•

Only in exceptional cases do site operatives have the opportunity to read the specifications for the project they are involved in, or the relevant standard reference work.

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•

Site operatives rarely get to read the manufacturer’s instructions.

•

Drawings and specifications pertaining to work to be carried out often refer to standard documents or reference works or to instructions provided by suppliers. Such standard documents or reference works are usually not available at the work site.

•

Construction workers are usually not trained to read standard documents or reference works. Although these may contain potentially useful instructions on how work is to be carried out, the instructions are often either incomplete, out of date, or difficult to assimilate. The target groups for such documents are often designers and procurement personnel. Site operatives have little involvement with procurement and thus have limited access to these documents, and so such documents contribute little to the knowledge development of the workforce.

•

Only in exceptional cases is a site operative encouraged or given the opportunity to reflect on, plan, or carry out the quality assurance work that is usually called for.

The mismatch between subsystems and the lack of knowledge management can apply to different levels in an organisation. If one aims at changing practices in an entire construction firm, this must be undertaken at a variety of levels: individual – site – firm – national construction sector – international construction sector (Persson 2006). The knowledge management of the sector and available information for personnel at the site is not well organised to facilitate a transfer from explicit to implicit knowledge according to the SECI model of Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), as pictured in Figure 2. The bottom of the figure shows the process of socialisation (tacit Æ tacit); on the left is externalisation (tacit Æexplicit); at the top is combining of knowledge (explicit Æexplicit), and on the right side is the important process of internalisation (explicit Æ tacit). Enabling internalisation is the main objective of the development of

www.ByggAi.se. Figure 2: The SECI model of knowledge transfer with the process of internalisation highlighted (adapted from Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995)

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4. Systems for improved knowledge management on construction sites 4.1 General system improvement Various problems have been outlined concerning mismatches between subsystems within construction firms’ knowledge management systems. There are various approaches that aim at suggesting, describing, or providing solutions to these problems. The Ratu file for planning construction (www.rakennustieto.fi) is one such attempt. This file is intended to improve the productivity, safety, and quality of construction work. Information regarding work procedures and work planning is collected at construction sites and is made available; information about safety in the workplace is provided, and quality assurance information is included. The file is available in a Finnish-language version only. In Denmark, knowledge about construction is gathered in a database (www.bygviden.dk). The program CITB Construction Skills is concerned with educational matters that apply to the entire construction industry (www.cskills.org).

4.2 Knowledge platform www.ByggAi.se At Lund University an approach to making task-related information available as needed to those engaged in construction work has been developed in cooperation with various construction firms (Persson & Bergh 2006). The Swedish name of the system is ByggAi.se. The system has general siteuse-adapted working instructions developed to transfer knowledge on site in a well-structured form. The basic information needed to carry out different types of work is readily available, with a focus on the needs of managers and operatives at a construction site. The working instructions contain information on personal safety, quality control, requirements, suggested tools and supplementary fixtures/materials, and illustrations and text describing suggested correct ways to carry out the work. The system makes information available from health and safety systems, suppliers, standard reference works, and quality systems. The instructions were designed in this way for the following reasons: The working instructions (WI) are general, meaning they can be used at most construction sites; this also means that when they are used they need to be supplemented with information specific to the project at hand. The WIs are siteuse-adapted, meaning that they are adapted to the information requirements of the personnel conducting the work on site rather than the needs of purchasers, designers, etc. The ByggAi system is available on the Internet at www.ByggAi.se. At this stage the Internet portal contains working instructions for 127 different tasks. For each set of instructions, the following main headings are used: Requirements – This section starts with Personal safety and health and describes risks and suggested preventive measures. Demands or recommendations from standard reference works and manufacturers’ and suppliers’ instructions are summarised.

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Preparations – Contains checklists on basic prerequisites for the task. This includes equipment, suggested tools etc., various supporting material (fixtures) and suggestions on materials handling (deliveries, on-site transportation and waste handling). Quality control – A basic form for registering quality control data is provided. Other requirements specific to each construction project need to be added. Performance – Selected pictures accompanied by brief texts are provided, describing and presenting standard ways of carrying out the work in question. The working instructions are available on the Internet portal in PDF format. A CD in PowerPoint format containing the working instructions, together with a template for those wanting to prepare their own working instructions, is also available. Figure 3 shows example WI pages. The ByggAi.se system has been well adopted by Swedish construction firms. The major contractors now work on their own internal knowledge management systems for their construction projects and link from their intranets to www.ByggAi.se. Smaller and medium-sized contractors use the system as it is available on the Internet, or acquire the rights to use the information in their companies. Smaller contractors often say they would never be able to build such a system on their own. The portal www.ByggAi.se was appointed “Innovation of the Year 2008” by SBUF (The Development Fund of the Swedish Construction Industry).

Figure 3: Example from Working Instructions of ByggAi.se (To date only available in Swedish, translated for this paper)

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5. Conclusions Currently there appear to be serious problems in the flow of information needed to provide adequate knowledge on how to perform tasks at construction sites. The inadequate knowledge transfer leads to production problems on site. Often, the same solution found for a problem concerning a given task at a particular site under a given set of conditions can also be applied at another site, even though conditions there may be different. There is thus a certain generality to the solutions suggested, which may basically apply throughout the construction sector. The system – general site-use-adapted working instructions – ByggAi – thus addresses a wide variety of problems. Although ByggAi provides solutions to many problems, there is the question of the extent to which workers have access to it. Supervisory personnel at construction sites should either make computer facilities available to the personnel or make the instructions available to workers in a hard copy format. It is up to the supervisors to initiate meetings for the discussion of new tasks ahead of time. The best option, presumably, is to provide necessary information in a structured way at an appropriate time. Changing the way a given task is performed at construction sites within the entire construction sector as part of a movement for “continuous improvement” calls for a wide and open cooperation between those supplying information resources, contractors, clients, and others involved in the construction process. This also fits well with the analysing of construction activities being done in conjunction with lean construction. From the SECI model it is important to acknowledge that the internalisation process is key. This has also been the focus of the research carried out to establish a platform that enables this process to start. The availability and ease-of-use factors are important, as is the need to avoid overloading the platform with information; rather, the idea is to make information readily available as it is needed (“Just what you need – when you need it”). The second most important factor in developing the platform is the combining process. This “background” work has been given highest priority as it is in the control of the platform developer (the internalisation process is practically beyond control). The system of working instructions described here requires further development. First, the number of working instructions available needs to be increased so as to create as broad a knowledge base as possible. Also, various technical developments should be monitored to determine whether they provide new possibilities for the distribution and storage of information that could be useful here. In addition, the effects of the working instructions should be further monitored and assessed in order to validate their use and to consider their further development. An indication that the ByggAi system is welcomed by the construction industry is that major Swedish construction companies have already started implementing this method of working and they agree that ByggAi is an important tool for the improvement work undertaken. Similarly, various educators have tried it out and found it to be useful.

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References Alinaitwe Mwanaki, H. (2006) Labour Productivity in the Building Industry. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University. Arbnor, I., and Bjerke, B. (1997) Methodology for creating business knowledge. Second edition. London: Sage publications. Birve, L., and Hansson, B. (2003) The Challenge! article (keynote speech) in Hansson, B., and Landin, A. (editors) Construction Economics and Organization, Proceedings of 3rd Nordic Conference. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University. ByggAi - Website of Site-Adapted Work Instructions Internet: http://www.ByggAi.se. CIBW78 (1997) Working Commission W78 workshop Information Technology Support for Construction Process Re-engineering, Cairns, Australia, July 9-11, 1997. Josephson, P.-E., and Hammarlund, Y. (1999) The causes and costs of defects in construction: a study of seven building projects, Automation in Construction, Vol. 8, Issue 6 pp 681-687. Josephson, P.-E., and Saukkorpi, L. (2005) Slöseri i byggprojekt - Behov av förändrat synsätt, FoUväst Rapport 0507, Göteborg Sweden. Larsson, S., Lundin, L-Å., Ruden, J., Tilly, H., and Östlund, H. (2005) Satsa på yrkesutbildning (translated: Invest in vocational training), Sydsvenska dagbladet, June 28, 2005. Nonaka, I., and Takeuchi, H. (1995) The Knowledge-creating company, Oxford University Press, New York. Persson, M. (2006) Lessons Learned in Knowledge Management – the case of construction. ISRN LUTVDG/TVBP2006/1021--SE. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University. Persson, M., and Bergh, Å. (2003) Planering i bygg- och anläggningsföretag – framtagning av utbildningsmaterial. (in Swedish) ISRN LUTVDG/TVBP--03/3083--SE. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University. Persson, M., and Bergh, Å. (2004) Förstudie - Upplärning med systematiska arbetsinstruktioner. (in Swedish) ISRN LUTVDG/TVBP--04/3085--SE. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University. Persson, M., and Bergh, Å. (2006) Arbetsplatsanpassat lärande – rapport från utvecklingsarbete, (in Swedish) ISRN LUTVDG/TVBP/2006/3087--SE. Lund - Sweden: Division of Construction Management, Lund University.

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Persson, M., and Hansson, B. (2008) Supplying Production Instruction Knowledge to the Construction Sites. In: Transformation through construction, Joint 2008 CIB WO65/WO55 Symposium, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 2008-11-14-17. Carter, K., Ogunlana, S. & Kaka, A., eds. School of the Built Environment, Edinburgh: Heriot-Watt University. pp. 158-159.

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Knowledge Discovery of User Requirement as a Way to Reduce Construction and Demolition Waste González, M. A.S. PPGEC/UNISINOS, Sao Leopoldo, Brazil (email: [email protected]) Kern, A.P. PPGEC/UNISINOS, Sao Leopoldo, Brazil (email: [email protected])

Abstract The adequate specification of materials, construction techniques and management systems in design process can contribute to reduce environmental impact, especially related with waste generation. A better user requirements adjustment is helpfull to diminishes the need of major changes on buildings during its life cycle, reducing construction and demolition waste. However, building design is a complex task. One challenge faced by designers is how to properly identify user requirements. By hedonic price theory assumptions, buildings with a better set of characteristics (greater quality) probably will have a major price (which is proxy to greater value). Thus, the understanding of the relationship between price and building characteristics is a way to know user’ requirements. The use of numerical models of the market allows the simulation, supporting design decisions that in general are mainly qualitative. This work investigates how make available knowledge of real estate market to be used to help design decision. The model presented was based on a representative sample of the segment of real market from Porto Alegre, southern Brazil with good statistical performance. The results indicate that adjusted price models have detailing and statistical precision sufficient to support decisions in design stages. Keywords: building design, value, waste, knowledge discovery, hedonic price modelling

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1. Introduction The segment that involves the activities of architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC sector) has great importance for the society. The economic and social relevance of this sector is unquestionable. However, construction industry is also responsible for serious environmental impact. Firstly, this sector consumes a high level of natural resources and energy, which are necessary to produce materials, components and the buildings. On the other side, the activities of construction, maintenance and demolition generate a high volume of waste. The improvement of this sector is vital to contribute to the sustainable development (CIB 1999, Plessis et al. 2002). The strategies to reach sustainable construction can be classified in reactive and pro-active approach. The reactive strategy is the traditional approach, and looks for remediation, through the recycling or reuse of buildings, components and waste. By a pro-active point of view, it is necessary to think in better solutions earlier, since the development phase of new projects. In this context, a project better adjusted to the user requirements causes minors late alterations, considering its life cycle, and thus it reduces the impact of the AEC sector in the environment. To reach this goal, it is important to support design phase using mechanisms that capture knowledge about user preferences. The identification of user’s requirements could be developed through hedonic price models, using data from real estate market. As a segment of the capitalist society, real estate market allows the identification of the preferences through the price paid for each property. Decisions of purchasers are mainly economically rational, and, in such a way, the prices are proportional to the quality level perceived by purchasers or, in a larger sense, the quality level perceived by users. In other words, price is a variable proxy to product’ value. Transaction price reflects the users’ joint evaluation of the bundle of building attributes, and the identification of partial prices, regarding each characteristic of the property, can be carried through hedonic price models (HPM). To give effective support to designers, these models must be sustainable, in other words, they must be based on sound data. Thus, it is very important to collect large databases and to use coherent tools for data analysis, such as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). This paper presents a proposal of a knowledge discovery mechanism to support decision in design stage, and carry out a study about price modeling of apartments in the middle-class market range, using data obtained on Porto Alegre, a southern Brazilian city.

2. Knowledge discovery in real estate market By an economic point of view, properties are considered as multi-dimensional commodities, due to the simultaneous influence of several characteristics in the final price. Thus, properties are heterogeneous goods, and there are a great variety of products in the real estate market and each property has a unique bundle of attributes. Among others differencing elements, properties have significant variations in design, such as size, inner configuration and quality of construction, which are reflected in variations in the market price. The direct comparison among properties is very difficult because of their heterogeneity, different location, and others particular attributes. As a consequence, only the total price is initially known, and it is very difficult to understand the relative

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importance (participation in the price) of each characteristic of the property (Harvey 1996, Lavender 1990, Robinson 1979). Hedonic price models search to establish the relationship between the property price and its (several) important characteristics. In hedonic models, the goods are described through a “bundle of attributes”, congregating the characteristics that are important. The partial prices related to each attribute cannot be directly isolated, because there are no specific markets for each one. The implicit prices of each one of these attributes, also called “hedonic prices” or “shade prices”, are the prices related with each attribute of the property. The contribution of each attribute on the final price can be extracted by regressing technique. The tool generally used to obtain the coefficients that measure these contributions is multiple regression analysis, a much known statistical tool, used in almost all hedonic studies. Following the hedonic price theory, the coefficients represent the prices, on average, that the purchasers are willing to pay for these characteristics (Rosen 1974, Sheppard 1999). The identification of a single model may be carried out by the traditional statistical procedure, which consists of the collection of relevant data and the generation of the hedonic models. However a more trustworthy procedure must include the generation of a database, which contemplates diverse types of property and segments of market, with frequent collection of new data. This database makes the analysis more stable (sustainable), reducing the risks of errors and extending the possibilities of analysis. Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) first appeared in the end of 80’s, as an alternative for the analysis of very large databases (Fayyad et al. 1996). This procedure consists of a special organization of data and techniques to allow the revelation of knowledge that presumably is occult in the data. The knowledge discovery occurs through three basic stages: preprocessing, selection of relevant data, and data mining. The preprocessing phase includes data collection and preparation. It may use several statistical techniques, such as clustering, multiple regression analysis, factor analysis, sampling, and descriptive statistics. The output of this stage is a reliable database. The second stage is data selection, looking for relevant data for each problem. It uses sampling and clustering. In the data mining phase other techniques may be chosen to solve the knowledge discovery problem, such as neural networks, multiple regression analysis, clustering, case-based reasoning, genetic algorithms and fuzzy rulebased systems (Berry and Linoff 2000, Hair Jr et al. 1998, Pyle 1999, Soibelman and González 2002).

3. Methodology and data This paper has as main objective to investigate how knowledge discovery can support decision in design stage based using real market prices. So, it proposes a KD mechanism regarding three stages, based on KDD paradigm: (a) creating database - collecting and preprocessing data from real estate market; (b) selecting data relevant to the problem through clustering and detailing this sample; (c) generation of HPM using MRA and application on design queries. To demonstrate this proposal, it is presented an empirical study using real market database of residential apartments in the middle-class segment in Porto Alegre, a Southern Brazilian city.

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The first phase (a) was developed by (González 2002) and it had been collected data about local real estate market, resulting in a database with more than 30,000 cases. The information about these units was obtained from Sales Tax files in the Porto Alegre Tax Department. The basic data collected were such as: sales price, privative and total floor area, year of building completion, and construction quality level. It was considered the sales prices declared by taxpayer. As a second stage, indicative variables (location quality, distance to the central business district (CBD) and to the main commerce and leisure centres), as well as qualitative variable (quality of neighbourhood) were collected. Finaly, operations of pre-processing were developed, concluding this first phase with an adequate data set for modeling. This database was presented in other studies such as (González and Formoso 2006, González et al. 2005, Soibelman e González 2002). For the selection of data relevant for the segment, the second phase of the study, it was used clustering approach. This selection looked for apartment units in medium class regions of the city, and extracted 110 apartment units. After this, the sample was detailed, collecting information important for this market segment, design plans and photos of the building façades. Also it was identified element such as: number of bedrooms and bathrooms; existence of fireplace, barbecue equipment, balcony and laundry; number of privative parking spaces; characteristics of leisure (presence of swimming pool, sauna, spaces for sports and playground), as well as the quality of the construction. The region from which the observations were drawn is somewhat uniform with respect to accessibility and neighbourhood quality. The sample is composed for new properties, and prices were relatively stable in the period of data collection. Thus, it was not needed to include variables such as: age, location, neighbourhood and time of sale. The basic model is presented in Equation 1, and Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the sample:

SP = a0 + a1*FA + a2*BBr + a3*SBr + a4*BT + a5*HOr + a6*BBE + a7*SBa + a8*FP +a9*LA + a10*LE + a11*PPS + a12*BQ + ε

(1),

where: SP = the sale price in Euros; FA = the floor area in squared meters;

FP* = 1 there is fireplace, 0 otherwise; LA* = 1 if there is laundry space, 0 otherwise;

BBr = the number of bedrooms with bathroom; SBr = the number of simple bedrooms; BT* = 1 if there is bathtub, 0 otherwise; HOr* = 1 if there is home office, 0 otherwise; BBE* = 1 if there is balcony with barbecue

LE = number of leisure spaces (swimming pool/sauna/fitness center/playground); PPS = number of privative parking spaces; BQ = the assessment of building quality; ai = coefficients to be estimated;

equipment, 0 otherwise; SBa* = 1 if there is simple balcony, 0 otherwise;

ε = stochastic term.

* dummy variables

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Table 1: Summary statistics of the quantitative variables Variables

Maximum value

Minimum value

Mean

Standard deviation

SP (€)

364,000.00

49,142.85

126,889.08

49,469.58

FA (m2)

287.77

39.32

104.22

41.81

BBr

3

0

0.60

0.61

SBr

3

0

1.87

0.65

SBa

2

0

0.64

0.57

LE

4

0

0.82

1.02

PPS

3

0

0.91

0.83

BQ

10.0

4.5

5.83

0.78

The majority of these attributes are commonly used in hedonic studies (Ball 1973, Boyle and Kiel 2001, Chau and Wong 2004, Chau et al. 2001, Din et al. 2001, Smith et al. 1988). In the present case, the attribute “Balcony with barbecue equipment” (BBE) was included in the model due to an important characteristic for the real estate market in Porto Alegre. The local culture privileges the consumption of meat baked in meetings with family and friends. The inclusion of barbecue equipment in the main ambient of the apartments in the upper-middle market segment in the city of Porto Alegre was initiated about 30 years ago and it was spread quickly for other kinds of properties in this city and also on surrounding ones. It is a great sale appeal and for many cases the project of privative area is defined using this element as principal requirement. Because of transformations in working relationships, the presence of a home office in a separated room (HOr) is important in this segment of real estate market. By another hand, the collective spaces for leisure were represented in one variable, because initial studies indicated the grouping of the spaces destined to the leisure in one variable, adding the presence of each of these elements: swimming pool/sauna/fitness center/playground, which individually had not statistical importance.

4. Results and discussion Some models had been developed using this sample, and linear specification provided better results (see Equation 1 and Table 2). In the final model, all variables show importance, and coefficients are significant at 5 percent level or better. The results indicate a high adjusted R2 of 0.9694. The analysis of graphs (not shown here) with collected prices x estimated prices, and estimated prices x standardized errors did not indicate presence of trends or other statistical problems (autocorrelation, outliers, not constant error variance, etc.). The correlation matrix did not point out strong correlations among the explanatory variables (they had not exceeded 0.6). Thus, it may be concluded that the model built (Table 2) presents adequate statistical conditions and allows market analysis or estimation of values. The analysis of the set of coefficients allows the comparison and specification of major aggregate value alternatives. Of course, the constructed total area is limited by total costs or urban regulations,

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and designers need to choose between some alternatives. For example, model on Table 2 indicates that a simple bedroom (SBr) or a collective space for gymnastics (included in LE) adds similar values for the users in the total price of the property (4.5 thousand Euros x 4.4 thousand Euros). In these cases the values must be collated with the construction costs. On the other hand, the difference between a simple bedroom (SBr, 4.5 thousand Euros) and a bedroom equipped with a bathroom (BBr, 16.7 thousand Euros) certainly would justify the inclusion of the bathroom as a better alternative. In other cases, the importance of variables it’s not too clear. For example, it is important to verify that the hedonic coefficients of some variables such as Fireplace (FP), Bathtub (BT), and Balcony with barbecue equipment (BBE) represent not exclusively the named equipment, but actually a larger set of elements. In truth, they are emblematic elements and working as value signs, indicating a superior category of property. They have also strong influence on design (because of that, designers need to consider these elements in the first drafts). The inclusion of a balcony or a fireplace causes the increasing and redistribution of inner spaces, and a bathtub causes the magnifying of the bathroom area. BBE is a relatively large space, counting on about 8 to 15m² and functioning as an extra living/dining room. Simple balcony is located in the bedrooms and has a distinct function, representing only the contact with the exterior space, with privilege of a panoramic view and improvement of ventilation, but in general it has lesser area (about 6m²), as well as less intense use and lesser importance for the users, what it is reflected in the hedonic prices (23.9 thousand Euros x 6.5 thousand Euros). Table 2: Regression results of linear models (see Equation 1) Variable

Coefficient

t-statistic

Constant

-173,428.068

-19.141

FA

340.530

10.418

BBr

16,706.302

7.113

SBr

4,565.228

2.378

BT

7,063.530

2.137

HOr

14,659.450

4.070

BBE

23,943.206

10.590

SBa

6,536.118

3.393

FP

17,247.389

6.969

LA

5,876.922

2.021

LE

4,388.420

4.438

PPS

8,778.206

6.091

BQ

34,994.143

26.390

Adjusted R2

0.9694

Number of observations

110

Dependent variable

SP

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Table 3 demonstrates the use of the model to estimate the price of two alternatives for a new residential project, aiming to support design decisions. Both alternatives regard 100m² apartments, 2 parking spaces in the ground floor and collective swimming pool and playground. The apartments of Alternative A are composed by: living room (24m²), 3 bedrooms (36m²), 3 bathrooms (9m²), balcony (4,5m²), kitchen (10m²), corridor (4m²) - walls (12,5m²) - 2 parking spaces in the ground floor. The building counts with swimming pool and playground. The apartments of Alternative B are composed by: living room connected to a balcony with barbecue equipment (32,7m²), 2 bedrooms with bathrooms (35,7m²), bathroom (1,3m²), home office (4m²), kitchen (7m²), laundry (3m²), corridor (4m²) - walls (12,3 m²). Table 3 – Price estimate for alternatives A and B Variable

Alternative A

Alternative B

FA

100

100

BBr

0

2

SBr

3

0

BT

0

0

HOr

0

1

BBE

0

1

SBa

1

0

FP

0

0

LA

0

1

LE

2

2

PPS

2

2

BQ

7

7

Value (€)

152,148.95

209,809.33

Due to the fact that both apartments have the same area and leisure’s it can be considered that boths alternatives have almost the same cost. However, the model demonstrates that Alternative B has potentially major market price in the first sale than Alternative A, with 57.6 thousand Euros difference. Because this configuration is more valued, it is expected less future physical transformations, including waste as demolitions and reworking. On the other hand, to transform Alternative A into alternative B after the building is finished, it will be necessary to remove and to reconstruct 13m² of wall, generating around 1,5m³ of residues.

5. Conclusions By a general point of view, this paper proposes a way to collaborate to sustainability through the identification of design solutions that add more value to the user and expect less waste generation during the project life cycle. In summary, hedonic price models can be regarded as a technique to understand the market value and to evaluate the requirements and the preferences of the user through

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an indirect form. They can support decisions in design phase (through the implicit prices), to make trade-offs between costs and value added for different alternatives. The presented study used the techniques of clustering for case selection and multiple regression analysis for the generation of price models. The model presented was based on a representative sample of the segment of real market with good statistical performance. It was demonstrated the use to estimate values of design alternatives to help new product conception.

References Ball M J (1973) “Recent empirical work on the determinants of relative house prices”, Urban Studies 10: 213-233. Boyle M A and Kiel K A (2001) “A survey of house price hedonic studies of the impact of environmental externalities”, Journal of Real Estate Literature 9: 117-144. Chau K W and Wong S K (2004) “The value of the provision of a balcony in apartments in Hong Kong”, Property Management 22: 250-263. Chau K W, Ma V S M and Ho D C W (2001) “The Pricing of ‘Luckiness’ in the Apartment Market”, Journal of Real Estate Literature 9: 31-40. CIB (International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction) (1999) “Agenda 21 on Sustainable Construction”, CIB Report Publication n.237, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, CIB. Din A, Hoesli M and Bender A (2001) “Environmental variables and real estate prices”, Urban Studies 38: 1989-2000. Fayyad U M, Piatetsky-Shapiro G and Smith P (1996) “From data mining to knowledge discovery: An overview”, Fayyad U M, Piatetsky-Shapiro G, Smyth P and Uthurusamy R (editors), Advances in knowledge discovery and data mining, 1-34, Menlo Park (CA)/Cambridge (MA), AAAI Press/MIT. González M A S (2002) Applying knowledge discovery in databases and artificial intelligence tools in real estate appraisal, PhD Diss, Porto Alegre, Brazil, UFRGS (in portuguese). González M A S and Formoso C T (2006) “Mass appraisal with genetic fuzzy rule-based systems”, Property Management 24: 20-30. González M A S, Soibelman L and Formoso C T (2005) “A New Approach to Spatial Analysis in CAMA”, Property Management 23: 312-327. Hair Jr J F et al (1998) Multivariate data analysis, 5ed, Upper Saddle River (NJ), Prentice-Hall.

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Harvey J (1996) Urban land economics, 4ed, London, MacMillan. Lavender S D (1990) Economics for builders and surveyors, Essex (UK), Longman. Plessis C et al (2002) Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries, v.1. Pretoria, South Africa, CIB/UNEP-IETC. Pyle D (1999) Data preparation for data mining, San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann. Robinson R (1979) Housing economics and public policy, London, MacMillan. Rosen S (1974) “Hedonic prices and implicit markets: product differenciation in pure competition”, Journal of Political Economy 82: 34-55. Sheppard S (1999) “Hedonic analysis of housing markets”, Cheshire P C and Mills E S (editors), Handbook of applied urban economics 3: 1595-1635, New York, Elsevier. Smith L B, Rosen K T and Fallis G (1988) “Recent developments in economic models of housing

markets” Journal of Economic Literature 26: 29-64. Soibelman L and González M A S (2002) “A knowledge discovery in databases framework to property valuation”, Journal of Property Tax Assessment and Administration 7: 77-106.

Acknowledgements Authors wish to thanks to CNPq and FAPERGS (Brazilian research agencies).

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Information and Document Management System for Construction Sites Ribeiro, F. L. Instituto Superior Técnico, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Arquitectura, DECivil, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal (email: [email protected]) Vera-Cruz, M.A. Contacto - Sociedade de construções, SA. Rua Julieta Ferrão 12, 15º andar, 1649-039 Lisboa, Portugal (email: [email protected]) Serra, P.V. Contacto - Sociedade de construções, SA. Rua Julieta Ferrão 12, 15º andar, 1649-039 Lisboa, Portugal (email: [email protected])

Abstract Each construction project is unique in terms of how specialist professionals manage and use project documents. A construction sites use and generate a large body of documents containing valuable information across project participants. Therefore, the efficient deployment of construction projects depends partly on the effective communication among project participants. This communication, however, is hindered by the large amount and wide variation of the project information and documents involved and the spatial dispersion of construction sites. This paper presents an intranetbased information and document management system that facilitates project information and communication management within a large construction company. The system implementation and testing have shown that it can provide structured and reliable information, quick and remote access, and prompt updating capabilities of stored documents. Keywords: Communication, construction, documents, information, management

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1. Introduction Construction is an information driven industry. Construction firms all over the world are increasingly being challenged by high cost pressure, shortened project cycles and increasing competition. Within a business environment, where fast and reliable access to information is a key success factor, the efficient handling of project documents is crucial. Hicks (2007) underlies project information managed is of some value to the company individuals and that the information management system implemented support the flow of information value. A construction company generates an enormous quantity of data that needs to be stored, retrieved, communicated and used by all parties involved. The amount of information that is created, stored and accessed within a construction organisation has risen exponentially and continues to rise (Dawood et al., 2002). This ever-increasing volume of information is driven by the variety, diversity and numbers of sources, tools and methods for generating information, which are themselves continually rising in number. Because of this increasing volume and diversity of information types (including information records, information sources, electronic files and electronic documents) dedicated systems are developed for archiving and accessing particular types of information (documents/files) including for example records and database management systems (RDBMS), document management systems (DMS) or content management systems (Curtis and Cobham, 2002). New opportunities for collaboration, coordination and information exchange among organizations are being created by the use of communication and information technologies. The number of documents and actors in construction projects environment is quite large. The management of documents in physical support (paper support) has known disadvantages in areas such as security, productivity, economics and environment, in any industrial area. If there is no concern in centralizing the entering information or in creating functional ways to organize it for subsequently information research, the risk of not finding a document or its copy is increased. Sometimes, documents are destroyed because someone took it out of place for consulting and didn’t replace it in a correct location. Documents are archived in central repository and are duplicated in department’s archives, and sometimes in personnel archives. A document is subject to many copies which imply costs in storage (support and space), copy (paper and ink) and environment. Documents in digital support or physical support normally flow between email boxes or between desks, in sequent, recurrent and none controlled process. The duplication of the information, associated copies, decentralized information, thus, missing control have consequences in executions tasks’ time and other issues, bringing no profits for the future. This paper presents an intranet-based information and document management system that facilitates project information and communication management within a large construction company.

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2. Methodology The prerequisite for developing an information and document management solution in which project information can be shared and used to enable and improve construction processes is identifying the sources and nature of information and its flow from a particular source to a specific destination. Thus, the methodology is grounded in empirical modelling which, according to Beynon et al. (2002), “involves a paradigm shift in which experience becomes the primary and primitive ingredient.” In order to understand the source flow of project information a qualitative case study approach was undertaken whereby various actors, knowledge retention practices, access and retrieval of knowledge and issues in sharing knowledge were identified and analyzed. The strength of the case study research method is its ability to perform in-depth investigations when the case under study is broad and complex and cannot be studied outside the context (Klein and Myers, 1999; Yin, 2003). Furthermore, this approach also allows the use of flexible ways of collecting qualitative data and aims at providing an internal information management solution validation during the course of the information and document management system development. Data was collected in a series of personal interviews conducted with various groups, including managers and employees, within the project organization. Interviews collect field data for empirical modeling (Humphreys et al., 1996) in order to select relevant knowledge artifacts from the list of potential ones. Collecting data for empirical modeling requires creating a sample of project sites that represent the reality in the field of the study. Thus, the authors have studied three informationintensive construction project sites over an 8 month period. On the basis of the literature reviews and workshop discussions, the authors developed a template for conducting case studies and writing case descriptions of selected construction project sites. Thus, workshop discussions and informal meetings were held at all three construction sites. They were aimed at defining the core variables of the case studies. In order to examine the information and document management effort and activities in the organisational context, this study was carried out in three stages. In the first stage, the data, from three case studies, was identified and collected. In the second stage, the information management processes and tools found in those cases were analysed and their key factors were investigated. In the last stage, the empirical findings and recommendations for the development of information and document management system were compiled for discussion. To be able to evaluate the collected data, a checklist was created with all the documents found in the archives and all the documents listed in company’s archive procedure. The checklist contains the location for every original and copied document according to every department in the company. Field

data were processed and analysed by all of the authors in order to avoid discrepancies and individual biases. There is an agreement among interviewees that information and

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communication technology (ICT) can help to improve information sharing, communication and interaction both within the project team and within the project delivery chain. Most interviewees agree that information managed is necessary and expect that an ICT based system has many advantages in enterprise asset management. However, the there case studies show that electronic mail and the Internet are the main ITC used in most construction sites.

3. Theoretical background Information and communication technology is often associated with improved organizational flexibility, quicker access to information, fast responses to changing conditions, greater innovation and improved decision-making (Tseng, 2007; Meroño-Cerdan et al. 2008). They are deeply embedded in the existing organizational culture and workflow of construction firms. Technology is not only important to help individuals communicate and interact, but it is also a means to collect, store, retrieve and transfer information and knowledge (Tseng, 2007). Loukis et al. (2008) stressed the effect of external environment related factors on the business value generated by ICT investment. They concluded that there are external conditions that result in higher business value from ICT investment. Chuang et al. (2009) studied the effect of compositions of managerial characteristics of the top management on the extent of ICT adoption in construction companies. Cockburn and Highsmith (2001) stress the role of good communication and interaction within a project team in the team members’ commitment and performance. Therefore, it is worth improving both individual’s competencies and collaborative skills. Modern ICT holds good prospects for improving the business processes of the construction industry, particularly in the field of business management (Curtis and Cobham, 2002; Benjaoran, 2008). ICT can help to enhance collaborative teamwork to provide cooperative network systems, available to all employees. Site project team members can share and reuse company’s information. Project documentation should flow smoothly through the cooperative network system to allow document sharing by all project stakeholders. Palaneeswaran et al. (2005), emphasise the need of an effective information management along the project, since people move from one project another making very difficult to establish an effective communication network amongst site workers. Several studies on information management have been developed to date. Rezgui et al. (1996) developed a management system that aims to increase the cooperative work in the building industry throughout the lifetime of every project. The system defines in a scheme all the processes involved in the project, including the responsibility taken by each one of the collaborators involved. The model considers the process of information propagation, notifying the users about every data change or update, as well as the effects of such changes. The model also includes a feature for data index and retrieval. Ameziane (2000) has conceived an information management system that includes databases shared through the Internet. Like the authors mentioned above, Ameziane stands for the cooperation amongst collaborators even if they work in different activities. He proposes a database for every project built, properly organized and divided in classes according to the nature of each project. The main role of this database would be to gather and retrieve all the relevant and updated information to the characters involved in the project. The automatic communication and information management

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system developed by Dawood et al. (2002) also uses internet technology and it is formed by three key elements: Web Server, Client Server and User Interface. The link between the two servers is provided by the interface. Along their research, the authors came across two major issues: the many processes involved in a building project and the lack of a proper format and language used in information exchange. Caldas and Soibelman (2002) developed a document classification system in 6 stages: data selection; data preparation; data size reduction; definition of training and testing; Creation of Classification Models and document classification system. This system distinguishes from all the others in its conception and purpose. It was developed as an auxiliary tool to distinguish, classify and organize the different types of information. Another system by Caldas and Soibelman is based on building industry documents in text format, processed in three stages: classification, result retrieving and hierarchy and association (Caldas et al. 2002). A management system for information in geotechnical engineering was developed by Schley and Holtz (2005) based on two primary objectives: resource management on a construction site using Web technology; gathering and integrated information management from all these resources. Like Ameziane (2000) and Dawood et al. (2002) use Web tools in the model to accomplish their objectives. These authors analyzed all the processes evolving the building process and the information flows generated between all the collaborators in order to identify and extract the essential data. Like in Dawood’s model, the database can be accessed by any user (such as the client) through an ordinary web browser with no need of any special software. Persson (2006) has recently developed another model for an information management system based on the pre-fabricated concrete structures industry. Like Dawood and Schley and Holtz did before, he studied all the industrial processes taking place in this specific industry as well as all the processes evolving data and ICT. A web based document management tool (WPMS – Web based Project Management System) was presented by Forcada et al. (2007). The authors claim that an effective document and data share is a primary need for the Spanish small and medium sized companies in the building industry. For them all the information should be stored in a main server accessible through an electronic document management system.

Each author mentioned above agrees that the construction industry generates great amounts of data, whether it is paper documents or electronic data, and this data needs proper management. The wide variety of formats and the nature of such data sustain the argument that such a management system with standard formats is quite necessary in order to improve communication amongst all project collaborators. Most of the models presented concur by using central data storage unit that retrieves updated information and keeps track of those updates, controlling the information that is made accessible to each user depending on its task and needs. Since there are so many different entities working together in the construction industry, it is also claimed by these authors that a common language should be established in order to make communicating and information share easier and more effective.

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However, construction companies have historically not managed the transfer of project information well and have not effectively developed a project management learning culture that takes into account both technology and people. This may be due to the temporary and unique nature of the project and the typical release of project resources as a project approaches its completion.

4. The proposed system Information management for projects should address concrete uses of construction sites. The case study action research helped the authors to develop an information and document management system adjusted to the nature of construction projects. Thus, a construction company was chosen as a model for developing the proposed system.

In Company’s daily activity, a large amount of data is generated, sent and received, thus, creating complex information flows. Therefore, in context of this research project, a Web-base collaborative information and document management system was developed during 2008. This system was developed on Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 application, and is aimed to: i) manage corporate and project documents; ii) store and transfer project feedback site information; and iii) transfer company procedures and best practices within the organisation and across project teams. This system is supported by the architecture shown in Figure 1. The architecture shown in figure 1 consists of two Web-Front END, one Application Server/ Index/Search Server, one Database Server linked to a high speed Storage Area Network. Documents, images, files, documents’ registers and other documents are stored in the database server. The database works as an information and knowledge repository, making information and knowledge available via WEB to the firm’s project organisations and departments on a business-to-business basis through the existing network. The focus of the implemented information management system is on capturing, codifying and storing information and knowledge in a structured and collaborative manner and making them available through the Company’s intranet. The system is developed and maintained in the Company’s headquarters. It uses a centralised organisation. However, the system as it stands allows, via the intranet, two-way vertical communication within the group unit and collaborative teamwork. The proposed information management system has an information and communication technology (ICT) focus. Thus, Information sharing is emerging as a consequence of the ICT infrastructure. According to the project participants, it facilitates cross-functional communication and internal information search. 

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Figure 1: Web-based collaborative system architecture

The proposed system exhibits some of the characteristics of content-based KM systems. It provides the following services: •

Archive – data storage; document capture in digital format; data update and document versions; data index.

•

Security – secure server policy; secure files and folders; user interface with access restrictions.

•

Website Model – pre-established formats / forms: html content rendering in graphic interface.

A graphic user interface was designed and developed specifically to cope with a large amount information and data flowing across de company departments and sites. In addition, a set of software tools that allows managing all data inputted on database were created. These software tools include a search engine, task list and schedule, relevant documents list, document library, document versions index, check in and check out. The system’s objective is to reduce archive’s costs using less paper documents, to increase the operability of daily tasks and to improve communication and information exchange. The proposed system also includes a set of web pages which provide the company with a self-managed information system that serves every department and construction site. This functionality is aimed at improving communication both internally and with outside collaborators, facilitating a more cooperative work, coherent with company’s global strategy. This aim is

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accomplished by: i) providing all the information needed throughout every department and construction site in the company; ii) creating an intranet portal, defined as a central Web site for organizing and distributing company information to access all web-based applications; iii) making information search easier by using an improved search engine to explore data and file’s content. In consequence of this research project, the company’s internal network was reorganized, its graphic interface was changed and its search engine was improved to better work with all the documents and contacts. Besides, there was a need of reviewing the archive’s procedures and to create a standard identification format since most documents would change from paper to electronic format. The proposed was tested in one of the company’s project – a supermarket in Estremoz, Portugal. The trial project is a commercial building in “open book”, meaning the client is another company from the same Group Corporation. The system was presented to the collaborators involved and they were trained to work with it. Figures 2 and 3 present two different views of the system’s graphical interface at the construction site.

Figure 2: A view of the user interface of Web-base system The view shown in figure 2 allows the site user to work on data and information about the project budget control. The view show in figure 3 allows use to access work on the information related to the project design. The testing and validating of the software application was conducted simultaneously with a constant search for flaws or improvement opportunities. Testing the many components of a software program is essential in these stages, and it can be assumed that the verification and the testing of software applications is included within the concept of software validation. This application’s verification and validation not only considered each of its components individually but it also analyzed the application as a whole, considering the models from the designer and user perspectives (Jagdev et al., 1995).

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Figure 3: A view of the user interface of Web-base system There are two types of electronic data files in the system. Those generated directly from the system itself and those that must be converted into digital format, often generated outside the Company, received by mail or fax.

5. Conclusion This paper describes a collaborative information management system that can be used by any construction company. This proposed system presents itself as the focal point for all information flows. It is the place where all information concerning Company’s activity is gathered, shared and used via Web. Here, all updated data is available to Company’s employees in a controlled fashion, so they can access the information required to perform their tasks correctly and more efficiently. The system can be accessed from anywhere inside Company’s internal network and it has the ability to be accessed from any Internet access point – This access is provided by a graphic interface that presents the user all information libraries available on database. Main advantages in using this system are faster document search and data retrieval and easier information share together with a user-friendly interface that offers its users an attractive and easier to read working environment. Trial users referred file naming process and user’s permissions as most significant difficulties in dealing with the system. The developed system will render the assisted information management tasks more effective. Its use was tested on data from different project domains. The authors followed up usage and usefulness

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during the system’s implementation. It enabled action based on concrete results and data and thus supports the continuous improvement of the information management system.

References Ameziane F (2000) “An information system for building production management”. Int. J. Production Economics, 64: 345-358. Benjaoran B (2008) “A cost control system development: A collaborative approach for small and medium-sized contractors”. Journal of International Management, Elsevier, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2008.02.004. Caldas C H, Soibelman L e Han J (2002) A”utomated classification of construction project documents”. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 16(4): 234-243. Cockburn A and Highsmith J (2001) “Agile software development 2: The people factor”. IEEE Computer. Curtis G and Cobham D (2002) Business information systems: Analysis design and practice (4th ed.), Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA ISBN 0273651307. Dawood N, Akinsola A e Hobbs B (2002) “Development of automated communication of system for managing site information using internet technology”. Automation in Construction. 11: 557-572. Forcada N, Casals M, Roca X e Gangolells M (2007) “Adoption of web databases for document management in SMEs of the construction sector in Spain”. Automation in Construction, 16: 441-424, Hicks B J (2007) “Lean information management: Understanding and eliminating waste”. International Journal of Information Management, 27 (4): 233-249. Humphreys P, Bannon L, McCosh A, Migliarese P and Pomerol .-C (1996) Implementing systems for supporting management decision: Concepts, methods and experiences, Chapman & Hall, London. Jagdev H S, Browne J, and Jordan P (1995) “Verification and validation issues in manufacturing models”. Computers in Industry, 331-353. Klein H K and Myers MD (1999) “A set of principles for conducting and evaluating interpretive field studies in information systems”. MIS Quarterly 23 (1): 67–93. Loukis E, Sapounas I, Aivalis K (2008) “The effect of generalized competition and strategy on the business value of information and communication technologies”. Journal of Enterprise Information Mangement, 21 (1): 24-38.

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Meroño-Cerdan AL, Soto-Acosta P, López-Nicolás C. (2008) “Analyzing collaborative technologies' effect on performance through intranet use orientations” Journal of Enterprise Information Mangement, 21 (1): 39-51. Palaneeswaran E, NG T e Kumarasmy M. (2005). Value Networking in Construction Project Scenarios With Appropriate Information ad Knowledge Management Frameworks. .), CIB W102 Information and Knowledge Management in a Global Economy, Edited by: F. L. Ribeiro, P. D. E. Love, C. H. Davidson, C. D. Egbu e B. Dimitrijevic, Lisbon. Persson S (2006) “Information Management Regarding the Production of Precast Concrete Structures”. Available on line: on http://www.icccbexi.ca [Accessed on 12 August, 2009]. Rezgui Y, Brown A, Cooper G, Yip J, Brandon P e Kirkham J (1996) “An Information management model for concurrent construction engineering”. Automation in Construction , 5: 343-35. Tseng S (2007) “The effects of information technology on knowledge management systems”. Expert Systems with Application doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2007.06.011. Yin R (2003) In: L. Bickman, Editor, Case study research – Design and methods, Applied social research methods 5, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.

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Using Social Networks to Understand Knowledge Creation in Project Environments Kurul, E. Department of Real Estate & Construction, Oxford Brookes University (email: [email protected])

Abstract This paper aims to close an important gap in the literature where empirical work on how new knowledge is created is particularly lacking. It adopts Fong’s “second knowledge perspective” which considers “knowledge as a set of shared beliefs that are constructed through social interactions and embedded within the social contexts in which knowledge is created”. It utilises the concept of “social capital” to explain how knowledge is sourced and created in project environments. SNA is used to establish the structural network metrics for two project delivery teams in one of the most affluent regions in the UK- the South-East. Content analysis facilitate the analysis of qualitative data on tie content. These analyses are correlated to identify whether network features and tie contents are conducive to knowledge sourcing and creation in the two project environments. This paper thus makes an important contribution to the developing paradigm in social capital research by concurrently analysing network structures and tie contents. Project managers are identified as the main knowledge-brokers who spend approximately 30% of their time facilitating information exchange between members of the intra-organisational team. It is also revealed that high-density networks are relatively inward looking, with limited absorptive capacity and thus innovative capacity. The need to study the structural as well as the qualitative aspects of a network is identified as a precursor to understanding how knowledge is created in networks in project environments. Keywords: social network, knowledge creation, project

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1. Introduction 1.1 The ‘Knowledge Management’ Paradigm There has been an upsurge in the amount of research on knowledge management in all fields, including project management in the built environment. Much of this research has been focussed on the effective capitalisation of an organisation’s knowledge assets. This approach takes it for granted that knowledge is a commodity which can and should be managed. It thus poses four main problems, including the oversight of knowledge processes such as knowledge creation (Kurul et al., 2006). As a result, the particular complexities of managing knowledge at the project level are not attended to. This is one of the main problems associated with research on the complex issues of knowledge creation and sharing, which are critical if the industry is to overcome the challenges it currently faces and to start making any progress in improving its innovative capacity more than ten years after Egan’s (Department of Trade and Industry, 1998) seminal report. The solution of this very important problem relies on the transformation of the discourse from asset capitalisation to the recognition of the importance of social patterns, processes and practices (Edwards, 2007; Brookes et al., 2006 and Bresnen et al., 2003), and of the capability of continuously sourcing, combining, developing and applying knowledge as the main source of competitive advantage (Salmador, 2007; Sharkie, 2005; Roth, 2003; Lang, 2001). It is then ironic that the ‘knowledge management fad’ in our field has already started to fade without any discussion on how this transformation in the field can be brought about, whilst an upsurge in sustainability-related research is rightly gaining a strong foothold amongst academicians and practitioners. One of the core arguments of this paper is that the academic community could be missing an important opportunity by not recognising the close relationship between the industry’s ability to respond to the challenge of living in a changing climate and its ability to create new knowledge through the effective use of its network structure. It is also argued that is not possible to capitalise on this potential before an appropriate methodological approach is devised for ‘measuring’ knowledge creation capacity and understanding the complex process of creating knowledge. This paper reports on one such approach in order to provide the academic community with an example and to open a discussion on how we can transform the research on the knowledge paradigm in our field.

1.2 What is knowledge creation? “Knowledge creation is…perceived as one of the major assets of innovative organisations, and innovative organisations are defined by knowledge creation” (Merx-Chermin and Nijhof, 2005). It is defined as ‘a series of transformations, by which standard resources, which are available in open markets [or contained within the project teams], are used and combined within the organisational context in order to produce [competences and] capabilities’ (Ciborra and Andreu, 2001: 74). Competences and capabilities (unlike resources) are unique to each organisation, and so are the sources of competitive advantage (Grant, 2000). Knowledge creation involves the integration of

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highly differentiated knowledge, which resides in intra-organisational and cross-functional teams (Caloghirou et al., 2004; Un and Cuervo-Cazurra, 2004; Huang and Newell, 2003). A number of conditions, e.g. established linkages for knowledge sharing (Hansen, 2002) and ‘absorptive capacity’ (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990), have to be in place for these interactions to take place. These conditions are underpinned by the sources of social capital, i.e. the structure of a social network facilitating knowledge/information flows and shared cognition (Adler and Kwon, 2002). Hence, social capital underlines the conditions for knowledge creation In this context, project environments within the built environment sector provide a fertile context for the creation of new knowledge. Practitioners already subconsciously create extensive new knowledge. The challenge is to find ways of understanding this process and ‘measuring’ a team’s knowledge creation capacity so that practitioners who are currently subconsciously competent would become consciously competent, enabling them and their teams to improve their knowledge creation practices. Increasing our understanding in this area would also enable us to help teams with low knowledge creation capacity to improve their capacity.

2. How could we study knowledge creation? Studying the knowledge creation process inherits major challenges due to its complexity and contextspecificity. These characteristics mean that this process should be studied in its ‘native’ environment, rendering case studies as one of the most appropriate approaches. It has also been established that social capital provides a strong conceptual background to study the influence of the knowledge creating relationships between different members of a project team, who are affiliated with a widerange of companies in the sector. In general, the concept of social capital is operationalised in empirical research in terms of its structural (usually explored through social networks) and cultural (encompassing norms and values, and trust) aspects (Van Deth, 2003 and Adler and Kwon, 2002). Hence, there are two strands of studies: one which locates sources of social capital in the network structure and one which focuses on the resources embedded in these ties (Adler and Kwon 2002 and Lin,2001). The first one is termed “the network theoretic approaches to social capital” and is “[p]robably the biggest growth area in organizational network research” (Borgatti and Foster, 2003). According to Lin (2001), “there is little dispute that embedded resources are valid measures for social capital”, whilst “[t]here is some debate as to whether network locations are measures of social capital or precursors to social capital.” She concludes that network locations should facilitate but do not necessarily determine access to resources. Given this, network theoretic approaches can only identify the potential inherent in a network. Hence, the devised methodology should address both the structural aspects of the network and the resources that are inherent in it. In this research, social network analysis (SNA) is used in order to understand the structural aspects of the project networks in case study settings. The case studies were two intra-organisational project teams which were undertaking projects over £3m value at the time of the research. Intraorganisational project teams were chosen as the unit of analysis for two main reasons. First, they are

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the most common units of execution in the construction industry. Second, they have long been regarded as the settings of complex processes of new value creation and innovation (Sayles and Chandler, 1971;Winch, 1998). Project One was the construction of an office block in the City of London for one of the UK’s largest development companies. Project Two was the refurbishment of a laboratory/office facility for a multinational pharmaceutical company. In both cases, the client and the main contactor had established working relationships for more than a decade. Interviewees were identified in collaboration with Project Directors (or their equivalent) in each case. Due consideration was given to ensuring that members of the project team who had the highest potential to bring about innovation were interviewed and that a cross-section of members who were representative of the project team was selected. Twenty and eighteen interviews were conducted for Project 1 and Project 2 respectively. In all but one case the interviews were recorded. On completion of the interviews, data was logged onto relational matrices which became the basis of SNA, using InFlow 3.1. Given that ‘the special facility organisations have for the creation and transfer of tacit knowledge’ drives their knowledge creation capability (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998), we used SNA metrics which enabled us to evaluate knowledge and information flows within these networks. Hence, we utilised the following SNA concepts: density, network reach, and degree centrality. Findings of SNA were used to focus the content analysis, which was undertaken in order to reveal the qualitative characteristics of the resources and the tie contents. The interview data from each case study was first logged onto an Excel database for ease of access, search and data display. Responses to each question were logged onto a different column and additional columns were created to log the different responses to the same question in cases where interviewees listed, for example, a number of reasons for choosing the person to contact to source information and knowledge. The filter facility on Excel was used to view the responses to relevant questions from interviewees who occupy different positions in the network. For example, nodes were distinguished into two groups, i.e. core-team and second-tier team, according to their centrality results. The filter facility was used to view the responses to questions relating to qualitative aspects of the networks from the core-team and secondtier team in order to compare and contrast. Selected results of this analysis are presented below alongside the results of the structural analysis.

3. What are the results? Density measures the connectivity of nodes (interviewees) to others in the network. It is a representation of the number of existing connections as a percentage of all theoretically possible connections. A density of 1.0 indicates that all nodes in the network are directly connected to others. However, “such completion is very rare” (Scott, 2000), neither is it desirable. Krebs and Holley (no date) argue that above the 0.50 (or 50%) density threshold there is risk of communication and/or information overload in the network.

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Table shows the network densities for each project. Project 2 has a higher network density than Project 1. Also, its density, at 0.46, is very close to the 0.50 threshold. Therefore, there is the risk of communication and/or information overload in Project 2 which is confirmed by the analysis of the qualitative data. Qualitative analysis shows that this condition emanated from the hierarchical decision-making procedure imposed upon the team by the client which requires extensive consultation with all stakeholders involved in the project. It is also important to note that this procedure does not enable members of the team to contact the ‘right’ person with the relevant knowledge in the first instance and renders the project manager as the main knowledge/information broker. The project manager’s line manager identified this set up as an area of improvement when he stated that ‘reducing the PM’s brokerage role’ would ease the transfer of knowledge within the team. Again, qualitative data analysis shows that nodes in Network 1 use their knowledge of each other’s expertise to decide who they need to contact in order to source information and/or solve projectrelated problems. Interestingly the density is lower in this network. Hence, it could be argued that reviewing the project reporting structures throughout the project life-cycle could enable the teams to devise knowledge and information channels that would facilitate speedy acquisition of knowledge and information through a less-dense network rather than assuming the project manager’s traditional knowledge brokerage role should be maintained, inevitably resulting in higher density networks. Table :. Results of the Density Analyses Project 1

Project 2

Tied Nodes

18

17

Potential Ties

306

272

Actual Ties

98

124

Density

0.32

0.46

Having said this, results of the network reach analysis shows that path lengths in the dense network of Project 2 are shorter than those in Project 1 (see Table 1). Path lengths are denoted by network reach in social network analysis. Network reach is a measure of the length of information paths between nodes. Research has shown that shorter paths are more important in terms of knowledge creation, and has proposed that the key paths in networks are 1 and 2 steps, and on rare occasions 3 steps (Burt, 1997, Friedkin, 1983). “Horizon of observability” indicates the maximum path length, beyond which people are unlikely to be aware of other people’s roles and work (Friedkin, 1983). Such awareness is instrumental in knowing who knows what within the team, and thus establishing ‘prior related knowledge’ which is the basis for knowledge transfer. Friedkin (1983) states that “persons who are more than three steps removed are unlikely to be aware of each other’s current work”. Thus, we argue that the average path length should not exceed 2 for a context to be conducive to knowledge transfer, and that length 1 paths are favourable to length 2 paths in knowledge flows.

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Table 1: Path Lengths in the two networks Project 1

Project 2

Number of paths

% of all paths

Number of paths

% of all paths

Path Length 1

98

16%

124

25%

Path Length 2

280

47%

364

75%

Path Length 3

200

33%

0

0

Path Length 4

24

4%

0

0

Path Length 5

0

0

0

0

Table 1 shows that Project 2 satisfies this criterion, whilst Project 1 includes path lengths of 3 and 4. This result is probably an outcome of the brokerage role the PM plays in the second project. He is thus able to direct people to the right person for sourcing knowledge and information. As stated above, members of the first project team use their own knowledge of each other’s expertise in deciding who to contact first to source information and knowledge. It is very likely that they are then referred to the appropriate person or people increasing the path lengths in this project. Hence, there is a trade-off between a dense network where the PM spends a considerable amount of his time as a knowledge broker and a relatively less-dense network where the path lengths are longer. The degree centrality analyses results, presented in Table 2, reveal a distinction between the consultants and the trade contractors in terms of their ability to control the knowledge flows in the network and their role in providing information to other members of the network. Degree centrality provides an indication of the extent to which a node is connected to its immediate environment. It denotes a node’s ability to communicate directly with others in the network, in other words their communication activity (Freeman, 1979). The consultants lead by the team employed by the construction/project management company control the knowledge flows. Thus, the remainder of the network is heavily dependent on them for information provision. In both projects, highest degree centrality positions are occupied by the employees of the company providing construction/project management services, the developer/client, cost consultants, and members of the design team, forming the ‘core-team’1. In either case the contractor or other trade suppliers are not part of the core-team. Hence, these two projects are delivered by traditional-looking core teams consisting of professionals that would take the lead in delivering traditionally procured projects. This core-team formation is even more surprising in the case of Project One as it had adopted an innovative walling technique, which at the time was the first of its kind in the UK, to reduce construction time. Given this, it would have been expected that the

1

Core-team is defined as nodes who have degree centrality scores that are above the average for that particular network.

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relevant contractors are included in the core-team to contribute to the creation of this new knowledge. Perhaps it is not surprising then that problems associated with this technology arose later on in this project, resulting in costly delays. This is perhaps evidenced in the fact that the only member of the team who considered himself ‘familiar’ with the new technology was not amongst the core team and shared similar degree centrality results with the ‘second-tier’ of the team.

Second-tier team roles

Core-team team roles

Table 2: Core and second-tier team roles based on degree centrality results Project 1

Project 2

Project Manager (Construction Management)

Project Manager (Project Management)

Commercial Manager (Construction Management)

Client representative 1 (Client)

Project Director (Construction Management)

Assistant Project Manager (Project Management)

Project Director (Developer/ Client)

Partner/Principal Architect (Architect)

Construction Manager (Construction Management)

Client representative 2 (Client)

Commercial Assistant (Construction Management)

Senior Engineer (M&E Engineering)

Associate Cost Consultant (Cost Consultant)

Environmental H&S (Client)

Project Manager (Architect)

Cost Manager (Project Management)

Project Surveyor (Cost Consultant)

Client representative 3 (Client)

Document Controller (Construction Management)

Project Sponsor (Client)

Project Manager (Concrete Works)

Steering Group Member (Client)

Associate M&E Surveyor (M&E Cost Consultant)

European Operations Capital PM (Client)

Site Manager (Logistics)

Project Supervisor (Project Management)

Site Manager (Structural Steelwork)

Engineer (Building Services Maintenance)

Technical Co-ordinator (Architect)

Client representative 4 (Client)

Project Manager (Façade Package Contractors)

Team Leader (Project Management)

Senior Resident Engineer (Structural Design-Qual. Cont.))

Planning Supervisor & Safety Advisor (H&S Consultants)

Project Manager (Building Management Systems)

The findings presented above point to the importance of establishing the relationship between the structural and qualitative aspects of a network. The structural analysis reveal that key members of the team occupy central positions that are favourable for knowledge creation because they increase their absorptive capacity, i.e. their potential to source information from the external environment and to evaluate its relevance to the project. However, analysis of the qualitative aspects of the network reveals that the two nodes which have the highest centrality results, and thus highest exposure to the external environment due to their network positions, make limited use of their external contacts to create knowledge in this project. These people also put very little effort into maintaining their external contacts. Furthermore, the qualitative analysis shows that only one of the core-team members had existing common knowledge- third condition of absorptive capacity- with the firm providing the

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innovative technological solution. Hence, it can be concluded that the core-team members were not making use of their network positions to create new knowledge even if they were in positions that were conducive to it.

4. Summary and conclusions The paper put forward a case for continuing to develop the research on knowledge within the built environment sector, given the important challenges the industry and the whole society are facing. It proposed an appropriate methodological approach to facilitate the study of the structural aspects of a network and its qualitative features. Application of this approach in two case studies in the UK revealed that the results from the structural analysis could be misleading in terms of the knowledge creation capacity of a network in cases where they are not validated against results of the qualitative analysis. In this context, the paper concurred with Lin (2001) that network locations should facilitate but do not necessarily determine access to resources. In the practical context, the paper identified project managers (PMs) as the main knowledge-brokers who spend approximately 30% of their time facilitating information exchange between members of the intra-organisational team. It is also revealed that high-density networks are relatively inward looking, with limited absorptive capacity and thus innovative capacity. A trade-off between a dense network where the PM spends a considerable amount of his time as a knowledge broker and a relatively less-dense network where the path lengths are longer was also recognised. It was argued that the trade-offs between a dense and a sparse network were less of PM’s time spent on his role as a knowledge-broker within the team and team members’ awareness of each other’s knowledge and expertise. It was also shown that a distinction between the consultants and the trade contractors in terms of their ability to control the knowledge flows in the network and their role in providing information to other members of the network existed. Hence, the paper showed that this novel approach to studying how knowledge is created in project environments yields findings that can be translated into concrete recommendations to practitioners in the field. It thus enables the researcher to make a contribution to closing the gap between industry and academia.

References Adler, P. S. and S. W. Kwon (2002). "Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept." Academy of Management Review 27, 1, 17-40. Borgatti, S. P. and P. C. Foster (2003). "The Network Paradigm in Organisational Research: A Review and Typology." Journal of Management 29, 6, 991-1013. Bresnen, M., L. F. Edleman, et al. (2003). "Social practices and the management of knowledge in project environments." International Journal of Project Management 21, 3, 157-166.

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Brookes, N. J., S. C. Morton, et al. (2006). "Social processess, patterns and practices and project knowledge management: a theoretical framework and an empirical investigation " International Journal of Project Management 24, 474-482. Burt, R. S. (1997). "A note on social capital and network content." Social Networks 19, 4, 355-373. Caloghirou, Y., I. Kastelli, et al. (2004). "Internal capabilities and external knowledge sources: complements or substitutes for innovative performance?" Technovation 24, 29-39. Ciborra, C. U. and R. Andreu (2001). "Sharing Knowledge Across Boundaries." Journal of Information Technology 16, 73-81. Cohen, W. M. and D. A. Levinthal (1990). "Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation." Administrative Science Quarterly 35, 128-152. Department of Trade and Industry (1998 ). Rethinking Construction: The Report of the Construction Task Force. London, HMSO. Edwards, T. (2007 ). " Organizational politics and the “process of knowing”: Understanding crisis events during project-based innovation projects." European Journal of Innovation Management 10, 3, 391 - 406. Freeman, L. C. (1979 ). "Centrality in Social Concepts." Social Networks 1, 215-39. Friedkin, N. E. (1983). "Horizons of Observability and Limits of Informal Control in Organisations." Social Forces 62, 1, 54-77. Grant, R. M. (2000). "Shifts in the World Economy: the Drivers of Knowledge Management", In Knowledge Horizons, C. Despres and D. Chauvel: 27-53. Hansen, M. T. (2002). "Knowledge Networks: Explaining Effective Knowledge Sharing in Multiunit Companies " Organization Science 13, 3, 232-248. Huang, J. C. and S. Newell (2003). "Knowledge integration processes and dynamics within the context of cross-functional projects." International Journal of Project Management 21, 3, 167-176. Krebs, V. and J. Holley (no date) Building Smart Communities through Network Weaving. Volume, DOI: Kurul, E., A. Colantonio, et al. (2006). Influences of Social Capital on Knowledge Creation. World Conference on Accelerating Excellence in the Built Environment, Birmingham, UK. Lang, J. C. (2001). "Managerial Concerns in Knowledge Management." Journal of Knowledge Management 5, 1, 43-57.

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Lin, N. (2001 ). "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital", In Social Capital: Theory and Research N. Lin, K. Cook and R. S. Burt. New Jersey Transaction Publishers 3-30. Merx-Chermin, M. and W. J. Nijhof (2005 ). " Factors influencing knowledge creation and innovation in an organisation." Journal of European Industrial Training 29, 2, 135 - 147. Nahapiet, J. and S. Ghoshal (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management. 23: 242. Roth, J. (2003). "Enabling knowledge creation: learning from an R&D organisation." Journal of Knowledge Management 7, 1, 32-48. Salmador, M. P. (2007). "Enabling contexts for knowledge creation in organizations." European Journal of Innovation Management 10, 3. Sayles, L. R. and M. R. Chandler (1971). Managing Large Systems. New York, Harper & Row. Scott, J. (2000). Social Network Analysis: a handbook. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Sage Publications. Sharkie, R. (2005). "A knowledge creation model: harnessing, managing and utilising knowledge for competitive advantage." International Journal of Learning and Intellectual Capital 1, 380-392. Un, C. A., ; and A. Cuervo-Cazurra (2004). "Strategies for Knowledge Creation in Firms." British Journal of Management 15, 27-S41. Van Deth, J. W. (2003). "Measuring social capital: orthodoxies and continuing controversies." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 6, 1, 79 — 92. Winch, G. (1998). Zephyrs of creative destruction: understanding the management of innovation in construction. Building Research & Information, E & FN Spon Ltd. 26: 268-279.

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Building Supply Chain Capital through Knowledge Management in Construction Industry Khalfan, M.M.A School of Property, Construction, and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC Australia (email: [email protected]) Maqsood, T. School of Property, Construction, and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC Australia (email: [email protected])

Abstract For last few years, researchers and people in construction practices have adopted different concepts and theories from other industries to bring improvements within the construction industry. Supply chain management is one of those concepts adopted and being translated to suit the construction industry. The recent emphasis is on the integration of the whole supply chain because of the fragmented nature of the industry, and also because of the large number of participants involved in a project. One of the aspects to achieve integration is by managing both tacit and explicit knowledge existed within a project supply chain through IT systems and social interaction. The main purpose of this paper is to develop a link between construction organisations and their learning activities as part of a supply chain of a project, resulting not only creating a learning organisation but also to create a learning supply chain. These learning supply chains, consist of learning organisations will create supply chain capital in order to promote innovation and creativity by managing knowledge in supply chains on long term basis. In addition, these learning organisations involved would also establish a virtual knowledge transfer between organisations and the supply chains they are involved. The paper also suggests that, as unit of competition changes from organisation vs organisation to chain vs chain under supply chain management, supply chain capital will become increasingly important for sustaining competition with construction industry. Therefore, supply chain capitals are to be created through managing knowledge in supply chains on long term basis that will facilitate innovation and creativity essentially required to thrive in the downturn business environment of today in many countries. Keywords: supply chain integration, knowledge management, construction industry

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1. Introduction This changing face of the industry is giving an impetus to the proliferation of business philosophies such as organisational learning (OL) and knowledge management (KM) and supply chain management (SCM) which have their principles solely founded on the notion of trust, commitment and collaboration. Dodgson (1993, p. 377) describes learning organisations as purposefully constructing structures and strategies to enhance and maximise the way that they learn from their experiences and the experiences of others outside their organisations. He claims that they continually transform themselves through facilitating a climate where members are encouraged to learn and share knowledge, linking learning opportunities across the supply chain as well as with clients/customers, and creating development strategies for people and the business centred upon learning. This involves more than KM or SCM. The premise is that as SCM reinforces the concept of whole supply chains working collaboratively to obtain business benefits, KM principles adopted for the whole supply chain can unleash immense creativity and innovation providing significant competitive advantage to supply chain partners. The purpose of this paper is to develop a synergy between the approaches of knowledge management in a learning organisation and supply chain management so that learning chains and supply chain capital can be created in order to promote innovation and creativity by managing knowledge in supply chains on long term basis. This would result in the formation and building of what we would like to term as “supply chain capital”. A capital which trading partner can look to and rely upon in order to improve their combined performance and productivity and ensuring the project success at the same time.

2. Knowledge Management and Supply Chain Management Both Knowledge Management (KM) and Supply Chain Management (SCM) have taken more than a decade to facilitate mature disciplines where they can be exploited for enhancing business profitability and value. KM is primarily concerned with the capture, codifying, transfer and sharing both tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is embedded in organisational routines and processes and employees heads. It is a very complex type of knowledge. The challenge of knowledge management is to make it explicit through the balanced use of technology, and soft human-related factors like leadership, vision, strategy, reward systems and culture. Explicit knowledge is the type of knowledge that is readily available in the organisation in the form of books, procedures and can be appropriately archived for use when required. An effective knowledge strategy is required to mange both tacit and explicit knowledge in the organisation. KM is about the processes by which knowledge is created, captured, stored, shared, transferred, implemented, exploited and measured to meet the needs of an organisation (Egbu et al., 2001). The role of effective management of knowledge is evident in producing innovation, reducing project time, improving quality and customer satisfaction (Kamara et al., 2002; Love et al., 2003). Through knowledge management an organisation’s intangible assets can be better exploited to create value, with both internal and external knowledge being leveraged to the

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benefit of the organisation. In projects, knowledge management can improve communications within teams, and provide more informed knowledge by sharing best practice documents, lessons learned, project management and system engineering methodologies, examples of review packages, and the rationale for strategic decisions. The failure to capture and transfer project knowledge leads to the increased risk of reinventing the wheel, wasted activity, and impaired project performance (Siemieniuch and Sinclair, 1999). SCM is an evolved form of purchasing and logistics-related activities (Croom et al., 2000; Tan, 2001). For over a decade and half, the SCM literature shows a confusion of terminologies and definitions (New, 1997). Some of these include; integrated purchasing strategy, supplier integration, supply base management, buyer-supplier partnership, supplier alliances, supply chain synchronisation, network supply chain, value added chain, logistic integration, lean chain approach, supply network, value stream, etc. (Dyer et al. 1998; Nassimbeni, 1998; Ellinger, 2000) (Tan et al., 1998). While each term addresses elements of a phenomenon, typically focussing on immediate suppliers of an organisation, SCM is the most widely used (but often abused) term describing this process (Tan, 2001). The most realistic and comprehensive definition is provided by the Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF), a group of non-competing firms and a team of academic researchers dedicated to improve the theory and practice of SCM. According to this group SCM is the integration of key business processes from end user through original suppliers that provides products, services, and information that add value for customers and other stakeholders (Lambert and Cooper, 2000). This sort of integration reduces the product delivery time, reduces waste, minimizes errors and saves on transactional costs thus increasing productivity.

3. Learning and innovation and their link with knowledge management Love et al. (2000) noted that for learning to occur, there is need for processes and structure to be in place to help people create new knowledge, allowing them to continuously improve themselves and the organisation. Garvin (1998) identified the following five activities that an organisation in construction should be skilled at: (i) Systematic problem solving; (ii) Experimentation with new approaches; (iii) Learning from their own experiences and past history; (iv) Learning from the experiences and best practice of others; and (v) Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently through out the organisation. Organisations that develop the capabilities to foster learning are referred to as Learning Organisation. Mirvis (1996) stated that the learning organisation focuses on managing chaos and indeterminacy, flattening hierarchies, and decentralisation. It also encourages the empowerment of people, teamwork and cross-functional teams, network relationships, adoption of new technologies and new forms of leadership and mentoring. Knowledge management is a key to learning organisation. It creates an environment of trust and commitment in the organisation which his helpful in creating and sharing new knowledge. The continuous change

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in the organisation once it foster a learning environment through knowledge management would lead to an innovative output (Maqsood et al., 2002). Innovation is a pre-requisite for competitive advantage (Egbu et al., 2001). Product innovation is a form of innovation where a new product is created, while process innovation is the exposition of the process to new ideas leading to an efficient method of production. Innovation can also be radical and incremental. Radical innovation results in total and sudden change of modus operandi while incremental innovation deals with step-by-step improvement. The unique tacit knowledge of individuals is a fundamental source of innovation (Stewart, 2000). People are the “champions” and “change agents” (Maidique, 1980; Rogers, 1995). They bring the change through social interaction and networking within and across organisations. (Egbu et al., 2001). Hence regulating this phenomenon through knowledge management and continually striving to convert their tacit knowledge into explicit will facilitate innovation. Such activities occur seamlessly if organisation is a learning organisation. Figure 1 suggests that KM initiatives have the capacity to facilitate organizational learning and help it transform into a learning organizations. Such an organization will continually change and improve its capabilities leading to an innovative output every time thus maintaining its competitive advantage. This resonates with Cavaleri et al. (2005), who suggested that the simplest way to achieve the vision of a learning organisation is to integrate organisational learning processes with KM initiatives.

Figure 1: Link b/w KM, learning organization and innovation

4. The learning chain In the construction industry, organisations come together with their specialities and knowledge to complete a construction project. Each organisation contributes its knowledge in a form of people, processes and technologies, to the construction process as shown in Figure 2. Traditionally, the selection of these organisations or trading partners is based upon a spot rate basis. This makes transactional exchange the dominant form of business in the construction industry (Dubois and Gadde, 2000). The suppliers’ competition in each transaction is assumed to be the most appropriate means of securing efficiency of operations. Therefore, actor constellations change all the time, making it difficult to utilise the experience gained in previous projects (Dubois and Gadde, 2000). Cox and Thompson (1997) observe that this creates inefficiencies as the supplier climbs a new learning curve for each project. SCM deals

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with these problems by promoting relational contracting, long-term commitment and an atmosphere of high trust and commitment. Through systematic knowledge management, trading partners are able to minimise wasteful activities and improve productivity and efficiency. Knowledge management, together with SCM, will ensure that knowledge, not information alone, is shared with the trading partners. Whereas the information may simply specify what is required of the trading partner, knowledge management can help to determine how best to deliver that product or ensure the swift availability of the related knowledge. Figure 3 gives the graphical description of two such trading partners who are bound together by trust and committed for long term relationship and have their key business process integrated under SCM. Each process gets assistance from a knowledge layer set under KM on the top of these processes. The mechanism of this nature would ensure that best available knowledge is utilized to deliver the product and service and experiences gained on the projects would be efficiently stored and utilized throughout the supply chain. Spekman and Kamauff (1998) have presented another point of view based on which a trading partner can decide how much knowledge it wants to share with other trading partner. They distinguished between three modes of interaction, cooperation, coordination and collaboration with cooperation being the starting point of knowledge sharing while collaboration leads to maximum sharing of knowledge.

Figure 2: (a) Construction process; (b) Supply chain in construction

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Spekman and Kamauff (1998)) argue that “cooperation” is the threshold level of interaction where firms exchange essential information and engage some suppliers/customers in longerterm contracts. The next level of intensity is “coordination” where specified workflow and information are exchanged in a manner that supports seamless linkages between and among trading parties. The final stage is “collaboration” whereby partners engage in joint planning and processes beyond levels that reaches in less intense trading relationships. Collaboration requires high levels of trust, commitment, and information sharing based upon partners who share a common vision of the future. An organisation may work at any of these three levels of trust and commitment with other trading partner to facilitate SCM, and may modify its selection after monitoring the interaction to observe change in the effecting factors. These various modes of interactions are in fact, limiting the magnitude of knowledge that can be shared with a specific trading partner. Knowledge management in this context would be helpful to provide detailed guidelines as to what sort of knowledge is appropriate to share in a certain mode of interaction. A supply chain exhibiting such characteristics can be termed as a Learning chain.

Figure 3: Trading partners adopting SCM and KM (Maqsood et al., 2007)

5. Creating Supply Chain Capital As discussed above, bringing trading partners together on a long term basis in a relational contracting would result into an integrated supply chain which is learning from their previous jobs and cutting wasteful activities on their current jobs based on their past experiences. Since these organisations are working together with each other, their level of trust and commitment to each other grow stronger. They are continuously learning how to deliver the best value to their clients and on the other hand they better understand the culture and working practices of all their trading partners. The above discussion on a learning curve now start making sense because if they were to start all over again with new trading partners, it would take them another few years to reach their current level in understanding their trading partners, their way of working and expectation. Therefore, a contractor, who sticks to the same trading subcontractors on many projects, is not only building a better relationship with his trading

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partners into an integrated supply chain but also creating a supply chain capital; a capital which has resulted from many years of collaboration and many years of knowledge & experience in a specific sector. This brings a competitive edge to the contractor and his integrated supply chain for future work because it would be an added advantage for a client to hire the contractor bringing integrated supply chain because they would not need time to settle down in terms of building understanding and relationship with each other and secondly, they have been doing similar projects for many years and already eliminated wasteful activities from their processes. We authors believe that the clients within the construction industry are now moving towards hiring well performing integrated supply chains which can save them higher construction costs and deliver projects on time and with required specification. In addition to this, clients are also looking for best value which comes through the knowledge capital, human capital of such integrated and learning supply chain thus resulting into supply chain capital – the added value which distinguishes them from all other service providers. There are many examples especially from the UK construction industry. In general, the main contractor is the one who manages the relationship with trading partners in traditional contracting system. Moving away from traditional and adopting relational contracting scenarios, we would see Design and Build as one of those arrangements where client is establishing the requirement of having an integrated first tier supply chain with a single point of contact and responsibility. In last few years, we have seen many examples of Framework Agreements in the UK, where clients are making it mandatory for service providers to bid as an integrated supply chain for a programme which consist of many projects over a few years, thus creating the foundation of an integrated and learning supply chain. We have also seen in the case of NHS Procure 21 programme, the integrated supply chains which got the projects in the first cycle to deliver hospital projects, kept on getting projects one after another. The sole reason was that these supply chains were not only integrated but they were learning as well. Over a period of time, these supply chains had developed human capital, resource capital, knowledge capital in building/extending/refurbishing hospitals – hence created supply chain capital which served as added competitive edge for them to win more work and was seen by NHS as achieving best value through their experience and expertise.

5.1 Example: Local authority Framework Agreement for construction of schools The case study was done with a public sector client, a local council in the UK, having a portfolio to deliver new and/or refurbished public facilities to the residents. This includes refurbishments of social housing stock, building primary and secondary schools within the area, etc. through its in-house development team which act as client by developing the specifications and allocating budget for different facilities. The council had developed a Framework Agreement (called framework 1) to construct educational buildings (primary schools) in the value range £500,000 to £5 m. For this client-led innovative and new way of developing educational infrastructure, which basically aimed at the process of getting product developed, three Constructor Partners with their integrated first tier suppliers were appointed in 2004 for three years initially, with further two more years of work after initial period. The council’s

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vision was that this framework agreement would deliver good quality school buildings that will lead to (Khalfan and McDermott, 2006) better educational results; greater inclusion within the community; better safety and environmental performance; and reduced demand on future school budgets by addressing whole life cycle costing at the inception of the projects. Partner selection The council had changed the mechanism for selection of contractors and sub-contractors. It used to be the case that the small companies were rejected based on their turnover. Now the turnover figure was not used as part of the selection criteria for the above programme and was considered afterwards when the percentage of the work was allocated. Therefore, those companies, which used to be left out (specially the SMEs) because of their small turnover, were now able to pass through the initial two-stage selection process of the council, and then they were awarded work which was equivalent of 25 % of their turnover (irrespective of how much it was). On the other hand, the selection was moved from traditional to Quality-Price Mechanism. The council used 70% - 30% respectively to select the companies for the framework agreement during the selection process. Specification and design The client procured main contractors in early stages through call offs within a framework agreement. The reason for this was so that the client could seek main contractors’ contributions in the design stage. All three contractors also brought along an integrated supply chain for the 1st tier, including the Design teams (both architectural and structural) and M & E Contractors. Hence, they all involved with the client to develop the plans for the school development. Selection of subcontractors For the lower tiers, the main contractors selected subcontractors from their lists of preferred suppliers. Selection was again done based on quality-price mechanism, but in many cases, lowest cost played primary role in the selection. In most of the cases, these lowest bidders were those trading partners, who had worked with the main contractors in the past on several projects and had knowledge regarding the organisational culture of main contractor, expectations, way of approaching projects, etc. These actors were not procured in early stages and they did not take part in planning and design for the above mentioned clients. Collaboration The core values of framework agreement, which are based on the partnering concept, agreed by the client and all other participants, include: Trust, Honesty, Openness, Commitment, Cooperation, and Respect. It was a client driven initiative, which involved all the parties (including three main contractors), resulting into sharing of knowledge and experiences on different platforms including project meetings. Unseen before in the construction was that representatives of all three contractors sat down together for selecting the standardised material

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(e.g. windows, doors, etc), architects of all contracting organisations worked together to learn from each others’ design, and the learning from one project within the framework was taken back to the new projects through capturing the experiences and feedback of the people involved. There were also different Special Interest Groups (SIG’s) within the framework. They were designed to address issues that were impacting framework and project delivery across a global basis, i.e. impacting all or many projects within the framework. The special interest groups covered the following areas: IT; Contracts and admin; Design; Procurement and materials; and Operations. Payments and benefits The major benefits achieved in by adopting the strategic partnering framework for the development of Primary Schools were: Improved design by involving all “project knowledge” in early stages; Less waste and duplication; Improved delivery and quality; Greater certainty of cost and better whole life cycle costing; The framework agreement enhanced long-term collaboration among supply chain actors and knowledge retention between projects and actors; and Continuity of work for both main contractors and subcontractors was an attraction. They did not have to look for work because they got to know upcoming work around 12 months in advance. Performance evaluation The client used several performance measures in order to evaluate the efficiency of the relationships. The on-time delivery of material onsite, material ordering through e-procurement system in some cases, targets to reduce waste on site, client and user satisfaction surveys, smooth handover to the client and their representatives, and forecast accuracy in spending during the school development, were utilized as performances measuring factors for the involved organizations and their supply chain partners. A further service-related measure had been introduced by the client during the maintenance phase of the school. Introduction of postconstruction Snag Period (12 month) would reduce the complaints from the end users (head and building in charge of the schools), resulting into much better response and solution to any problems occurring in the school building. Creation of supply chain capital In the above example, we saw, it was the client who took initiative to create learning and integrated supply chains (three of them), creating human and knowledge capitals within those supply chains resulting into formation of supply chain capital. So what happened next – after five years of framework 1, the client went out again to procure for more work than before in developing and refurbishing primary schools. This time the client hired five main contractors with their first tier supply chain partners integrated and guess what, two of them were the ones who had worked with the client on framework 1 programme! (the third contractor of framework 1 was going through merger with a bigger company in the UK at the time of selection). The client retained two previous main contractors and their supply chains because of various

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reasons – obviously their past performance. But one of the major reasons was the supply chain capital which these two main contractors and their teams were bringing – the human and knowledge capital integrated in these supply chains – it took five years for both the client and supply chain partners to understand each other and develop professional relationship; developed learning curve; practices based on experiences where the wasteful activities were no longer part of processes; a substantial amount of knowledge which was gained while working on similar projects over last five-year period; matured and performance based delivery of projects; therefore, these supply chains were bringing best value for the client – the integration, the knowledge and the learning – i.e. supply chain capital. The client now has several framework agreements across the board – in construction they have one for secondary school development and one for the material supply; the client itself is a learning organisation, learning from their experiences on framework 1 and building it into it another new and ongoing frameworks – creating and re-using supply chain capital for delivering public projects.

6. Conclusion The development of supply chain capital is in itself an answer to the challenges of the growing complexities and dynamics of the construction world. For an organisation to maintain its competitive edge and continually innovate it has to not only focus on transforming itself into a learning organisation but also to facilitate learning throughout the whole supply chain (of which it is part) to become a learning chain. And over a period of time this learning chain would result into supply chain capital which brings competitive advantages to the trading partners involved in the supply chain. SCM and KM emerging business philosophies, which place a great emphasis on trust and commitment, are becoming a pre-requisite to achieve this aim. SCM would ensure that key business processes of the trading partners in a supply chain are seamlessly integrated and an environment of trust and long term commitment is generated and fostered within the supply chain. This will create the appropriate environment to implement and harness KM principles. As a result, it can be ensured that best available knowledge is utilized by each trading partner depending on its position in a supply chain and contribute its best towards a better and improved project outcome by creating and utilising supply chain capital over a period of time, resulting into efficient and effective way of project delivery.

References Cavaleri, S., Seivert, S. and Lee, W.L. (2005), Knowledge Leadership: The Art and Science of the Knowledge-based Organisation, KMCI Press, Alexandria, VA.

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Cox, A. and Thompson, I. (1997), “‘Fit for purpose contractual relations: determining a theoretical framework for construction projects”, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 127-35. Croom, S., Romano, P. and Giannakis, M. (2000), “Supply chain management: an analytical framework for critical literature review”, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 67-83. Dodgson, M. (1993), “A review of some literature”, Organizational Learning, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 375-94. Dubois, A. and Gadde, L.-E. (2000), “Supply strategy and network effects – purchasing behaviour in the construction industry”, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 6 Nos 3-4, pp. 207-15. Dyer, J.H., Cho, D.S. and Chu, W. (1998), “Strategic supplier segmentation: the next ‘best practice’ in supply chain management”, California Management Review, Vol. 40, p. 57. Egbu, C., Botterill, K. and Bates, M. (2001), “The influence of knowledge management and intellectual capital on organizational innovations”, ARCOM Seventeenth Annual Conference, ARCOM, University of Salford, Salford, Vol. 2, pp. 547-55. Ellinger, A.E. (2000), “Improving marketing/logistics cross-functional collaboration in the supply chain”, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 85-96. Garvin, D.A. (1998), “Building a learning organisation”, Harvard Business Review on Knowledge Management, Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA, pp. 47-80. Kamara, J.M., Chimay, A.J. and Carillo, P.M. (2002), “A CLEVER approach to selecting a knowledge management strategy”, International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 205-11. Khalfan, M. M. A. and McDermott, P. (2006), “Innovating for supply chain integration within construction”, Journal of Construction Innovation, Vol. 6, pp.143 – 157. Lambert, D.M. and Cooper, M.C. (2000), “Issues in supply chain management”, Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 65-83. Love, P.E.D., Li, H., Irani, Z. and Faniran, O. (2000), “Total quality management and the learning organization: a dialogue for change in construction”, Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 18, E&FN Spon Ltd, London, pp. 321-31. Love, P.D., Edum-Fotwe, F. and Irani, Z. (2003), “Management of knowledge in project environments”, International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 155-6.

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Maidique, M.A. (1980), “Entrepreneurs, champions, and technological innovation”, Sloan Management Review, Vol. 21, p. 59. Maqsood, T., Akintoye, A. and Azhar, S. (2002), “Conceptual framework for developing generic integrated supply chain management model for construction industry”, 1st International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century: Challenges and Opportunities in Management and Technology, Miami, Florida, 25-26 April, pp. 229-36. Maqsood, T.; Walker, D. and Finegan, A. (2007), “Extending the ‘knowledge advantage’: creating learning chains”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 123-141. Mirvis, P.H. (1996), “Historical foundations of organization learning”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 13-31. Nassimbeni, G. (1998), “Network structures and co-ordination mechanisms: a taxonomy”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 18 No. 6, pp. 538-54. New, S.J. (1997), “The scope of supply chain management research”, Supply Chain Management, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 15-22. O’Brien, W.J., London, K. and Vrihoef, R. (2002), “Supply chain: an interdisciplinary research agenda”, Proceedings IGLS-10, Gramado, Brazil, August. Rogers, E.M. (1995), Diffusion of Innovation, The Free Press, New York, NY. Siemieniuch, C.E. and Sinclair, M.A. (1999), “Organizational aspects of knowledge lifecycle management in manufacturing”, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Vol. 51 No. 3, pp. 517-47. Spekman, R.E. and Kamauff, J.W. Jr (1998), “An empirical investigation into supply chain management”, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 28, pp. 630. Tan, K.C. (2001), “A framework of supply chain management literature”, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 39-48. Tan, K.C., Kannan, V.R. and Handfield, R.B. (1998), “Supply chain management: supplier performance and firm performance”, International Journal of Purchasing and Material Management, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 2-9.

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Capturing and Using Knowledge from Construction Projects Ribeiro, F.L. Instituto Superior Técnico, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Arquitectura, DECivil, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal (email: email: [email protected]) Ferreira, V.L.T. Av. de Roma, Nº9 - 4º frente direito, 1000-261 Lisboa, Portugal (email: [email protected])

Abstract There are many factors in the construction industry that can influence the execution of construction projects, both positively and negatively, and so it is increasingly important to anticipate risks and implement the best solutions. Therefore, the preparation of the project before execution is crucial for any construction firm. The prerequisite for developing a KM solution in which project knowledge can be used to enable and improve project preparation processes is identifying the sources and nature of knowledge and its flow from a particular source to a specific destination. In order to understand the source flow of project knowledge a qualitative case study approach was undertaken whereby various actors, knowledge retention practices, access and retrieval of knowledge and issues in sharing knowledge were identified and analyzed. Case study research is one of the most widely-used research designs in qualitative research. The methodology looks at five large construction projects, but not typical projects, which nonetheless provide useful insights for developing knowledge managements solutions aimed at improving project preparation. Thus, this paper sets out to improve project preparation for execution in large construction firms. Thus, this paper presents and discusses a knowledge management system aimed at improving the preparation of large construction projects. Keywords: construction, knowledge, model, project

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1. Introduction The capability to improve market responsiveness to meet an uncertain demand is critically imperative for many construction firms today. Improving project performance is for many companies crucial to survive in a fast changing environment. Firms that continuously learn to organise and combine their traditional resources and capabilities in new and distinctive ways, provide more value for their customers and, in general, stakeholders, than their competitors can (Teece et al., 1997). Knowledge management enhances organizational competitiveness. However, as pointed out by Newcombe (1996) and Argote et al. (2000) transferring knowledge within the construction sector has proven a rather difficult challenge in practice. Projects are becoming the major delivery vehicle for products and services in a global economy, characterised by hyper competition and radically shrinking life cycles (Gray and Larson (2003). Construction is ostensibly a project based industry. Each construction project is unique in terms of how specialist professionals manage share and use knowledge. Construction projects generate a large body of knowledge for sharing and reuse within the construction organization and across projects. Projects performance can be improved when employees communicate by sharing and utilising, best practices, lessons learned, experiences, insights, as well as creating new knowledge (Krogh, 2002). Even though improving how knowledge is created, organises and utilized is of critical importance to construction projects, and in spite of vast amount of research findings published, statistics show that success comes rarely in practice: many KM projects get abandoned and over 70% of them do not deliver what they have promised at the beginning (Davenport and Glaser, 2002; Desouza and Awazu, 2005; Ribeiro, 2005; Wing and Chua, 2005; Peter e al., 2008) noted that there are several inherent barriers which prevent the effective use of KMSs. Similarly, (Desouza and Awazu, 2005) argue that most KM programs lack engagement with organizational realities. Hence, are of limited use when considered in context of the ongoing knowledge work at the organization. Furthermore, the construction projects are becoming more complex, requiring the integration of diffuse partners who are often physically separated and from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Love et al. 2005; Mohamed and Anumba 2006). KM in construction is about managing organization’s knowledge assets to fulfill its organizational objectives. Thus, KM should enhance individual, group and organizational learning; improve information circulation; and even support innovation. Therefore, a KM system in construction is seen as a means of identifying and exploiting corporate individual knowledge assets: individual experiences, lessons learned, and best practices (Whetherill et al., 2002; Mohamed and Anumba 2005). Knowledge associated with previous construction projects success and failure, services, customers and products are resources that can produce a long-term and sustained competitive advantage for construction organizations (Newcombe, 1999; Ribeiro, 2005). This article takes the view that, for project communication to succeed, greater attention must be paid to ensuring that shared meanings are established to guide project decisions and actions. This paper is directed towards improving project preparation for execution in large construction firms. Thus, this paper

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presents and discusses a knowledge management system aimed to improving the preparation of large construction projects.

2. Methodology The prerequisite for developing a KM solution which project knowledge can be used to enable and improve project preparation processes is identifying the sources and nature of knowledge and its flow from a particular source to a specific destination. Thus, the methodology is grounded in empirical modeling which, according to Beynon et al. (2002), “involves a paradigm shift in which experience becomes the primary and primitive ingredient.” In order to understand the source flow of project knowledge a qualitative case study approach was undertaken whereby various actors, knowledge retention practices, access and retrieval of knowledge and issues in sharing knowledge were identified and analysed. The strength of case study research method is its ability to perform in-depth investigations when the case under study is broad and complex and cannot be studied outside the context (Yin, 2003). Furthermore, this approach also allows the possibility of using flexible ways of collecting qualitative data and aims at providing internal KM solution validation during the course of the KM solution development. Data collection was performed by a series of personal interviews conducted with various groups, including managers and employees, within the project organisation. The interviews collect field data for empirical modeling (Humphreys et al., 1996) in order to select relevant knowledge artifacts from the list of potential ones. Collecting data for empirical modeling requires creating a sample of projects that represent the reality in the field of the study. Thus, the authors have studied five knowledge-intensive construction projects through an 8 months period of 2007-2008.

The cases listed in table 1, were one completed, two in progress and two in preparation. Table 1: Case description Case study

Designation

Type of construction

Stage of development

1

Link from Viseu to the IP3

Roads

Completed

2

Renewal and Improvement Works of Eastern Urban Front

Urban regeneration

In progress

3

EN 390 and 393

Roads

In progress

4

Regeneration of Carcavelos and Parede beaches

Urban regeneration

Preparation/Start of work stage

5

Sea-front Promenade, S. João das Maias

Urban regeneration

Preparation/Start of work stage

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3. Theoretical background Good, efficient preparation of works involves many other aspects, but they are all based on four concepts: identifying the jobs and their chief characteristics; prior programming, in line with the work schedule; planning resources, in terms of equipment and materials, and re-estimating (Kerzner, 2006). Reis (2006) observes that the preparation of construction works, both public and private, is a complicated task, and its main purpose involves “supplying drawings for the various work fronts so that it is possible to understand, clearly and precisely, exactly what is to be buil.”. This process is therefore only advantageous when it resolves and deals with inadequacies in the project. Cardoso (1985) highlights the importance of this procedure, since it allows problems and defects to be overcome and put right by anticipating them. Reis (2008), meanwhile, points out that preparation of works is intended to optimize a number of factors, like quality, safety, deadlines, cost and environment, and so it is a complex process, with all these factors being interconnected. In the project preparation, better results can be achieved by re-using the knowledge gained from other, already completed, works, thus avoiding repeating the mistakes of the past and to reduce uncertainty. Tserng and Lin (2004) states that sharing experiences and re-using knowledge brings other benefits, like minimizing the need to consult past projects, improving the quality of solutions and reducing the time and cost of solving problems, since there is no need to constantly look for answers to the same questions. Knowledge in the construction domain may be divided into three categories, domain knowledge, organizational knowledge, and project knowledge (Rezgui, 2001; Messner, 2003) knowledge Knowledge 16. Knowledge generated by projects can be categorized as knowledge in projects, knowledge about projects, and knowledge from projects (Damm and Schindler, 2002). These three categories call for distinct roles by construction firms to enable effective and efficient knowledge management. Project knowledge is the knowledge about resources, functional and attributes requirements, work products, budget, timing, milestones, deliverables, increments, quality targets and performance parameters (Ebert and De Man, 2008). Project knowledge is closely linked with product and process knowledge. It deals with the instantiation of processes to deliver a product. In construction projects, knowledge includes data, information, lessons learned, best practices required to conceive, develop, prepare, realize and terminate a project (Ramaprasad and Prakash, 2003). But this knowledge is usually fragmented and dispersed, and does not exist as a totality. Although more widely shared than other types of knowledge no one person, institution, or authority encompasses it all. There is no single repository for project knowledge, which is fluid and constantly changing, being subject to ongoing negotiation between people and their environments (Vail, 1999) [19] E.F. Vail, Knowledge mapping: getting started with knowledge management, Information Systems Management vol. 16, Issue 4, Taylor & Francis Ltd, UK (Fall 1999), pp. 16–23.. Newell et al (2006) indicate that capturing lessons learned by project teams and storing them on a database for others to access is a widely adopted strategy to transfer knowledge from projects but that

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such databases are not widely used. They explore “why cross-project knowledge transfer fails … why knowledge captured from one project is typically not used as a ‘tool of knowing’ by others … using data from 13 projects in six organizations” (p. 167). They conclude that “the knowledge captured is not deemed useful and/or project teams lack awareness that there is knowledge that could be useful to help them improve their processes” (p. 167). Anbari et al. (2008) addresses and explores the linkage of knowledge management and project management in capital projects. According to the authors, postprojects reviews provide an important opportunity to link the effectiveness in meeting projects goals, efficiency in utilizing the resources assigned to the project, and transfer of the special knowledge gained in performing the project to other projects, which is essential to the overall performance improvement of current and future projects, project management processes, and the organization as a whole. However, organizations have not historically managed the transfer of project information well and have not effectively developed a project management learning culture that takes into account both technology and people. This may be due to the temporary and unique nature of project and the typical release of project resources as a project approaches its completion. Kull (2005) argues that culture is becoming increasingly recognized as a powerful and sustainable source of innovation and competitive advantage. He maintains that the importance of epistemology—the nature of knowledge —is growing in organizations, and that knowledge management is not about getting the right information to the right people at the right time, rather it is about enabling people to interpret what they observe and empowering them to use their judgment. He maintains that “the ability of an enterprise to leverage soft knowledge and learn faster than its competitors may be the only source of sustainable advantage in the future” (p. 109).

4. The proposed model KM for projects should address concrete use cases of the initial project preparation cases and then gradually grow to capture more use cases. For instance, a key use case that we initially defined and applied was: “Support the project management team to retrieve information and knowledge from past projects that apply to the preparation to their current own project”. A projects management team is typically interested to learn from previous projects in order to better prepare the new project and, therefore to reduce uncertainty during project execution. The UML language (Unified Modeling Language) was used in the specification and design of the proposed model. Based on the model, a prototype knowledge management system was developed for assisting project and construction managers in the preparation of construction projects for the execution phase. The prototype is an object-oriented computer application. Figure 1 shows the architecture of the proposed knowledge management system for the preparation of a new construction project. The system is functionally divided into two sets of components: the knowledge base application-specific components and the knowledge base core components. The main components of the system are as follows:

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a) A knowledge base, in general, contains all the relevant information and domain-specific problemsolving knowledge and lesson learned about past and in-progress projects that has been gathered by the knowledge engineer from site managers, project managers, planning professionals and various other available sources such as procedures, work instructions and handbooks. The knowledge base holds problem knowledge, such as guidance for selecting decision alternatives or advice in interpreting possible outcomes. The knowledge base is consisted of classes of objects and their messages.

b) A knowledge base application contains the application interface for accessing, retrieving, sharing and storing relevant information and knowledge by project team members connected by the company intranet. The application interface includes seven forms of three kinds: (i) one for the Start Menu of the knowledge base application, composed of two tabs with buttons to access the other forms and report templates; (ii) four forms for editing and viewing the data, data and knowledge; (iii) two forms for retrieving and using problem solving knowledge and lessons learned from past and in progress construction projects, by production group or type of construction. All the information editing and viewing forms have a series of buttons next to the heading for browsing between entries, a button for returning to the Start menu and a field allowing search for an entry by construction project number. The knowledge base application offers three report templates (Points for improvement – Materials, Points for improvement – Constructive solutions and Points for improvement - Technical solutions), which allow printing of the most important information related to the execution of works. The report Name of construction project was also created. This contains fields enabling an overall characterization of each construction project.

Figure 1: System’s architecture

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Figure 2 shows one of the forms for editing and viewing. The programming elements were tested, and functionality tests were carried out, based on data flow, in order to check that all the program functions were working properly, including the user interfaces. All the objects in the knowledge base were selected for testing, and a list of ideas and suggestions for optimizing the knowledge base was obtained. All the ideas raised during the system’s testing were taken into consideration and examined. As all the forms, links and reports worked correctly, it was concluded that the system had been successfully tested and validated. The system’s components were thus thoroughly verified to see that it works robustly and reliably.

5. Conclusions Knowledge is a relevant resource that drives future success of construction project and must therefore be adequately managed. Preparation of works is an issue that has not been studied very much, and one that is often ignored by construction companies which mostly confine the process to their planning and reestimating procedures. But the success and efficacy of the preparation of works process does not end with the procedure itself, it is also the outcome of the knowledge and skills of the several professionals. According to Fewings (2005) states that is crucial to have properly completed the planning stages on any construction project. Projects provide opportunities for new knowledge to emerge in a cross-functional, team-working context. Improving how knowledge is leveraged in construction firms for improved project performance is today considered as a major organisational challenge.

Figure 2: A view of one of the forms for editing and viewing

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This paper presents five studies of construction projects, and through exploratory, open-ended interviews with managers at various levels, identified key KM implementation issues and valuable insights and recommendations for enhancing project preparation. It introduces a KM model and a prototype implementation that effectively integrates systems and software engineering process, tools and KM. Like any other improvement a knowledge management application is only effective if broadly used. The authors followed up usage and usefulness during the implementation. For the KM research area, our study hopefully encourages more research on real KM applications in the construction industry. Finally, we must acknowledge the limitations of our work namely the need to go further in the development of the proposed model.

References Anbari F.T., Carayannis E.G. and Vostsch, R.J. (2008), Post-project reviews as a key project management competence, Technovation, Elsevier Ltd. 28 (10), pp.633-643. Argote L., Ingram, P. Levine J. and Moreland R. (2000), Knowledge transfer in organizations, Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 82 (1), pp. 1–8. Argyris C. (1999), On organizational learning (second ed.), Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Beynon W., Rasmequan S. and Russ S. (2002), A new paradigm for computer-based decision support, Decision Support Systems 33, pp. 127–142. Cardoso, J. M. (1985), Direcção de obra – Organização e controlo, AECOPS, Portugal. Damm, D. and Schindler, M. (2002), Security issues of a knowledge medium for distributed project work, Interntional Journal of Project Management 20, 37–47 Davenport T. and Glaser J. (2002), Just-in-time delivery comes to knowledge management, Harvard Business Review 80 (7), pp. 5–9. Davenport, T.H. and Prusak, L. (2000), Working knowledge: how organizations manage what they know, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Desouza K.C. (2003), Barriers to effective use of knowledge management systems in software engineering, Communications of the ACM , 46 (1), pp. 99–101.

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Desouza K.C. and Evaristo J.R. (2004), Managing knowledge in distributed projects, Communications of the ACM, 47 (4), pp. 87–91. Drucker P.F. (1995), Managing in a Time of Great Change, Truman Talley, New York, NY. Ebert C. and De Man J. (2008), Effectively utilizing project, product and process knowledge, Information and software Technology, Elsevier, 50 (6), pp. 579-594. Fewings, P. (2005), Construction Project Management, An Integrated Approach, Taylor and Francis, London. Goldman, S.L., Nagel, R.N. & Preiss, K. (1995), Agile Competitors and Virtual Organizations: Strategies for Enriching the Costumer. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gray C.F. and Larson E.W. (2003), Project management: the managerial process, McGraw-Hill, New York. Humphreys P., Bannon L., McCosh A., Migliarese P. and Pomerol J.-C. (1996), Implementing systems for supporting management decision: Concepts, methods and experiences, Chapman & Hall, London. Kerzner, H. (2006), Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling and controlling, 9th Edition, John Wiley and Sons,. Krogh V.C. (2002), The communal resource and information systems, Journal of Strategic Information Systems 11 (2), pp. 85–107. Kull M.D. (2005), Scaling the water cooler: digital storytelling for knowledge continuity. In: E.G. Carayannis, Y.H. Kwak and F.T. Anbari, Editors, The Story of Managing Projects: A Global, Crossdisciplinary Collection of Perspectives, Praeger, Westport, CT, pp. 106–117. Love P.E., Huang J., Edwards D.J. and Zahir I. (2005), Building a learning organization in a projectbased environment, Management of Knowledge in Project Environments, ed. Peter Love, Patrick Fong and Zahir Irani, Elsevier, pp. 133-154. Messner J. (2003), An architecture for knowledge management in the AEC industry, Proceedings of ASCE Construction Research Congress. Mohamed S.F. and Anumba C. J. (2006), Potential for improving site management practices through knowledge management, Construction Innovation, 6 (4), pp. 232-249.

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Newcombe R., (1999), Procurement as a Learning Process, Profitable Partnering in Construction Procurement, E&FN Spon, pp. 285-294. Newell S., Bresnen M., Edelman L., Scarbrough H. and Swan J. (2006), Sharing knowledge across projects—limits to ICT-led project review practices, Management Learning 37 (2), pp. 167–185. Nonaka (1994), A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation, Organization Science 5 (1), pp. 14–37. Ramaprasad A. and Prakash A.N., Emergent project management: how foreign managers can leverage local knowledge, International Journal of Project Management 21, (3),Elsevier, Amsterdam (2003), pp. 199–205. Reis, A. C (2008), Organização e gestão de obras, Edições Técnicas, Portugal. Reis, P. M (2006), Preparação de obras – Construção civil, Publindústria, Portugal. Rezgui Y. (2001), Review of information and the state of the art of knowledge management practice in the construction industry, Knowledge Engineering Review 16 (3), pp. 241–254. Ribeiro, F.L. (2005), Using Experience Based Cases to Support Construction Business Processes, Proceedings of the 22nd W78 Conference, CIB, pp. 357-362. Robson C. (2002), Real World Research (second ed.), Blackwell Publishing.Narasimhan Teece D.J, Pisano G. and Shuen A. (1997), Dynamic capabilities and strategic management, Strategic Management Journal 18 (7), pp. 509–533. Tserng, H. P.; Lin, Y.-C.; Developing an activity-based knowledge management system for contractors, Automation in Construction, 13, pp.781-802, 2004. Vail E.F. (1999), Knowledge mapping: getting started with knowledge management, Information Systems Management 16, (4), Taylor & Francis Ltd, UK, pp. 16–23. Whetherill, M., Rezgui, Y., Lima, C. and Zarli, A. (2002), Knowledge Management for the Construction Industry: The E-COGNOS Project, Journal of ITCon, 7, pp. 183-196. Wing L. and Chua A. (2005), Knowledge management project abandonment: An exploratory examination of root causes, Communications of AIS (16) (2005), pp. 723–743.

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An Information Platform for the European Construction Sector: a Feasibility Study Pezzuto, G. D’Appolonia SpA (email : [email protected]) Cioffi, M. D’Appolonia SpA (email : [email protected]) Mastrodonato, C. D’Appolonia SpA (email : [email protected]) Bourdeau, M.. Université Paris-Est, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment (CSTB) (email : [email protected]) Zarli, A. Université Paris-Est, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment (CSTB) (email : [email protected]) Rezgui, Y. Cardiff University (email: [email protected]) Wilson, I. Cardiff University (email: [email protected])

Abstract This paper reports on a one-year study that investigated the feasibility of setting-up an information platform dedicated to the European construction industry that could become a “one-stop information point” to access all relevant documentation (policies, directives, regulations, standards, research programmes, etc.) issued by the European Union institutions and could service any external contact relating to the construction sector. It started from an in-depth analysis and assessment of the needs of construction stakeholders through different instruments including a state-of-the-art review, phone interviews with key representatives (trade associations, EC Units and Agencies, etc.), regular meetings with a Monitoring and Steering Group, and a questionnaire survey which was promoted through different channels (including Construction Technology Platforms and associations) and reached a comprehensive panel of construction stakeholders, of different sizes and activities, resulting in around 150 fully exploitable survey results. The analysis of the results produced key information themes and content requirements for the envisaged Construction Information Platform (CrIP), indication of the services and functionalities required to meet users’ needs, and assessment of the need and appropriateness to develop this platform. The feasibility study also included the

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development of a pilot version of the platform, implementing a reduced set of features to demonstrate the potential of the overall approach. The CrIP pilot architecture, which was designed from the outset to be easily integrated into the Commission’s web portals, was developed on five core modules implementing advanced multi-search capabilities to provide users with a smaller and more focused set of results compared to available search engines. The final release of the CrIP pilot was deployed in September 2009 and tested by construction stakeholders. Further work will consist in consolidating and extending the existing platform in terms of content and functionalities. Keywords: information platform, construction sector, European documentation, assessment of needs, semantic search engine.

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1. Introduction A consortium composed of D’Appolonia, CSTB (Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment), and Cardiff University, has performed a one year study (from November 2008 to November 2009) with the financial support of the European Commission (DG Enterprise) to investigate the feasibility of developing and establishing an advanced information platform dedicated to the European construction industry. The final aim of the platform is to contribute to increase the development and the capability to adapt to new challenges of the whole construction sector. This vision involves a Construction Information Platform (“CrIP”) with a central role as not only an easy to approach tool and a provider of relevant information, but a real bi-directional channel open to all the players in the construction industry, including all public institutions both at EU level and Member State / local level. The overall objectives of the project are twofold: •

Covering a variety of actions to support the full and continued implementation of improved dissemination and communication of information to relevant stakeholders of the Construction sector.

•

Creating a “one-stop information point” to access relevant information coming from the EC, and which could service any external contact relating to the construction sector.

The methodology considered to reach the above-mentioned objectives involved three main stages: •

Gathering the CrIP Requirements;

•

Designing and implementing a pilot platform;

•

Testing and validating the pilot platform.

In the following it will be detailed how the different steps have been actually implemented.

2. Gathering the CrIP requirements The methodology employed to gather the requirements for the platform began with an in-depth review of the literature including position papers, academic studies, publications, previous projects and current information web sites. Literature review is an essential phase in any research process, allowing the researcher to delimit the problem under investigation, as described by Patton (1990). The aim of this review was to understand the range of information involved in the sector and also to analyse current methods used by end-users to acquire the necessary information and the technologies employed. A deep understanding of the nature of information that should be provided via an

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information platform, coupled with validation from the proposed end-user community, was seen as a fundamental task to achieve prior to commencement of the technical development itself. The methodology continued with fieldwork in the form of a questionnaire survey, coupled with telephone interviews with key people belonging to different Directorate-General Units and Agencies of the European Commission (EC). Analysis and assessment of the results produced key information themes and requirements for content within the CrIP, an indication of the services and technological functionality required to meet users’ needs, and assessment of the need and appropriateness to develop the CrIP. The literature review, including academic papers and reports like Boddy et al. (2007), Rezgui (2007), Barrett and Sexton (2005), and Zarli (2003), highlighted some lessons to be learned from previous and ongoing CrIP-related initiatives. In particular, the difficulty faced by the construction sector to capitalise on R&D project results, and the low technology adoption by this sector in general, indicated that CrIP should provide easy-to-use services (integrated within construction processes as much as possible), and improved searching capabilities coupled with management of users’ profiles. Leveraging all the work performed in semantic resources to develop user-centred multi-lingual interfaces also proved to be of great importance. Regarding the analysis of existing information web sites, the review clearly showed that none currently addresses the full range of information targeted by CrIP. On the one hand, there are some multi-sectoral portals that are exhaustive relative to some types of content (e.g. EUR-Lex for EC legislation), but whose search modes are not tuned to the needs of construction stakeholders; on the other hand, there are some construction-oriented portals that provide comprehensive information on the legislative and normative context, but most of them focus on specific subject areas or specific information types (e.g. Build Up, DPCnet in France). The ambition of CrIP, however, is to rely on these initiatives by linking up with their web sites as far as their content has a legal value. The questionnaire, which was promoted through different channels (including EC, ECTP1, NTPs2 and associations), reached a comprehensive panel of construction stakeholders, of different sizes, activities, and EU countries. It resulted in around 150 fully exploitable survey results, which provided significant trends on the need and specification for a CrIP.

1

European Construction Technology Platform

2

National Technology Platforms

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Among the key findings from the assessment of the survey results was that the main, preferred method to access construction information is via web portals as highlighted in Figure 1.

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100

80 Regulatory Docs Standards

60

Res. and Innov. 40

20

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Figure 1: Preferred Method to access to construction information However, various barriers currently faced by construction stakeholders in the methods to obtain required information emerged, including language, accessibility and cost of the retrieved information. Other key findings revealed that the most needed information types are Legislative and regulatory documents, Standards, and Research & innovation information as shown hereafter. Table 1: Most needed EC documents by construction stakeholders EC documents of interest via CrIP

Percentage

Standards and Eurocodes

80%

Directives

75%

Regulations

67%

Research results and reports

59%

Research programmes and calls

53%

Decision

44%

Codes of Practice

44%

Green and White Reports

39%

Policies

35%

Other

3%

None

1%

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Moreover, there is a great need not only for information directly related to construction core activities (on-site construction) but also for EC and national policies on Environment, Energy, etc., that have a great impact on the sector; and that multi-language document retrieval and support is necessary as construction operators strongly prefer having documents in their own language. The most interesting topics for construction stakeholders are listed in Table 2. Table 2: Most interesting topics for the construction sector Topics of interest in work activities

Percentage

Environment

68%

Energy

54%

Health & Safety

44%

Market

37%

Education & Learning

29%

Labour & Employment

16%

Taxation

6%

Overall the fieldwork indicated that there is a strong perceived need for a single, comprehensive construction information point such as CrIP would provide. It also became clear that construction operators, for the most part, would not be prepared to pay to access such a resource.

3. Design and implementation of the pilot platform Based on the fieldwork surveys and assessment the specification and functionality for the proposed CrIP was established. The complete CrIP platform should exhibit the following features: •

Human centred and easy to use

•

Adaptive and configurable

•

Support integration in existing corporate solutions

•

Support existing practices

•

Capitalise on existing technologies and solutions

•

Open and scalable

•

Web centred

•

Enabling efficient search facilities.

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The service need for the ideal complete CrIP, to be realised through a follow-on development project after this feasibility study, will include full ontology-based services, user profiling capabilities, and comprehensive information and knowledge services. The proposed architecture of the platform captures both the required core CrIP services and technical functionalities whilst at the same time allowing for operation in a highly distributed, component-based manner. The scope of this feasibility study included also the development of a pilot version of the proposed CrIP, implementing a reduced set of selected features to demonstrate the potential of the overall approach. The CrIP architecture has been conceived from the outset to be easily integrated into the Commission’s web portals; use of state-of the art open source, standards and best practice, common database structure, and operating system independent code are all aspects that allow CrIP to be deployed in the large majority of existing web infrastructures. This approach results in a full compatibility of the CrIP pilot to the Commission's Europa web server, where the future version of the platform is planned to be deployed. The pilot was developed and tested in an iterative and incremental manner. An Alpha pilot was developed initially, which was tested internally (by members of the feasibility study team); as each set of tests revealed weaknesses, or areas for improvement, further developments and refinements were made, which in turn were tested and validated. The CrIP Pilot architecture was developed on five core modules in order to set-up a high-performance search engine, managing the extracted contents not only as mere aggregates of words, but also as documents with precise semantics and meaning: •

An indexing platform aimed at the systematic exploration of a given set of web sites.

•

A classification of documents based on ontological representations of the construction domain.

•

A clustering algorithm which organises the results of a user’s query in dynamic clusters, namely folders which contain documents with a common topic.

•

A document preview module that allows users to see the most relevant sections of each document in the results, evaluating its relevance on the basis of the given query.

•

A multi-search interface to allow the end-users to search and retrieve information in an intuitive and fast way.

After the third round of internal testing, the CrIP final pilot was developed. The platform is available on-line at the following address: http://www.constructioninformationplatform.eu (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: CrIP pilot search page (http://www.constructioninformationplatform.eu) The CrIP pilot indexed a set of EC official sites, resulting in a selection of around 28,000 documents relevant to construction from more than 2,450,000 pages downloaded. It implements multi-search capabilities, including a smart search mode, using a clustering approach that organised the results of a user’s query in dynamic clusters. Its main objective is to provide users with a smaller and more focused set of results compared to available search engines. This pilot supports multilingual access in three languages (English, French and Italian). The user can choose the language to perform his query. A multilingual version of major CrIP functionalities has been implemented. CrIP retrieves documents relevant to the query in the language chosen by the user. An example of query performed in Italian is reported in Figure 3. An example of CrIP results is shown in Figure 4: in this case, construction related documents containing the exact phrase “ecolabel regulation” were searched for. Document title and preview are displayed. A short document summary is also provided when the user’s mouse is placed over the document title in the query results. Document relevance to Construction and to specific topics (Environment, Energy etc.) is highlighted for each document. Documents can be sorted by relevance to a specific topic. Finally, a clustering tree is shown in the left panel of the page to help users to easily find the most interesting documents.

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Figure 3: Example of query in Italian

Figure 4: Example of CrIP results for the query “ecolabel regulation”.

The CrIP pilot includes additional features especially developed to help end-users, such as on-line help documentation, video tutorials an auto-complete feature to help end-users in typing keywords in the search panel.

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4. Platform testing and validation As explained above, the CrIP pilot was continuously tested by consortium partners during its development. The final pilot release was deployed in September 2009 in order to allow external tests by construction stakeholders. The external feedback has been collected by on-line questionnaire and during CrIP final meeting with the Monitoring and Steering Group. Users’ feedback on CrIP features and functionalities confirmed the positivity of CrIP ‘proof of concept’ and the usefulness of CrIP pilot, while providing recommendations for possible improvements to be made in developing the full CrIP. For instance, it was highlighted the necessity to provide direct link to the most useful documents (e.g. the most important Directives, EC Policies, etc.) without the need to perform a query. Moreover, on-line support to users should be improved by extending the on-line help documentation, for example providing also a glossary to explain of the different types of documents available on the web portal (Documents, Directives, White Papers, Green Papers, etc.). Furthermore, a preliminary analytical assessment of the CrIP performance against state-of-the-art available search engines has been performed, based on measuring precision and recall indicators on a set of queries with English keywords, covering specific aspects of the construction sector and various use-cases. This partial analytical assessment confirmed that the pilot is aligned with the general CrIP aims, by retrieving fewer documents compared with state-of-the-art available search engines but highly relevant to the query and focused on to the construction sector.

5. Conclusion This paper reports the results of the CrIP feasibility study, which mainly included an assessment of the construction stakeholders’ needs for information issued mainly by European Commission and related to the sector, the identification of the required features and functionalities for a fully developed Construction Information Platform, and the design, development and testing of a pilot version of the proposed CrIP, implementing a reduced set of selected features to demonstrate the potential of such platform to address stakeholders needs. This feasibility study proved that the intended platform would enable to meet a still unsatisfied need from most of construction stakeholders for accessing all European legislation, standards and innovation-related documents, as well as related national documentation of a legal nature, through a “one-stop information point” on internet. The main expected benefits are a larger dissemination of information on both EU and national legal frameworks prevailing in the construction sector, a stronger awareness of stakeholders on these topics and an easier access and use of relevant information. This would contribute to impact the quality of construction, in particular through a wider adoption of standards in sensitive topics such as sustainability, energy savings or health and safety, and reinforce competitiveness of European enterprises.

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The feasibility study also showed that the design of this construction information platform should integrate the diversity of activities, educations, languages and interests of construction stakeholders throughout Europe. It means in particular adapting the content of the displayed information to user’s profile and interest, developing mechanisms for pushing profiled information, and most importantly, multi-lingual interfaces and privileged access to documents in mother language. Complementary work is ongoing to realize the full CrIP platform, still with the financial support from the European Commission (DG Enterprise). It is expected that the future final version of CrIP will be deployed on the Commission's Europa web server at the end of 2010.

6. Acknowledgement We acknowledge the Directorate-General Enterprise and Industry (Unit I5) of the European Commission which provided not only a financial support for this feasibility study but also a most valuable help for initializing contacts with informed people within various EU bodies, and setting-up a group of construction stakeholders for monitoring and steering the project.

References Barrett, P. and Sexton, M. (2006) Innovation in Small, Project-Based Construction Firms, British Journal of Management, 17: 331–346. Boddy, S., Rezgui, Y., Cooper, G. and Wetherill. M. (2007) Computer Integrated Construction: A review and Proposals for Future Directions, Advances in Engineering Software, 38 (10). Patton, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd edition. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage. Rezgui, Y. (2007a) Knowledge systems and value creation: An action research investigation. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 107 (2): 166-182. Zarli, A. (ed.) (2003) ROADCON Final Report. ROADCON project IST-2001-37278. Available at http://cic.vtt.fi/projects/ROADCON/docs/ROADCON_finalreport.pdf

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A Review of Knowledge Management Strategies – Issues, Contexts and Benefits for the Construction Industry Mohd Zin, I.N. School of the Built Environment, The University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK (email: [email protected]) Egbu, C.O. School of the Built Environment, The University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK (email: [email protected])

Abstract In the last few years, knowledge management has become one of the hot topics discussed by scholars and industry practitioners. There is also an increasing awareness that to survive and maintain sustained competitive advantage in an uncertain and global market place, organisations need to give due consideration strategies that lead to effective knowledge management initiatives and outcomes. Despite the increasing in adoption of knowledge management concepts and initiatives in other industrial sectors, the construction industry has, arguably, been slow to adopt effective knowledge management practices and strategies; hence many construction organisations are yet to fully exploit the potential benefits of knowledge management concepts and initiatives. The main objectives this paper are, inter alia, to identify the importance and benefits of formal and informal knowledge management approaches in construction organisations and to critically appraise some of the strategies of knowledge management being adopted by organisations from which lessons learned are discussed for the benefits of the construction industry. The paper concludes that there are many knowledge management strategies currently being adopted and used by organisations and each having its own strengths, weaknesses, benefits and potentials. It also concludes that there is no one knowledge management strategy that is likely to lead to successful outcomes in all organisations, but there are certain issues worthy of consideration in developing a knowledge management strategy that offers potential for success. The realisation of this success will, however, depend on a host of factors, including organisational capabilities. This latter conclusion leads to important recommendations for the attention or industry, organisations and the academic community. These are also documented in the paper. Keyword: construction organisations, knowledge management, strategies

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1.

Introduction

The ability of an organisation to manage their knowledge is one of the key factors to keep abreast with global market competition. Many concepts and approaches have been adopted to improve organisational performance, usually under fancy banners - total quality management, reengineering, right sizing, restructuring, cultural change, and turnaround - which have the same goal. The idea is to make fundamental changes in how business is done, in order to help cope with a new and more challenging market environment. It is now more crucial than ever for organisations to cope with changes and breakthrough, especially construction organisations, to survive and maintain sustained competitive advantage in an uncertain and global market place. To move forward and become more resilient of outside pressures, construction industry players have to admit that they have to work collectively and come up with strategies that could cultivate sustainable business performance culture in construction organisations. One of the initiatives that are worth considering is to ensure that their organisations adopt knowledge management strategies in all aspects of the organisation. There is also an increasing awareness that to survive and maintain sustained competitive advantage in an uncertain and global market place, organisations need to give due consideration strategies that lead to effective knowledge management initiatives and outcomes (Egbu et al., 1999). Better knowledge management offers construction organisations a possible mechanism for improving their performance to be ahead of tougher competitors, and its role as a tool of competitive advantage for construction organisation has been highlighted by several authors (for example see Kululanga et al. (1999); Egbu et al. (1999); Carrillo et.al (2000). This paper is based on a thorough review of extensive literature of an on-going PhD study and is in the literature review stage. The main objective of this paper is to explore the relevant literature on the issues, contexts and benefits of knowledge management for the construction industry, in order to sustain a competitive edge. Since the study is about knowledge management, it is necessary to evaluate how the term knowledge is perceived in the current knowledge management literature. This part of the literature study also explains the features of different types of knowledge and evaluates the way information and knowledge differs from each other. Second, different approaches to knowledge management are presented. Third, this paper will highlight the benefits of applying formal and informal knowledge management approaches in construction organisations. It is hoped that the construction industry would use this paper as a reference point in their short and long term strategic planning. Some implications are drawn for practice, and the paper ends with a short conclusion on its contribution.

2.

Main concepts of knowledge management

It is important to have a working understanding of the differences between data, information and knowledge, in order to understand what knowledge management is. Data is generally identified as a set of discrete facts about events (Davernport and Prusak, 1998). Most organisations capture significant

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amounts of data in highly structured databases. The core value activity around business data is the ability to analyse, synthesis, and then transform the data into the information and knowledge. The concept of knowledge is different from information. Information, which can be attributed with facts about the real world, is the core of knowledge. Information is the outcome of capturing and providing context to experiences and ideas. Drucker (1989) states: “Knowledge is information that changes something or somebody, either by becoming grounds for actions or by making an individual (or an institution) capable of different or more effective action”. This makes it clear that knowledge is naturally personal and intangible. Information, on the other hand, is tangible and available to anyone who is willing to find it. For knowledge to be of value it must be focused and current tested and shared. This caring for and sharing of knowledge has become one of the most debated topics in business. It is called ‘knowledge management’. The complexity of knowledge management is largely attributed to the fact that knowledge is multidimensional. Davenport and Prusak (1998) define knowledge as a “fluid mix of framed experiences, values, contextual information and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of knower’s. In organisations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes, practices, and norms”. Organisational knowledge could be classified further into tacit and explicit (Nonaka and Tekeuchi, 1995). Nonaka et al. (2000) defines explicit knowledge as the knowledge that can be expressed in formal and systematic language and shared in the form of data, scientific formula, specifications, and manuals and amongst a wide range of knowers. Explicit knowledge also can be captured and shared through technological means (Duffy, 2000). On the contrary, tacit knowledge is more subjective and experience based, not visible thus not easily expressed, communicated, understood or measured. Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in action, procedure, routines, commitment, ideals, values and emotions (Nonaka et al., 2000). It is therefore important that organisations find means to encourage their employees to accumulate and share tacit knowledge which is a valuable strategic asset. In recent development, one of the main functions of management is to create a synchronisation between data, information processing capacity of information technology and the creative and innovative capacity of human participants. Hence, Davenport and Prusak (1998) maintain that knowledge management is often used to describe the processes through which an organisation develops, organises, and shares knowledge to achieve its competitive advantage. KPMG Management Consulting (1999) understands knowledge management “as the systematic and organised attempt to use knowledge within an organisation to improve its performance.” According to Mason and Pauleen (2003), the aim of knowledge management strategies is to facilitate learning and the creation of new knowledge by teaching individuals where to find appropriate organisational knowledge, the way to use and apply it effectively and to share and disseminate it appropriately. Bhatt (2001) states that knowledge management is a process which enables organisations to learn, creates, develop and apply necessary knowledge. The primary aim of knowledge management in any organisation is to tap knowledge from all members of the organisation and manage it to enable all members to share and access the resource without complication. These definitions

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enable us to conclude that knowledge management basically involves the synthesis of diverse but supporting procedures, processes, technologies and fields of study needed to bring about a sustainable environment enabling knowledge to be celebrated and exploited to create value for the organisation. Knowledge management is difficult to define in the context of construction industry precisely because of the lack of general consensus on a single unified meaning of the concept (Egbu 2004). However, according to Egbu and Robinson (2005), decisions on what knowledge a construction organisation needs or the knowledge intensity depends on the context of the business environment, i.e. key knowledge about process and people for delivery of its products. These context-based factors address issues of what is produced (product-goods/services), how it is produced (process) and by whom (people).

3.

Knowledge management strategies and the construction industry

Knowledge management is becoming more important within the construction industry as it is deemed critical for construction organisations to gain competitive edge. It is particularly important due to the unique characteristics of its projects such as complicated nature of operations, multitude of occupations, professions and organisations, temporary team members and heavy reliance on experience, the one-off nature of the projects, tight schedules and limited budgets. Much effort has been taken within the industry itself and in the academic realm to develop a mechanism and strategy for managing knowledge within construction organisations and on projects. The issues addressed include knowledge accumulation, knowledge storing, and knowledge sharing and transferring. Despite these efforts, there is still very little understanding of the best ways to cultivate the sharing of knowledge and less on ensuring that knowledge is readily available to other individuals, project teams and organisations. Awareness of the need to strategically manage employee-owned tacit knowledge within construction organisations in UK is currently high (Carrillo and Chinowsky, 2006). Soliman and Spooner (2000) argue that people within the organisation need to articulate every aspect of knowledge accumulation. Thus, knowledge management is crucial as the starting point in knowledge sharing, interaction and deciding the direction the organisation should take. The construction industry is one of the most people-reliant industrial sectors (Loosemore et al., 2003) due to its labour and skill-intensive nature but the management of people within construction organisations remains a complex and difficult issue (Dainty et al., 2002). A study by Robinson et al, (2001) found that for construction organisations, the most important reasons for commencing knowledge management were: dissemination of best practices to key sets of employees, retention of the tacit knowledge of key employees, continuous improvement, the need for quick customer response and the need to share knowledge. Hence adopting knowledge management strategies in construction organisations will help to identify, create and disseminate knowledge of employees and customers and subsequently enhancing performance.

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Organisations managed knowledge more or less intentionally. In recent years, a more intentional approach to organisational knowledge management has piqued both scholars and industry practitioners’ interests. There are numerous approaches on knowledge management currently being adopted and used by organisations and each possesses its own strengths, weaknesses, benefits and potentials. The concepts are best defined according to how best organisations use them. There are two tracks of activities as follows: 1. IT tracks knowledge management or technologies centred. The IT track of knowledge management leverages on information communication technology to unify organisation knowledge assets. Today, there are several knowledge management solutions that are being developed and installed to speed the knowledge management practise. As referred by Velden (2002) this track is the first generation of knowledge management focusing on the ICT capabilities in managing organisation practices. 2. People track knowledge management or people centred. The people track knowledge management focuses on the organisational behavioural approach. ICT is an enabler and acts as a platform for expediting knowledge management practices. Sveiby (2002) agrees that there are two tracks of knowledge management. The first track is the management of information approach. Researchers/practitioners in this cluster tend to have their education in computer or information science. They are involved in the development of information management systems, artificial intelligence, reengineering and group ware. This track is a new generation of knowledge management and is growing very fast. On the other hand, the people track which is considered as an old track and not growing so fast, involves those who have their education based on philosophy, psychology, sociology and business / management. Mentzas et al (2001), however, classifies knowledge management approaches into process-centred approach and product-centred approach. Process-centred approach understands knowledge management as a social communication process. In this approach, knowledge is closely tied to the person who developed it and is shared mainly through person-to-person contact. The objective of information technology in this approach is to help people communicate knowledge, not to store it. Product-centred approach, on the other hand, focuses on knowledge documents, creation, storage and reuse in computerbased corporate memories. It is also referred to as “content-centred” approach.” Scarbrough et al. (1999) states two basic approaches to knowledge management, which is classified as ‘supply driven’ and ‘demand driven’. Supply-driven initiatives identifies that the fundamental problem of knowledge management is concerned with the flow of knowledge and information within the organisation. The aim is to increase that flow by capturing, codifying and transmitting knowledge. Supply-driven initiatives typically have strong technological presence. Demand-driven approaches are more concerned with users’ perspective, and their motivation and attitudes are seen as important.

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Strategies within this category usually include reward systems and ways of encouraging knowledge sharing. Knowledge management strategies can also be described as either ‘mechanistic’ or ‘organic’ (Kamara et al, 2002). Mechanistic approaches rely heavily on technology and are concerned with the management of explicit knowledge. Organic approaches stress the importance of tacit knowledge management and include strategies such as storytelling and ‘communities of practice’. Most of the proposed approaches to manage knowledge can broadly be categorised into codification and personalisation (Hansen et al, 1999). Codification refers to the process of leveraging an explicit knowledge in databases so that knowledge can be shared and used by other people. It focuses on identifying, eliciting and storing knowledge in repositories, which makes that knowledge available for all. This strategy promises to support high-quality, reliable, and speedy reuse of knowledge. The downside is that it usually means separating the knowledge from its creators. The personalisation strategy emphasizes the process of leveraging tacit knowledge through direct personal contacts. Personalisation mechanisms are often thought of to be more ad hoc and informal, and codifications are perceives as formal and involve the use of electronic databases. There are many ways to approach the development of a knowledge management strategy, as well as many ways of presenting the strategy document itself – there is no one magic formula for all. Larger organisations will probably need a detailed, formal strategy document whereas for a smaller organisation something briefer and less formal might be more suitable.

4.

Benefits of formal and informal knowledge management in construction organisation

Knowledge management has been empirically proven to help the improvement of performance in the manufacturing industries in terms of the quality, time, speed and reliability while reducing production costs (Armstead, 1999). The potential benefits of knowledge management have been supported by a number of researchers, as a key capability which can generate sustainable competitive advantage (Skryme and Amidon, (1997); Davenport et al., (1998); McCampbell et al, (1999); Soliman and Spooner (2000). A literature reveals that the potential benefits of the knowledge management implementation are: (1) Improved decision-making, (2) Improved efficiency of people and operations, (3) Improved innovation (4) Increased flexibility to adapt and change, (5) Reducing process cycle times, (6) Reduce time to market (7) Sharing best practice, (8) Improved management learning. Due to this success, many calls were made by the construction industry’s leaders and academics for the adoption of knowledge management in construction industry. The implementation of knowledge management strategy can lead to the accruement of many benefits to organisations. Therefore, construction industry should take advantage to all the benefits of knowledge management initiatives. Some of the key benefits of knowledge management to construction sector organisations were highlighted by Anumba et al., (2005); Egbu (2004); Al-Ghassani et al, (2004); Carrillo et al, (2004) and Robinson et

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al (2001). Among the benefits are: (1) Innovation, (2) Improved performance, (3) Improved construction project delivery, (4) Facilitate the transfer of knowledge across a variety of project interface, (5) Increased intellectual capital, (6) Better placed to respond quickly to clients’ needs and other external factors, (7) Improved support for teams of knowledge workers, (8) Retain the tacit knowledge , (9) Increased value, (10) Construction organisations can be more agile and better able to respond to organisational changes, (11) To respond to organisational changes, (12) Risk minimisation . Impressive benefits from knowledge management projects involve money saved or earned (O’Dell and Grayson, 1998; McCampbell et al, 1999). According to Clark and Soliman (1999), many of the benefits of knowledge management are intangible and difficult to quantify. Since traditional financial measure such as return on asset (ROA) or return on equity (ROE) cannot sufficiently evaluate the intangible aspects of organisational assets, such as knowledge or knowledge workers, several new approaches emerged. Intellectual capital is one of the measures receiving attention from academia and practice. (Edvinsson, 1997) A number of reasons have been put to blame for the failure of the construction industry to fully benefit from knowledge management, and to improve organisation performance. A UK study done by Carrillo et al. (2004) on large construction organisations revealed four main barriers in knowledge management strategy; insufficient time, organisational culture, lack of standard work processes and insufficient funding. Dainty et al. (2005) highlight three principal barriers to the creation of a knowledge sharing culture and that organisations need to overcome these through an effective knowledge management strategy. The three principal barriers are: an unsupportive culture, poor communications structure and time constraints. Egbu (2004) also have carried out knowledge management research conducted a study on knowledge management issues in three empirical studies in construction organisations in the UK. In this study, he investigated the incoherent and lack of ownership of knowledge vision in the industry. There was a prevalent lack of appreciation of knowledge as an important asset. Other reasons include the insufficient promotion on information-sharing culture by organisations and lack of appropriate methods and tools for measuring and valuing knowledge. In addition, there were inadequate standardised processes put in place. There was evidence of inflexible organisational structures, time constraints and enormous pressure on key staff (knowledge “experts”). There was an endemic reluctance to, or fear of, the use and application of IT tools for knowledge management (technophobia). Some members of the industry only see the “knowledge is power syndrome” and not the “law of increasing returns” associated with knowledge creation whereby shared knowledge stays with the giver while enriching the receiver Egbu (2004). Overall, there was a lack of a clear purpose or shared language and meaning of knowledge management in the industry. The literature has found several studies that proposed several key variables for successful implementation of knowledge management. According to knowledge management study of 31 projects in 24 companies conducted by Davenport et al. (1998), they have identified knowledge management success factors such as (1) having a knowledge-friendly culture (2) creating an organisational infrastructure that systematically

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support knowledge management (3) motivated workers who develop, share and use knowledge; (4) balance of flexibility, evolution and ease-of-accessibility to knowledge; (5) shared knowledge; (6) means of knowledge transfer using various information technology infrastructure; and (7) senior management support and commitment. Ryan and Prybutok (2001) propose five success factors such as (1) an open organisational culture; (2) senior management leadership and commitment; (3) employee involvement; (4) teamwork and (5) information systems infrastructure. Perhaps the most comprehensive list of success factors has been presented by Moffett et al. (2003). Ten key components to successful knowledge management were identified: (1) a friendly organisational culture; (2) senior management leadership and commitment; (3) employee involvement; (4) employee training; (5) trustworthy teamwork; (6) employee empowerment; (7) information systems infrastructure; (8) performance measurement; (9) benchmarking and (10) knowledge structure. In a similar study, Alavi and Leidner (1999) invited a non-random sample of 109 participants from 12 different countries to participate in a survey that aimed to define the concept of knowledge management that managers ascribe to the concept of knowledge management. When asked what capabilities their organisations needed for successful knowledge management, three perspectives emerged: an information-based perspective, a technology-based perspective, and a culture-based perspective.

5.

Recommendations for the attention of industry, organisations and the academic community

A properly developed knowledge management strategy provides a unique opportunity to gain a greater understanding of the way the organisation operates, and the challenges that it faces. From the literature, it is suggested that there are certain issues worthy of consideration in developing a knowledge management strategy that offers potential for success and adds a competitive edge to any given organisation. If proper and timely identification of the needs and issues of an organisation’s staff is done, activities and initiatives can be recommended with the confidence that these will have a clear and measurable impact upon the organisation.

5.1 Create a change management plan For many organisations, knowledge management represents a cultural change, and employees need to know that top management/leader is behind this change and that it is an ongoing way of life for the organisation. Construction industry may need a change management plan to do jobs differently. The change management plan specifies how to gain acceptance of knowledge management within the organisation. As part of the overall change management plan it is needed to update job descriptions, feedback sessions and performance reviews to reflect the new workflow. Neglecting to make these changes is likely to create friction.

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5.2 Knowledge sharing Culture Culture is not only a challenge faced by construction organisations. In a survey of 431 US and European organisations, culture was found to be the biggest impediment to knowledge transfer (Ruggles, 1998). Understanding the culture of the organisation is the first step that needs to be taken before implementing the initiative. The types of culture present in an organisation affect the ways in which knowledge is managed, and can, as a result either persuade or discourage the use of knowledge management practices. For successful knowledge sharing, organisations first have to have a culture that is open and accept sharing. “Stoddart (2001) argues that knowledge sharing can only work if the culture of the organisation promotes it”. Studies by De Long and Liam (2000) show that culture influence knowledge sharing by as much as 80%. Egbu et al. (2003); Egbu and Robinson (2005) provide a list of various aspects of organisational culture that would support a knowledge management effort and simultaneously recognise the various aspects of culture that may affect an organisation negatively.

5.3 Top management commitment Top management has the greatest power in enabling and moving knowledge management in the organisations. They have the ability to influence the other success factors, such as enabling a knowledgefriendly culture, encourage collaboration across boundaries of structure, time, and function. They could disseminate success stories, provide infrastructure and support, and change the reward system to remove barriers. Top management also will need to consistently spread a message of sharing and leveraging knowledge for a grater good (O’Dell and Grayson, 1998). As such, the knowledge management activities of the construction organisations could be implemented more meaningfully if their top management is willing to play a greater role in driving it and setting a good example.

5.4 Reward system to encourage knowledge sharing Knowledge sharing is not necessarily a natural process. Thus, initially in implementing knowledge management, a proper reward system that credits sharing must be established. Rewards and recognition scheme is needed in order to motivate people to share their knowledge. A reward system that appreciates and shows recognition of the efforts of the employees either in fair monetary or non-monetary terms helps to motivate the employees to remain loyal and contribute to the knowledge management process within the organisation. However, the construction organisations must ensure that the reward system is on longterm basis, and not short-term so as to avoid the employees in gaming the system for the rewards. This can create interest, excitement and motivation among people, and ensure early adopters get high visibility so they serve as role models for others. Construction organisations need to support employees or teams that invest or “give up” resources that make this sharing happen especially if they do not directly benefit. Top management can help buy promoting, recognising and rewarding people who model knowledge sharing behaviour, as well as those who adopt best practice (O’Dell and Grayson, 1998). Therefore, the

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staffs of the companies are indirectly being encouraged by the organisation to increase the knowledge within the companies through these support systems.

5.5 Establishing Technology Platform A technology platform composed of its infrastructure and applications must support the wide variety of need that arises. IT can provide an edge in harvesting knowledge from piles of old buried data repositories. This is supported by Offsey (1997) who states that IT is clearly required to enable the organisation’s knowledge management processes. The rise of networking computers not only expands the range of knowledge sharing also reduces the cost of transferring knowledge. Both explicit and tacit knowledge are created and retained in databases through technologies. Therefore this knowledge can be shared among the employees and would be easily accessible. This would contribute to greater efficiency and better improvement of organisations performance. ICT helps to pool experts in each of these processes into communities and facilitates collaboration among members of these communities. Al-Ghassani et. al. (2005) present a various available knowledge management tools and distinguishes between knowledge management techniques and technologies to choose from in implementing a knowledge management strategy.

5.6 Training The human resource department of construction organisations should take the responsibility for teaching the change in mindset required to implement knowledge management and to help their employees gain more knowledge. More training will cultivate the interest and responsibility in the employees to keep their education current. Through training, it is believed that employees would gain the latest knowledge available in the market, making the staff more adaptable to the changing environment of construction industries. The use of a knowledge management strategy combined with training may produce some interesting and satisfying results.

5.7 Human Resource Practice Human resource strategy needs to bring people together so that they can build informal networks (Lubit, 2001). A knowledge management strategy must be part of the most important human resources effort as its success relies on being incorporated into the recruitment and selection process, staff learning and development, the performance management and rewards system, as well as being part of mobility and reassignment. Armstrong (2000) thought of the role of human resource in knowledge management as “to facilitate the dissemination of learning through workshop, projects and conference and later, to take responsibility for co-ordinating the preparation of business plans which incorporate the outcome of the learning activities”. The main tasks of human resource management are to monitor measure and intervene in construction, embodiment, dissemination and use of knowledge by the employees (Soliman and

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Spooner, 2000). Knowledge management strategies must put emphasise on enhancing and focusing on human interactions and human resources.

6.

Conclusion

It was clearly presented in the literature that knowledge management strategy has become a competitive factor in the construction industry. This paper outlined basic introduction to the knowledge management concepts and knowledge management approaches that are in practice, and also highlighted the issues that researchers thought as vital in the progress of knowledge management research agenda. Following a brief review of the opportunities and challenges that exist within the construction industry when taking up knowledge management initiatives, the paper identified the benefits and importance of knowledge management to construction organisations. Regarding this, the paper suggests the use of knowledge management strategy as a promoter of organisation improvement. Challenges await in the implementation of knowledge management and organisations need have strive hard to be relevant in anticipating the resurgence of new areas of knowledge management. This paper could serve as a foundation for future studies but more work needs to be done to establish approaches in managing knowledge in construction organisations. The continuing stages of this ongoing study involve developing a conceptual framework and conducting a main study.

References Alavi M and Leidner D (1999) Knowledge Management Systems: Issues, Challenges and Benefits, Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 1(2). Al-Ghassani A M, Kamara J M, Anumba C J and Carrillo P M (2004) An Innovative Approach To Identifying Knowledge Management Problems Journal Of Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management Vol. 11, No. 5, pp: 349-357 Al-Ghassani A M, Anumba C J, Carrillo P M and Robinson H S (2005) Tools and Techniques for knowledge managemen,t, in Anumba C J, Egbu C O and Carrillo P M, Knowledge Management in Construction, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Anumba C J, Egbu C O and Carrillo P M (2005), Knowledge Management in Construction, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford Armstead C (1999) KM and process Performance, Journal of Knowledge management, vol. 3 No 2, pp 143-154. Armstrong M (2000) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Techniques, 7th ed., Kogan Page, London.

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Bhatt G D (2001) Knowledge Management in Organisation Examining the Interaction between Technology, Techniques and People, Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(1), 68-75. Carrillo P and Chinowsky P (2006), Exploiting knowledge management: the engineering and construction perspective, ASCE Management in Engineering, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 2-10. Carrillo P M, Robinson H S, Al-Ghassani A M and Anumba C J (2004) Knowledge management in UK construction: strategies, resources and barriers, Project Management Journal, 35(1), 46-56. Carrillo P M, Anumba C J and Kamara J M (2000) Knowledge Management for Construction; Key IT and Contextual Issues, Construction Informatics Digital Library http://itc.scix.net/paper w78-2000155.content Clark J and Soliman F (1999), A graphical method for assessing knowledge-based investments, Journal of Logistics and Information Management, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 63-77. Dainty A, Bryman A and Price A (2002), Empowerment within the UK construction sector, Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, Vol. 23, No. 6, pp. 333-342. Dainty A R J, Qin J and Carrillo P M (2005) HRM strategies for promoting knowledge sharing within construction project organisations: a case study. In: Abdul Samad Kazi, Knowledge management in the construction industry: a socio-technical perspective, Idea Group Inc. PA. Davenport T H and Prusak L (1998) Working Knowledge, Boston: Harvard Business School Press Davenport T, De Long D and Beers D (1998) Successful Knowledge Management Projects, Sloan Management Review, MIT, winter. Despres C and Chauvel D (1999) Knowledge management(s), Journal of Knowledge Management, Volume 3, Number 2 . pp. 110-120. De Long W and Liam F (2000) Diagnosing Cultural Barriers to Knowledge Management, the Academy of Management Executive, vol. 14, no.4, pp. 113-127. Drucker P F (1989) What Businesses Can Learn from Nonprofits, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 67 pp.88-93 cited in Ahmad P K, Lim K K and Loh Y E (2002) Learning through Knowledge Management, Butterworth-Heinemann. Duffy J (2000) Knowledge Management: To Be Or Not To Be? Information Management Journal, vol. 34 no. 1, pp 64-67.

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Edvinsson L (1997) Developing Intellectual Capital at Skandia, Long Range Planning, Vol. 30 No.3, pp.366-73. Egbu C, Sturgesand J and Bates B (1999) Learning From Knowledge Management and TransOrganisational Innovations in Diverse Project Management Environments in Huges, W.P (ed) Proceeding of the 15 annual conference of the association of researchers in construction management (ARCOM), 15-17 September, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool. Egbu C and Botteril K (2001) Information technologies for knowledge management: their usage and effectiveness, Electronic Journal of Information Technology in Construction, Vol. 7 pp.p125. Egbu, C O, Kurul E, Quintas P, Hutchinson V, Anumba C, Al-Ghassani A and Ruikar K (2003) Report On The Knowledge Management User Requirement Workshop. Held on 6 December (2002) , London, UK. www.knowledgemanagement.uk.net. Accessed on 20/04/09 Egbu C O (2004) Managing Knowledge and Intellectual Capital for Improved Organisational Innovations in the Construction Industry: an Examination of Critical Success Factor, Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management (ECAM) Journal, 11(5), 301-315. Egbu C O and Robinson H S (2005) Construction as a Knowledge-Based Industry, in Anumba C J, Egbu C O and Carrillo P M, Knowledge Management in Construction, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Hansen M T, Nohria N and Tierney, T (1999) What’s Your Strategy for Managing Knowledge? Harvard Business Review, 77(2):106–116, 1999. Kamara J M, Augenbroe G, Anumba C J and Carrillo P M Knowledge Management in the Architecture, Engineering And Construction Industry, Construction Innovation 2002; 2: 53–67 KPMG Management consulting (1999) Knowledge Management: Research Report 2000, London: KPMG web site. Kululanga G K, McCaffer R, Price A D F and Edum-Fotwe F (1999) Learning Mechanisms Employed by Construction Contractor, Journal of construction engineering and management, 15 (4), pp 215-223. Loosemore M, Dainty, A.R.J and Lingard, H (2003) Human Resource Management in Construction Projects, Strategic and Operational Approaches, Spon Press, London Lubit, R. (2001) Tacit Knowledge and Knowledge Management: The Key to Sustainable Competitive Advantage, Organisational Dynamics, Vol. 29, No. 4

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Mason D and Pauleen DJ (2003) Perception of Knowledge Management: a Qualitative Analysis, Journal of knowledge management, vol 7, no. 4, pp 38-74. McCampbell A S, Clare L M and Gitters S H (1999) Knowledge Management: The New Challenge for the 21st Century, Journal of Knowledge Management, Volume 3. Number 3, pp. 172-179. Mentzas G, Apostolou D, Young R and Abecker A (2001) Knowledge Networking: A Holistic Solution For Leveraging Corporate Knowledge, Journal of Knowledge Management, Volume 5 . Number 1. pp. 94-106. Moffett S, McAdam R and Parkinson S. (2003) an Empirical Analysis of Knowledge Management Applications, Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(3), pp. 6 – 26. Nonaka I and Takeuchi H (1995) the knowledge Creating Company, New York, Oxford University Press. Nonaka I, Totama R and Nakata A (2000) A Firm as A Knowledge-Creation Entity: A New Perspective on the Theory of The Firm, Industrial and Corporate Change, 9(1), 1-20. O’Dell C and Grayson C J (1998) If Only We Know What We Know: the Transfer of Internal Knowledge and Best Practice, California Management Review, vol. 40, No. 3, spring. Offsey S (1997) Knowledge Management: Linking People to Knowledge from Bottom Line Results, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 1, No. 2. Rodney McAdam R and McCreedy S (1999) A Critical Review of Knowledge Management Models, The Learning Organisation Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp: 91-101. Ryan S D & Prybutok V R (2001) Factors Affecting Knowledge Management Technologies: A Discriminative Approach, Journal of Computer Information Systems, 41(3), pp. 31 – 37. Ruggles R (1998) The State of the Notion: Knowledge Management in Practice, California Management Review, Vol. 40 No.3, pp.80-9. Scarbrough H, Swan J and Preston J (1999) Knowledge Management: A Literature Review. London: Institute of Personnel and Development Skryme D and Amidon D (1997) Creating the Knowledge-Based Business, Business Intelligence, London.

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Soliman F and Spooner K (2000), Strategies for Implementing Knowledge Management: Role of Human Resources Management, Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(4), 337-345. Stoddart L (2001) Managing Intranets to Encourage Knowledge Sharing: Opportunities and Constraints. Online Information Review, vol. 25, no.1, pp. 19-28. Sveiby K E (2002) What Is Knowledge Management, Sveiby Knowledge Associates. Available at: http://www.sveiby.com/faq.html#Whatis [Site visited 01 Dec 2009]. Velden M V D (2002) Knowledge Facts, Knowledge Fictions: The Role of ICTs in Knowledge Management for Development, Journal of International Development, 14, 25-37.

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Fuzzy Expert System as a Decision Support Tool in the Visual Examination Process in Building Diagnostics Molnárka, G. Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract The first step of each building diagnostic analysis is a detailed visual check of deteriorations of building elements. During this process the identification of touched components and the circumstances of the given failure are discussed. A properly completed survey determines the way of further analyses and interventions to be done. Thus the visual check may support indirectly the decisions which deal with the life cycle of the examined building or its part. In the case of ad hoc and independent surveys the decision-supporting ability of the traditional visual examination procedures proves to be inconsiderable, if the subjects of the surveys belong to the same property. Due to several subjective factors the evaluation of these surveys and their comparative analysis are almost impossible. It is supposable that the fuzzy expert system proposed in this article may remedy the problem mentioned above, owing to the peculiarities of this professional field (application of a variety of linguistic variables, uncertainty originated from different sources, assumptions based on experiences and observations). This paper sketches out the facts of uncertainties of the visual examination procedure in building diagnostics, then describes the architecture and components of the fuzzy expert system. Thereafter, the operation of this method is illustrated through three building diagnostics case studies. Keywords: visual examination process, building diagnostics, fuzzy expert system, decision support

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1. Introduction The obtained knowledge, the transmittance of experiences to the next generation benefited the development of architecture: the information, which was gathered continuously in the ancient resulted the perfection in traditional building process. After the industrial revolution considerable changes happened on the area of architecture and building: since then the “classical” knowledge proves bare for constructing errorless (or almost errorless) buildings. The consecutively altering technologies, new-invented building materials, constructions and connections became the sources of new types of failures. Numerous exterior circumstances (social, economic and climate changing) also formed the building industry, thus the disruption became a striking feature of knowledge set of deteriorations of buildings. Beside this process the more and more conscious conservation and development of existing building stock is also noticeable nowadays. The principle of sustainable development influenced the main research directions of building science: the induced “sustainable building” (definition by: Kibert, C. CIB, 1994) urges the advancing of rational conservancy and maintenance. The elaborated action plan supposes that this process may be supported with the development of the methods and software of building diagnostics (Kunszt, 2004). The rational conservancy and the effective maintenance are puzzling questions, principally if there are more altering buildings in the same Facility Management system, additionally if they are set in far distance to each other. Does any objective evaluation system exist, which helps ranking these buildings from the aspect of importance of intervention? How the examinations can be compared to each other, which are accomplished by different experts on different places? In addition, in many cases these reports contain inaccuracies, lack of information and use different and incomparable evaluation systems. This domain of questions assigned the direction of our research in the methods of building diagnostics: the development of an objective and comprehensive decision support system was defined. To develop this tool the peculiarities of the professional area of building diagnostics, and essentially, the features of visual examination on site had to be taken into consideration.

2. The peculiarities of visual examination on site 2.1 The general process of visual examination Since there is not any valid international or national standard for the process of (general) visual examinations in building diagnostics, in the followings the prevailing process is being described. During the visual examination on site, after localizing the deterioration, the structural description of touched building and its part comes. Therefore the first step is to recognize and identify the building elements and constructions. The exact identification of building constructions with proper terminologies is indeed important: bad determinations and the use of inaccurate technical terms may

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lead the analysis to a wrong way. While the expert describes the experienced phenomena, it is also necessary to apply acceptable and objective expressions. The explication of the supposed relationship among causes and consequences of failures can be based on the mentioned arrangements. It is advisable to determine the depth of exploration of the failure mechanism in advance: the given task ascertains the margins of the analysis to the adequate level. If the concrete goal of the examination requires the approach of detailed analyses has to be determined (whether sampling or laboratory work is necessary, etc.). Usually the experts are asked for giving recommendations for renovation, or estimating the cost of rehabilitation and, occasionally, the value of depreciation.

2.2 The analysis of method of visual examination The analysis of causes and consequences of building failures corresponds to the “if-then” type logic analysis applied in remote science areas: the phenomena can be linked to their antecedents with simple abstraction. It is a fact that the possibility of mathematic modelling is justifiable in the process of the evaluation of building failures (cf. FMEA and FMECA analyses (Talon, 2005), (Lacasse & Sjoström, 2004)). It is arisen from the uniqueness of cases that there is not enough and detailed statistic data for analysis – that is why the applicability of calculus of probabilities has to be discarded (although several attempt happened, see (Borján, 1981)). It also comes from the peculiarities of professional area that the reasoning process is antecedent – this fact determines the way of development of method. An important property of examinations is that linguistic variables are used for evaluations. In the majority of the cases of visual examinations the results cannot be quantified, the reports contain mainly qualitative data. The interfering factors are also the sources of uncertainty. During the visual examination several other factors can be found which may result doubtful and improper conclusion. The inadequate or not reliable knowledge, the uncertain information which originate from inexact measurements on site, the imprecise representing language, the occurring ambivalences – only one of these facts may be enough for leading our research via the complexity-reduction methods.

3. The expert system as a tool in visual examination The notion of expert system is not foreign on the area of building diagnostics. The self-learning ability of the system, the synthesizing and publication of experiences through the knowledge base, and the simple structure of rule base equally make the method advisable (Croce, 1993). The experiences of operating expert system can be got to know through the analyses of damages of historic masonries and damages originated from air and traffic pollutions (MDDS – Masonry Damage

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Diagnostic System) (Van Balen, 1996). Further expert systems in building industry are described in (Lawrence & James, 1995). The structure of the building diagnostics expert system can be described on the followings. The knowledge base – which is considered as the core of the expert system – classifies the information with the method of information technology: thesauri and word clustering contain the terminologies and expression of building construction and materials (Koppány, 1997), and the phenomena as well. In this construction the specific vocabulary problem (Chen, Schuffels, & Orwig, 1996) has to be taken into account. The rule base acts as syllogisms based on experiences and former examinations, where the relationship among causes and consequences are discovered with the aid of quantitative fault tree analysis (Vesely, Goldberg, Roberts, & Haasl, 1981). Former building diagnostics reports of expert and relating literature were in the background of the construction course. Further details of the construction of expert system and its elements are in (Molnárka, 2007). The attributes of the subject of the given examination are fed through the database unit to the expert system; then they can be compared to the failure process model presented by the system. However the theoretic operation of the supposed expert system resembles the EPIQR software that is useful for building energetic state survey (Jaggs & Palmer, 2000); some differences can be discovered. The self-learning ability, the possibility of continuous improving – they are the elementary properties of the expert system: these properties keep the system open. The correlation among the elements of the system is looser; the knowledge base and the rule base attempt to cover the total set of deformation phenomena of building constructions. For improving the efficacy of the expert system the application of Meta rule base was necessary: this Meta rule base focuses on the groups of deformations (e.g. building physical; mechanic problems). For the construction of expert system see the block diagram on Figure 1. Deriving from the property of expert system it operates as a communication channel toward the building industry and education: the experts’ reports becomes examinable, the obtained experiences may become shared with the wider publication of building science. It is important to note that a confidence index is ordered to the results of the reports, which serves a standing point for interpreting the data.

Figure 1: the Block Diagram of the Expert System in Building Diagnostics

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4. Application of fuzzy set theory There is an existing problem that how a complex facility management system with huge geographic extension can apply the forming method. For such a big system possessing several types of buildings needs a tool that is able to compare different surveys from a single question: where the intervention is the most important. So this management system needs a kind of decision support tool, which may operate independently from experts and which is able to create an objective rank among cases. The peculiarities of visual examination on site (uncertain knowledge, inexact measure data, application of linguistic variables, etc.) suggest the application of complexity reduction methods. Among them the application of fuzzy set theory seems to be expediential. The theory was published in 1965 (Zadeh, 1965), since then its application in practice became widespread. The fuzzy set theory obtains simplification in several computations with the conscious handling of uncertainty. Comparing to the traditional (binary) logic, where the truth value of a statement is 0 or 1 (true or false), in fuzzy logic this value is between 0 and 1. For more information in this theme see: (Kandel, 1992) (Tanaka & Wang, 2001). This mathematic approach is able to emulate more accurately the human thinking than traditional AI methods; this approach may help evaluating objectively the examined reports. The application of fuzzy expert system in visual examination of building diagnostics is presented through three case studies. On the basis of building diagnostics report (owner institute: Institute of Building Construction, Technical University of Budapest), several failures of different type of buildings are analyzed. For representing the experienced failures the quantitative fault-tree analysis was applied: with this method the relations of causes and consequences became clear and visible. For evaluating the deteriorations neutral and exact linguistic variables were used, which are able to determine the needful interventions and to surmount the difficulties of comparison of these deteriorations. During the examination some simplification was taken. The linguistic variables and their partitions were chosen with keeping in mind the fact that the amount of rules affects the manageability of the rule base. Further fine-tuning can be done during the subsequent analyses; this report focuses on the presentation of the application of the method.

4.1 Definition of fuzzy sets and construction of rule base 4.1.1 Determination of the Aim of the Analysis The purpose of the evaluation of the case studies is to ascertain the measure of the importance of the intervention produced by the given deterioration. With this ascertainment a ranking can be done

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among the cases, thus the building diagnostics may become a true decision support tool in the process of Facility Management. The types of the importance of the intervention were determined in five categories (with a scale from zero to hundred). The determination of categories may be useful when the evaluations produce close results. In this case the touched surveys have to be evaluated in details. The Table 1 contains the linguistic variables and boundaries of the categories. Table 1: Categories of Importance of Intervention Linguistic Variables

Boundaries

Unwarranted

0

12.5

Slightly Reasonable

12.6

37.5

Worthy of Consideration

37.6

62.5

Reasonable

62.6

87.5

Reasonable in any Case

87.6

100

Note: the meaning of intervention in our case is an intervention which extends significantly the life cycle of the building or its part. Demolishing a building is the end of the life cycle of the building, thus it is not the subject of the examination. 4.1.2 Determination of input and output variables, partitioning Taking into account the manageability of rule base the number of input variables was narrowed down to three. The input variables were chosen to be able to consider every effect of failures while the importance of the intervention is defined. Based on this condition the input variables focus particularly on the examined building, the experienced phenomena and the economic questions: thus the main aspects will be evaluated independently from each other. Note: in the present state of the recommended fuzzy expert system – in favour of simplifying the calculations – fuzzy membership functions decomposable into linear spans (triangular and trapezoidal) are applied (Johanyák & Kovács, 2004), which form Ruspini partitions. According to this, the aggregate of function parameter of sets is 1 for every elements of basic set; so the locations of the maximum of membership functions (which represent several partitions) correspond to the minimum of membership functions of both sides; in the intersection point the function parameter is always 0.5. The „Life and Property Protection” (LPP) input variable estimates the seriousness of deterioration. The rate or types of failures produce different disadvantageous consequences in human or/and material relations.

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Table 2: The Partitions and Ranges of „Life and Property Protection” Input Variable Name of Input Variable

Range

Life and Property Protection (LPP)

0-100%

5

direct danger of death and/or total wreck

80

100

4

indirect danger of death and/or critical material damage

50

90

3

direct danger in health state and/or material damage

20

80

2

indirect danger in health state and/or material damage

10

50

1

indifferent

0

20

Figure 2: Fuzzy Sets of “Life and Property Protection” Input Variable The repair of deformations and the termination of existing failures are the basic interest of the owner, the operator or the facility management. However it is important to know financial aspects of the process of the maintenance. The „Returns” (Rs) input variable takes the financial relation of failure and its maintenance into consideration: e.g. compares operational costs before and after the renovation, the reproduction costs of building components, etc. Table 3: The Partitions and Ranges of „Returns” Input Variable Name of Input Variable

Range

Returns (Rs)

0-100%

5

very short rate of return

80

100

4

short rate of return

60

90

3

average return

30

70

2

slightly or long rate of return

10

40

1

no or extremely long rate of return

0

20

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Figure 3: Fuzzy Sets of “Returns” Input Variable The architectural value of a given building, its functional effectiveness and its synchrony with the applied technology are equally hardly measurable values, which may influence the intervention. Respecting this aspect, in the fuzzy evaluation process the „Architectural Value” (AV) input variable was created: this variable globally represents the non-technical and non-economic considerations. Table 4: The Partitions and Ranges of „Architectural Value” Input Variable Name of Input Variable

Range

Architectural Value (AV)

0-100%

3

high Architectural Value

70

100

2

average Architectural Value

20

80

1

inconsiderable Architectural Value

0

30

Figure 4: Fuzzy Sets of “Architectural Value” Input Variable As the output variable of the analysis the Importance of the Intervention (IN) was found. Its categories define how important the maintenance is (keeping each point of view in sight).

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Table 5: The Partitions and Ranges of „Importance of Intervention” Output Variable Name of Input Variable

Range

Architectural Value (AV)

0-100%

10

Category 10. (principally reasonable)

85

100

9

Category 9.

75

95

8

Category 8.

65

85

7

Category 7.

55

75

6

Category 6.

45

65

5

Category 5. (moderately reasonable)

35

55

4

Category 4.

25

45

3

Category 3.

15

35

2

Category 2.

5

25

1

Category 1. (unfounded)

0

15

4.2 The Rule Base, Fuzzification and Defuzzification Strategy 4.2.1 The Construction of Rule Base If the chosen input variables are compared to each other, it leaps to the eye that these variables have different weight in an evaluation process of a given deterioration. That is why it seemed necessary to put these diversities forward in the result of output variables. Therefore the input variables were weighted with a decision supporting method, the “Criteria Scoring Matrix”. As a result the weighted rank of the input variables formed. The relations among the input and output variables are based on the “if-then” type rules. The accessible input variables (three variables) and their partitions (5;5;3 partitions by each variable) create a rule base consisting of 5 x 5 x 3 = 75 rules. 4.2.2 Fuzzy Inference and Selection of Defuzzification Strategy In the process of examined case studies the Mamdani-method was applied (Mamdani & Assilian, 1975) where the minimums of conjunction were taken into account. The fuzzy inference which is resulted from the fuzzy expert system may be adequate for evaluating the surveys and for further examinations, but the comparison of independent phenomena was aimed. Therefore the fuzzy value of inference engine was turned into crisp value: the COG method was applied for defuzzification (Kóczy T. & Tikk, 2000).

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5. Case Studies With the fuzzy system outlined above several building diagnostics reports were evaluated. In addition to the main purpose, that the priority of intervention was ascertained, the evaluations resulted improvement of specific elements of knowledge base: the mapping of relations among construction – material – phenomenon thesauri. From these evaluations three cases help showing the main features of the system. In the first case an aesthetic yet striking problem is to be evaluated, which erects from a fundamental implementation failure (see Table 6.). In the second case a moulding problem is discussed; its repair may cause a periodical pause in operation of the given factory (see Table 7.). The third case presents a peculiar phenomenon in a sports hall, where large pieces of insulation fall down to the playing field and cause serious danger (see Table 8.). The application of the recommended tool is reasonable, since the different failures form in different circumstances. The function of buildings, the structures and the cost of repairs all together make the comparison difficult. The evaluation process of the support tool these factors can be separated; beside this, the evaluation itself can be done with linguistic variables. The values of input variables were determined independently from each other, so the cooperation with experts of different professional area became realizable.

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Table 5: Hair-cracks on chipboard wall and ceiling Function of Building

dwelling house

Year of Construction

1978

Year of Examination

1991

Building Construction

mounted partition wall

Building Material

gypsum, cement-based mortar

Phenomena

hair cracks on surface hair cracks in joints

Expert’s Statements

In the process of building these boards were not employed in dry-air state. They were fixed to the rafters directly in mesh instead of bound installation, thus the gaps opened. The motion of the wooden rafters sprang from the pulsating load (e.g. wind, rain) also brought the opening of the gaps. The boards fixed with obtuse assemblages exert their shrinking effect in one field, so the allowance of this motion (with hidden jointing, cut dilatation gap) in the connection lines is necessary. At the connection among different materials the different physical parameters drive to crack formation.

Evaluation with Fuzzy System Degree of Membership (Input Variables) Input Variable

Value

Set 1

Set 2

No.

Degree

No

Degree

LPP

5%

1

1.00

2

1.00

Rs

66%

4

0.30

5

0.70

AV

72%

2

0.80

3

0.20

8

AV

(1-75)

Rs

Shooting Rules

LPP

Evaluation (Mamdani method) Evaluation of Shooting Rules

1

3

2

ωmin (8)

Area of Reasoning

Centre of Gravity

0.40

ω (8)*

6.4

y(8)*

15

3.6

y(9)*

25

9

1

3

3

ωmin (9)

0.20

ω (9)*

11

1

4

2

ωmin (11)

0.60

ω (11)*

8.4

y(11)*

25

0.20

*

3.6

y(12)*

25

12

1

4

3

ωmin (11)

ω (12)

Defuzzification (COG method)

22.09% „Slightly reasonable” (12.6-37.5)

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Table 6: Moulding in a Bakery Function of Building

Bakery (industrial)

Year of Construction

1974

Year of Examination

1990

Building Construction

exterior partition wall

Building Material

reinforced concrete

Phenomena

moulding

Expert’s Statements

The interior area is humid and the ventilation devices which are built into the roof are not operating. A lot of pipes and cables are mounted on the walls in the interior, visible pollution (flour, dust) settled on their surface. Counting with an interior air temperature of +25°C and an exterior air temperature of -5°C, the lowest temperature on the surface of wall and slab connection is +12°C. Beside the high humidity of interior (75%) this temperature opens up opportunities to moisture concentration on the surface, and this way, to the development of molding. Degree of Membership (Input Variables)

Input Variable

Value

Set 1

Set 2

No.

Degree

No

Degree

LPP

45%

2

0.17

3

0.83

Rs

64%

3

0.60

4

0.40

AV

28%

1

0.20

2

0.80

22

AV

(1-75)

Rs

Shooting Rules

LPP

Evaluation (Mamdani method) Evaluation of Shooting Rules

2

3

1

ωmin (22)

Area of Reasoning

Centre of Gravity

0.17

ω (22)*

3.05

y(22)*

35

3.05

y(23)*

35

23

2

3

2

ωmin (23)

0.17

ω (23)*

25

2

4

1

ωmin (25)

0.17

ω (25)*

3.05

y(25)*

35

0.17

ω (26)

*

3.05

y(26)*

45

ω (37)

*

3.6

y(37)*

45

*

8.4

y(38)*

45

26 37

2 3

4 3

2 1

ωmin (26) ωmin (37)

0.20

38

3

3

2

ωmin (38)

0.60

ω (38)

40

3

4

1

ωmin (40)

0.20

ω (40)*

3.6

y(40)*

55

0.40

*

6.4

y(41)*

55

41

3

4

2

ωmin (41)

ω (41)

Defuzzification (COG method)

45.24% „Worthy of consideration” (27.6-62.5)

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Table 7: Failure of the insulation layer on sport hall roofing Function of Building

Sports Hall

Year of Construction

1983

Year of Examination

1994

Building Construction

interior roof insulation (on lightweight flat roof system)

Building Material

asbestos insulation

Phenomena

insulation peels off

Expert’s Statements

The use of the sports hall in winter time leads to the experienced phenomena: the vapor of interior comes through the insulation, condensates on the cold steel sheet, which is the seating of the insulation; and the developed water wrenches the strewn asbestos insulating from its seating. The asbestos insulation falls down to the arena, which produces significant risk to the human health. Degree of Membership (Input Variables)

Input Variable

Value

Set 1

Set 2

No.

Degree

No

Degree

LPP

45%

2

0.17

3

0.83

Rs

64%

3

0.60

4

0.40

AV

28%

1

0.20

2

0.80

LPP

Rs

AV

Evaluation (Mamdani method) Shooting Rules

Evaluation of Shooting Rules

50

4

4

2

ωmin (50)

0.17

ω (50)*

3.05

y(50)*

35

51

4

4

2

ωmin (51)

0.17

ω (51)*

3.05

y(51)*

35

0.17

ω (59)*

3.05

y(59)*

35

0.17

ω (60)

*

3.05

y(60)*

45

*

3.6

y(71)*

45

(1-75)

59 60

4 4

5 5

2 3

ωmin (59) ωmin (60)

Area of Reasoning

Centre of Gravity

71

5

4

2

ωmin (71)

0.20

ω (71)

72

5

4

3

ωmin (72)

0.60

ω (72)*

8.4

y(72)*

45

0.20

ω (74)

*

3.6

y(74)*

55

ω (75)

*

6.4

y(75)*

55

74 75

5 5

5 5

2 3

ωmin (74) ωmin (75)

0.40

Defuzzification (COG method)

85.55% “Reasonable” (62.6-87.5)

141

6. Summary The primary objective of our research institute is to elaborate a device that supports the decisionmaking procedure in facility management. Its theoretic background was served by the internationally accepted action plans. The way of development in methods was lead towards the intuitive methods, which idea is recommended by the CIB (CIB Secretary, 2007). According to this, the application of fuzzy expert system (including the fuzzy control) seems to be advantageous equally because of the global attributes of expert systems (self-learning ability, didactic analysis procedure based on common knowledge, classification) and because of the characteristics of fuzzy logics (handling uncertainties, application of linguistic variables). Although the development of this tool is in its first phase, some questions became answered. Among them the most important is: there exists a method which may support effectively the work of the experts. The former ascertainment widespread among the building diagnostics experts saying the computer cannot replace the experts has to be re-defined: although the computer cannot replace the expert, the experts’ job may become more objective and comparable with the support of computation. The improvement of this tool is going to be continued with further analyses of experts’ reports. This step is indeed necessary to expand the knowledge and the rule base; the experiences also help us refining the fuzzy analysis method as well.

References Borján, J. (1981). A diagnosztikai vizsgálatok eredményeinek statisztikus feldolgozása - műszaki prognosztizálása. In t. szerző, Épületdiagnosztikai vizsgálatok. Budapest: ÉTK. Chen, H., Schuffels, C., & Orwig, R. (1996). Internet Categorization and Search: A Machine Learning Approach. J. Visual Comm. Image Representation , pp. 88–102. CIB Secretary. (2007). Conclusions and Recommendations- Appendix I. CIB Word Building Congress. Cape Town: CIB. Croce, S. (1993). CIB W086 Állapotjelentés (Sate-of-the-Art Report). CIB W086. Jaggs, M., & Palmer, J. (2000). Energy Performance Indoor Environmental Quality Retrofit - a European Diagnosis and Decision Making Method for Building Refurbishment. Energy and Buildings , 31, pp. 97-101. Johanyák, C. Z., & Kovács, S. (2004). A fuzzy tagsági függvény megválasztásáról. A GAMF Közleményei , XIX, pp. 73-84.

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Kandel, A. e. (1992). Fuzzy Expert Systems (Fuzzy szakértő rendszerek). Tampa, Florida, USA: CRC Press. Kóczy T., L., & Tikk, D. (2000). Fuzzy rendszerek. Budapest: Typotext. Koppány, A. (1997). Épületszerkezeti Tezaurusz. Győr. Kunszt, G. (2004). Az építési kutatások nemzetközi főiránya a 21. század elején és a magyar kutatás kapcsolódása. In G. Kunszt, Értékválság az építészetben - és a modern szakralitás. Válogatott írások 1962-2003 (old.: 278-291). Budapest: Terc. Lacasse, M. A., & Sjoström, C. (2004). Engineering Design Life Methods for Service Life Prediction. Toronto: National Research Council Canada. Lawrence, K. J., & James, C. R. (1995). Expert/Knowledge based System for Materials in the Construction Industry (State-of-the-Art Report). Materials and Structures , 28, p. 160-174. Mamdani, A., & Assilian, S. (1975). An experiment in linguistic synthesis with a fuzzy logic controller. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies , pp.1-13. Matolcsy, K. (1988). Épületszerkezetek értékelésének és kiválasztásának módszertani kérdései, különös tekintettel a nem járható tetőszigetelések területére (doktori értekezés). Budapest: BME. Molnárka, G. (2007). The Construction of the Knowledge Base of Fuzzy Expert System in Building Pathology - From a Functional Access. CIB Word Congress (pp 1406-1417). Cape Town: CIB. Szaradics, I. (2007). Fuzzy irányítási rendszerek alkalmazási lehetőségei a hídgazdálkodásban (szakdolgozat). Széchenyi István Egyetem, Műszaki Tudományi Kar, Szerkezetépítési Tanszék, Győr. Talon, A. (2005). Temporal Quantification Method of Degradation Scenarios Based on FMEA. 10dbmc Konferencia. Lyon: 10dbmc. Tanaka, K., & Wang, H. O. (2001). Fuzzy Control Systems Design and Analysis. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Van Balen, K. (1996). Expert System for Evaluation of Deterioration of Ancient Brick Masonry Structures. The Science of Total Environment , pp. 247-257. Zadeh, L. A. (1965). Fuzzy sets and systems. In J. Fox, System Theory (pp. 29-39). Brooklyn: Polytechnic Press.

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Construction Methods Selection: Lessons Learned from Chile Ferrada, X. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (email: [email protected]) Serpell, A. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (email: [email protected])

Abstract In construction projects, the selection of the method to be used to carry out a specific construction operation is a major determinant of high productivity if the method has the capacity to deliver the specified product quality and the required production rate. In many occasion this selection process is performed without the care and the systematic approach that it deserves, bringing negative consequences. With the purpose of addressing this problem, research is being carried out on the identification and understanding of the knowledge and information needed to select construction methods as well as on describing the relevant variables used for this analysis. This article presents a preliminary proposal of a knowledge model for construction methods selection and the main characteristics of this decision making process. The latter is based on the results of several interviews made to project managers and experts on this activity. The paper concludes that although knowledge and experience are recognized as very relevant inputs for the selection of methods, construction companies lack formal systems to manage all this knowledge, resulting in wasted time and resources when they need to find the right information for better decision making. Hence, as knowledge is an asset that has not been fully exploited yet in Chilean construction companies, the knowledge management approach appears to be a very useful tool for improving the performance of the construction methods selection activity. Keywords: construction methods, knowledge management, methods selection

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1. Introduction For a long time, academics and practitioners have tried to understand why in construction project exist problems related to poor performance on time, cost, quality and low satisfaction level of construction clients (Poon et. al, 2003, Fortune and Lees, 2003, Tapia 2007). Studies have analyzed different aspects of construction performance, such as productivity and quality, and have identified a number of factors that affects these indexes: manpowerlabor, environmental-site conditions, management practices-control, construction methods, project organizational structure, material availability, tool availability, work redone, and overcrowded work areas, among others (Thomas et al, 1990; Sanders and Thomas, 1991; Serpell, 2002; Dai et al., 2007). This ongoing research focuses on the topic of construction methods selection because this is one of the most critical task faced by a construction manager once a project has been defined (Halpin, 2006). To study this process it was select a knowledge-based approach because the implementation of knowledge management is particularly interesting for the construction sector (Carrillo and Chinowsky, 2006) given that this approach could help the industry to innovate, improve performance (Kamara et al. 2002) (Egbu et al, 2004), and to better handle with their particular characteristics. The main focus of this research is to understand and model the reasoning process and the knowledge applied by experts in performing the methods selection activity in order to design a knowledge management system that allows obtain, store and share the methods selection knowledge to apply it for effectively select construction methods for new projects. This article presents the results of an initial diagnostic applied in seven construction companies to understand the main characteristics and problems of the process of methods selection in Chilean construction companies. Also, the main concepts associated to construction methods and knowledge management from literature review are present.

2. Construction methods selection A construction processes is the way in which applied resources transform material and permanent equipment resources into constructed products, and include two elements: construction methods and construction task (Tatum, 1988). Under this classification, construction methods are the means used to transform resources into constructed products; and construction task are the task needed to perform the construction operations, with their focus on field action and the work unit. Illingworth (1993) give a different definition of construction methods. He points out that construction only involved two fundamental activities: the handling of materials and their fixing in their final location. At the same time handling is a combination of plant and labour. Also, for construction to takes place, temporary works are necessary. Then if we combined plant and labour (handling methods) plus temporary works, we have as a result a construction method. The selection of the right construction method to do a specific operation is a determinant of high productivity (Russell and Al-Hammad, 1993), but in many occasions this activity is performs after inadequate studies of alternative construction systems (Basha et al., 1991 cited by Youssef et al, 2005). For example, in Chile there are construction companies that select and analyze their

145

construction methods on the run as the project is being carried out, have a tendency to choose previously applied construction solutions in spite of knowing that there are other forms to carry out the work, support method selection just on the knowledge of the professionals working on site, and select the simplest methods, not necessarily the best ones (Ferrada and Serpell, 2008). The selection of construction methods is also a complex decision process which considers multiple attributes, being the most relevant cost, time and quality. Table 1 shows different criteria found in literature to select construction methods in the design and construction stage of a project.

3. Knowledge management The terms data, information and knowledge are related through a knowledge hierarchy. Data is often described as the base platform of this knowledge hierarchy (Perrot, 2007) and is define as a set of discrete and objective facts (Davenport and Prusak, 2001). Information is the next step in terms of value and has been considered as “systematically organized data” (Meadows, 2001 cited by Perrot, 2007). Finally, knowledge is the process of knowing, a reflexive process that takes data and information, in a social context, together with factors such as experiences, best practices, emotions, desires, and judgment, and generates new data, information and/or knowledge (Spiegler, 1999). Information becomes individual knowledge when it is accepted and retained by an individual as being a proper understanding of what is true and a valid interpretation of the reality (Wu et al, 2004). Knowledge management is the way that organizations create, capture and utilize knowledge to achieve organizational objectives (Sommerville and Craig, 2006). Jennex (2005) gives another definition of knowledge management understanding it as the process of selectively applying knowledge from previous experiences of decision making to current and future decision making activities with the express purpose of improving the organization’s effectiveness. In a construction company, most of their knowledge is generated within each project and is usually stored on reports that few people read, or is lost because parties involved are moved to a new project, resign or retire (Kivrak et al 2008; Anumba et al., 2005), taking with them not only tacit knowledge, but also a potential source of competitive advantage. Table 1: Criterion for construction methods selection

Criteria Time Cost Quality Risk Resources availability Maintenence Production rate Physical characteristics of the  element to build Construction method  characteristics Environment Site characteristics Safety Stakeholder 

(Russell and  Al‐ (Udairpurwalla  Hammad,  (Basha at  (Youssef at  (Soetanto  and Russell,  1993) al., 1991) al., 2005) et al., 2007) (Pan, 2008) 2002) (Pan, 2009) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X

X X

X

X

X X X

(Tatum,  1988)

X X

X X

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4. Research methodology The stages of the research methodology include the achievement of the following major goals: •

To understand how construction methods selection is currently carried out. This information will be obtained in two phases. (Phase 1) Through a diagnostic of the construction methods selection process because this is an activity that is not fully described in the literature and (Phase 2) at site fields through the use of a case based study approach. Three Chilean construction companies will participate and the study will include both, on site observations and interviews.

•

To identify, acquire, and model the knowledge used for selecting a particular construction method: extensive interviews with experts on this domain will be carry out in the companies. In this stage both, the information obtained from the diagnostic, on site and from interviews will be processed and analyzed in order to construct the domain’s knowledge model. This model will be validated by the experts interviewed in the previous phase.

•

To design and build a knowledge management system prototype for construction methods selection: based on the knowledge model, a prototype will be built and later validated by means of experts’ evaluations and its application to actual projects.

5. Diagnostic of the construction methods selection process This section presents the results obtained from the diagnostic stage (Phase 1). The purpose of these interviews was to collect preliminary information about how the selection of construction methods is carried out in Chilean construction companies. This information allows identifying the current practice, their problems and other relevant considerations for future stages of the research. Data were gathered through personal interviews conducted in seven construction companies in Chile (3 small companies, two medium and two big firms), during a two months period. Each interview lasted between 1 to 2 hours. A total of ten interviews were held, including 1 project manager, 3 operation managers, 3 chief estimators, 1 innovation chief, 1 general manager and 1 construction manager. The interviews were semi-structured and addressed different questions related to the selection of construction methods, focused in three areas: (1) the process of methods selection, (2) knowledge management, and (3) information technologies.

5.1 Process of methods selection First, people were asked about their understanding of the concept “construction method”. They selected their answer between the next two definitions:

147

•

Option 1: Construction methods is the way in which applied resources transform material and permanent equipment resources into constructed products (Tatum, 1988)

•

Option 2: Construction methods including the definition of the construction plant, how the resources are to be handled and the temporary work needed to carry out these activities (Illingworth, 1993)

The results indicate that 70% of professionals feel closer to the second definition, which considered more complete and detailed. Those who chose the second option indicated that the term "construction method" has a broader meaning, because besides the decision about what technology they will use, they need to define the logistic and the support actions for the project. Then, these decisions could affect the choice of the construction method. The second question was related to the project stages in which the selection of construction methods is executed. For contractor companies, the selection of the construction methods starts in the bidding process. Once the project is adjudicated, the project manager make a more detail definition of the methods and have the possibility of change them during the construction stage if the methods do not fulfill the expected standards. In the case of a real estate and construction company, they indicated that the construction method is defined during the design stage. During the bidding process, people involved in the process are the Operations Manager, who mostly has a role of supervision or of provision of expertise. With them work the Estimation Department which is generally composed of a Chief Estimator and a group of estimators, who are dedicated to the further selection of construction methods, identifying the alternatives, and estimating their price and duration. Five respondents indicated that in this stage they also invited to the future Project Manager to some meetings, in order that they could bring their ideas for the project, and feel comfortable with the final decision. Moreover, in four companies the interviewees indicated that during this phase they also invited to their meetings to the people with most experience in the company in the type of project that is under study. During the construction phase of the project those who work in the definition of construction methods are project managers, the field office engineer, construction managers, and project engineer. In the case of real estate companies, the architect and the designer are also involved in the definition of the construction methods. The process undertaken to select construction methods have slight variations in each company, but based on the answers given by interviewees it is possible to define that for contractors companies the process began during the bidding process with the review of the project background, its requirements and restrictions. Besides the above, the team analyzed what are the available resources on the company or the market to carry out the project. With all this information, they conduct meetings where they analyzed and compared alternatives based in different criteria, which are prioritized according to the strategy defined by the company for the project. For example, there are projects where the client wants to finish construction as soon as possible, so the most important criterion to evaluate the alternatives is the project duration, while in other occasions it is the price. It is common that professionals with experience in similar projects to the one under study are invited to these meetings in order to know their opinion and hear their ideas and suggestions. Once the projects has

148

been approved and finally adjudicated to the contractor, all the information about the bidding phase is delivered to the team in charge of the construction stage, who conducted a review of the project and prepares a more detailed planning and scheduling of the work, guided by the information given to them. Finally, if during the execution stage there is a method that does not work as expected, the project manager can modify the method in order to meet the project requirements. In the case of a project develop by a real estate company, the process begins at the design stage, but they also carry out their work using meetings to compare alternatives in which all those involved in the process give their opinion, just as in the previous case. To select a construction method people have to consider multiple attributes. When the interviewees were asked about the main criteria that they analyzed, they mention the ones shows in Figure 1. All the respondents cited the cost as a relevant criterion, which transforms it into the most decisive factor to select construction methods, followed by quality and the duration of the project. In addition, the contractor wants methods that are safe for the workers and can be implemented with the available resources. The characteristics of the environment in which the project has to be executed are also considered as an important criterion, because their conditions can limit the use of certain methodologies, either by problems with the access, the climate, or the topology, among others. Other criteria that appear were the technical characteristics of the project (design and geometry), the competences of the workforce and the characteristics of the method to be use.

5.2 Knowledge Management The second part of the interviews includes questions about information and knowledge management. In this topic the first question wants to identify the information that people required when they are choosing a construction methods. Most of the respondents indicated that an important part of the information that they need is the experience of the company, although in most cases this experience is only in the minds of those who participated in a project, because usually there is not a structured system that acquired personal knowledge to transform it into organizational knowledge. At the same level we find that the project background, including technical specifications and drawings, are the base of the study. The project schedule is another required resource because from the milestone defined by the client, it is possible to identify those methods that enable their execution within schedule. Also, the respondents mention the information delivered by the suppliers, because they always offer new construction methods and technologies that are very useful during the selection process. Finally, the budget is also considered because it gives the monetary limits on which to seek for solutions. There many ways in which companies can keep their experience. All the interviewed considered that in a greater or lesser extent, much of the company’s experience is owned by the workers, reason why in the process of selecting construction methods it is common to invite professionals with experience in similar projects to the meetings, or if this is not possible, they get the information by telephone or e-mail. Another way to keep the experience of the company is through a final project report. These reports have information about the project execution, their program, resources and their performance, among others, and are available mostly through intranet. The problem with this type of document is

149

that in most cases they are highly technical, and do not make comments about problems or experience gain. Also, as this document is writing at the end of the project, leave out many valuable details because as time passes by these are considered less relevant or are forgotten. The content of these reports is also not properly classified, making it difficult to find the required knowledge. The Estimation Department usually keep a library that can be physical or digital, where they keep the bidding proposal, performance rates statistics and other useful information. Construction methods selection criteria 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

N° of answers

Figure 1: Construction methods selection criteria Regarding to the knowledge required to select construction methods, the interviewees analyzed a preliminary knowledge model for construction methods selection develop by the researches based on literature review. This model proposed an initial knowledge classification with three levels of decomposition. The first level of this model identifies six major types of knowledge: about the project, available technologies, cost-benefit evaluation, risk management (from as project point of view), project planning and project integration. In a second level each one of these categories is defined in more detailed. Knowledge about projects is associated to the technical characteristics of projects, their constraints (cost, duration, quality requirements and safety requirements) and stakeholders’ objectives. Knowledge about available technologies includes know about the resources required for each option, their major activities, their cost and availability, the risks intrinsic to each option associated to their level of innovation and their duration. Also, this expert needs to know how to do a cost-benefit evaluation, in order to compare different alternatives. The risk management topic is very extensive and includes how to identify, asses, and control project risk. Project integration knowledge is related to understand how a decision made at one project level could impact the performance of activities on other levels (Ferrada y Serpell, 2009). All the respondents think that the model was fairly comprehensive, but noted that if they compare this model with the competences of their professionals, nobody would master all the topics. Regarding to modifications in the model, they suggest the need for more detail in the issues associated with planning, since it is considered an essential part of the process under study. Also, they said that the risk is not analyzed in such a structure way as appears in the model, an in a lot of times, the risk analysis is perform in a very intuitive way. Moreover, one of the interviewees suggested incorporate innovation or how to face situations in which there is no technology available and it is necessary to

150

create a new and specific solution. Another aspect that appears is the knowledge about the real capabilities and skills of the workers, because whom select a method of construction need to know this information, otherwise it is possible that the chosen method fails because people are not prepared to executed the activities that are include with the quality that are required. The final model with the change proposed by interviewed is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Final knowledge model for construction methods selection

5.3 Information technologies To select the proper methods, half of the respondents indicated that they do not use any software specifically designed to support this process. In general, the software that they use delivers information about budgets, assembly operations or development of formwork, but do not resolve the issue of the methods selection. People were asking about how they believed that a computer system for selection of construction methods should be. Three professionals think that a system to provide feedback to the Department of

151

Estimation from construction site will be useful. A system like this could be complemented with data about the construction methods or technologies available in the market and lessons learned about the method. Other idea was to develop a database system that stores information about certain methods and potential subcontractors. Also, it was mentioned that the weakness of companies is that they do not keep the best practices, and even suggested that these best practices can be associated with a design in 3D to facilitate their communication. One of the interviewees suggested the same concept of lessons learned, but from a sectorial perspective, not just for one company. Under the same approach it was also suggested a virtual business community to share experiences. Also, it was suggest to standardize certain methods and create a system that allows to compare the method effectively use on site, in order to create new knowledge.

6. Conclusions The selection of construction methods is a process that takes place throughout the project, being refined in each step. It starts at the design stage or the bidding phase, and continues with the detailed study of the project program and the methodologies prior to the beginning of the construction. Then, during project execution some methods can be modified if they do not meet the expected standards. At the end of the project, the team in charge of the construction stage gives their feedback to other departments of the company. Through these diagnostic it was possible to identify some problems and characteristics about how the process of construction methods selection is currently perform in Chilean construction companies, such as: •

None of the seven companies have a structured knowledge management system. This is a common characteristic of Chilean construction companies.

•

Companies do not capture their best practices and rely only in the knowledge of their workers. There is not a clear awareness that this situation may lead to affect the company’s competitiveness. Even though, the professionals recognize the relevant role that the knowledge and experience play in the process under study.

•

The feedback from site to the Estimation Department is very important because generates a learning process between different departments of the company and allows improve the performance of the selection process.

•

The competence of the workforce is an important criterion for the selection of construction methods because companies tend to select the methods already use by their workers in the past to avoid mistakes.

•

The knowledge model present in this article is a first attempt to clarify what knowledge is required to select construction methods and was a useful tool to make interviewees to think about what knowledge they applied in this activity.

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Based on the previous analysis it is possible to conclude that construction companies rely on individual knowledge to accomplish the selection of construction methods. This is problematic because these organizations do not have an organizational learning process; since all the knowledge created in one project is lost once the team is assign to new projects or leaves the company. Also, there is not a structure process to acquire the relevant knowledge related to construction methods, such as lesson learned or best practices, in order to avoid the reinvention of the wheel. This situation does not allow firms to use their previous knowledge, continually repeating the same mistakes, affecting productivity and project performance. Also, companies always have a very restricted time to do the selection of construction methods and the lack of appropriate information limited the quality of the decision. Then, if construction companies could have an organizational knowledge base with all the knowledge and information obtained in the production stage of each one of their projects, they could use this previous experience in each new project, based on methods previously used in the company allowing better operations’ decisions to those in charge of this task. Therefore, the knowledge management approach appears to be a very useful tool for improving the performance of the construction methods selection activity, given the deficiencies mention before.

References   Anumba, J. C., Egbu, C. and Carrillo, P. (2005) Knowledge Management in Construction, United Kingdom: First Edition, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Carrillo, P., Robinson, H., Al-Ghassani, A. and Anumba, C. (2004) Knowledge Management in UK Construction: Strategies, Resources and Barriers, Project Management Journal, 35(1), 46-56. Carrillo, P. and Chinowsky, P. (2006) Exploiting knowledge management: The engineering and construction perspective, Journal of Management in Engineering, 22(1), 2-10. Dai, J.; Goodrum, P.; and Maloney, W. (2007) Analysis of craft workers´and foremen´s perceptions of the factors affecting construction labour productivity, Construction Management and Economics, 25(11), 1139-1152. Davenport, T.; and Prusak, L. (2001) Conocimiento en acción: Cómo las organizaciones manejan lo que saben, Buenos Aires: Prentice Hall. Egbu, C., Hayles, C, Anumba, A., Ruikar, K and Quintas, P. (2004) Getting Started in Knowledge management: Concise Guidance for Construction Consultants and Contractors, Partners in Innovation Project (CI 39/3/709) supported by the Department of Trade and Industry, UK. Ferrada, X.; and Serpell, A. (2008) Selection of construction work processes: Current practices and a new proposal, Building Abroad: Procurement of construction and reconstruction projects in the international context, pp. 223-243, Montreal, October.

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Ferrada, X.; and Serpell, A. (2009) Selection of construction methods: a preliminary model. Construction facing worldwide challenges, Joint International Symposium W055 and W065, Dubrovnik, Croatia, September. Fortune, C.; and Lees, M. (2003) Exploring common practices in construction project management: a UK perspective, Proceedings of the Joint International Symposium of CIB Working Commissions: W55, W65 y W107, pp. 344-354, Singapore, October. Halpin, D. (2006) Construction management, Hoboken : John Wiley. Illingworth, J. (1993) Construction methods and planning, E & FN Spon. Jennex, M. (2005) Productivity impacts from knowledge management, Proceedings of the Eleventh Americas Conference on Information Systems, Omaha, August. Kamara, J., Augenbroe, G., Anumba, C. and Carrillo, M. (2002) Knowledge management in the architecture, engineering and construction industry, Construction Innovation: Information, Process, Management, 2(1), 53-67. Kivrac, S., Arslan, G., Dikmen, I. and Birgonul, M.T. (2008) Capturing knowledge in construction process: knowledge platform for contractors, Journal of Management in Engineering, 24(2), 87-95. Love, P.; and Li, H. (2000) Quantifying the causes and costs of rework in construction, Construction Management and Economics, 18(4), 479-490. Pan, N. (2008) Fuzzy AHP approach for selecting the suitable bridge construction method, Automation in Construction, 18, 958-965. Pan, N. (2009) Selecting an appropriate excavation construction method based on qualitative assessments, Expert Systems with Applications, 36(3), 5481-5490. Perrot, B. (2007) A strategic risk approach to knowledge management, Business Horizons, 50, 523533. Poon, J.; Potts, K.; and Musgrove, P. (2003) CONBPS: An expert system to improve the efficiency of the construction process, RICS Research Papers, 4(21). Russell, A.; and Al-Hammad, I. (1993) A knowledge-based framework for construction methods construction, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineer, 20, 236-246. Sanders, S.; Thomas, H. (1991) Factors affecting masonry-labour productivity, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 117(4), 626-644.

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Serpell, A. (2002) Administración de Operaciones de Construcción, Alfaomega Grupo Editor, México. Soetanto, R; Glass, J.; Dainty, A.; and Price, D. (2007) Structural frame selection: case studies of hybrid concrete frames, Building Research & Information, 35(2), 206-219. Sommerville, J.; and Craig, N. (2006) Implementing IT in Construction, Taylor and Francis, Gran Bretaña. Spiegler, I. (2000) KM : A New Idea or a Recycled Concept? Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 3, Article 14. Tapia, C. (2007) Análisis Crítico del Diseño de Procesos en Chile, Tesis para optar al grado de Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Tatum, C.B. (1988) Classification system for construction technology, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 114(3), 344-363. Thomas, H.; Maloney, W.; Horner, R.; Smith, G.; Handa, V.; Sanders, S. (1990) Modeling construction labor productivity, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 116(4), 705726. Udaipurwala, A.; and Russell, A. (2002) Computer-assisted construction methods knowledge management and selection, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 29, 499-516. Wu, S.; Kagioglou, M.; Aouad, G.; Lee, A.; Cooper, R.; and Fleming, A. (2004) A project knowledge management tool for the construction industry, International Journal of IT in Architecture, Engineering and Construction, 2(2), 79-90. Youssef, M.; Anumba, C.; and Thorpe, T. (2005) Intelligent selection of concrete bridge construction methods in Egypt, Proceedings of the 2005 ASCE International Conference on Computing in Civil Engineering, Cancún, Mexico.

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Collaborative Design Workshops: Evolution of a Workshop Method Quanjel, E.M.C.J. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Architecture, Building Physics Systems (email: [email protected]) den Otter, A.F.H.J. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Architectural Design Management Systems (email: [email protected]) Zeiler, W. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Architecture, Building Physics Systems (email: [email protected])

Abstract In the Dutch Building Industry sub optimal use of knowledge by participants during the design- and engineering phase causes building damage and hinders innovative designs and solutions. Therefore the attitude, the mindset of the different design participants has to change as well as that they have to work on new skills. First experiments to find a format for supporting Design Collaboration, started in 2004 with workshops for design- teams including participants with the same educational background. In 2005, a first set up was done for design teams with participants with different educational backgrounds. These workshops are coupling a concrete task from practice and research focusing on the roofs where there is a lack of innovative designs, caused by a sub-optimal interaction between solutions and application in design practice. The process where professionals from different disciplines work together to design a (new) product is called Collaborative Design (CD). Based on the experiments in the period of 2006-2009 a workshop method was developed for stimulating professionals, Architects and Roofers, to work in collaborative design teams and to share, use and develop collectively specific information for innovative roofs. By using the Design Research Methodology a step by step approach for the development of the workshop-model is described. The result was a Collaborative Design Workshop that aims to support design activities using a specific design method – Morphological Overviews (MO). A team that uses this method is able to structure the design process concerning the information and knowledge exchange between and with commitment of all participants to optimize design solutions. The paper explains the evolution and the set up of the Collaborative Design Workshop as well as the final method. The first feed-back results by professionals related to the practical use and relevance of the Collaborative Design Workshop are discussed. Keywords: collaborative design, knowledge development, workshops, design tools

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1. Introduction Our research with workshops – learning by doing – for Design Teams in practice with professionals, both for development and evaluation, is ongoing from the year 2000 through the study Integral Design (Quanjel & Zeiler 2003). A new research started by Savanović in 2004 (Savanović 2009) sets the methodological basis for the knowledge based research in a Collaborative Team-setting. The research for the Collaborative Team-setting is strongly related to the problems and needs form practice. Although Collaborative Design teams are working in practice due to all variables in tasktype and time makes that – as a researcher – looking at the real world will not offer the circumstances to compare. Related to the type of research – technological design – an appropriate methodology is necessary to design the setting as well as the analysing method(s) needed. The main theoretical knowledge used are the Methodical Design model (Van den Kroonenberg and Siers, 1992) and the Design Research Methodology (Blessing and Chakrabarti, 2001 and 2009). Within the used Design Research Methodology (Blessing and Chakrabarti 2009) a framework was developed to couple the Design Model of Methodical Design (Zeiler, 2007) and the theory of concepts and knowledge; the CK-theory (Hatchuel and Weil, 2008). This resulted in the ID-method, executed through workshops and the use of a specific support tool – Morphological Overviews (Zwicky & Wilson 1967) – representing a set of necessary conditions for the creation of integral design concepts for design teams with equal educational background. The Morphological Overviews are used to create a possibility to introduce, discuss and structure the knowledge of the participants in order to generate more optimal or new design solutions. Complementary to the research of Savanović (2009), concerning teams with participants with the same educational background, the research related to this paper views another part of the design for the building industry; Collaborative Design focusing on roofs. To improve the roof design a supportive process approach that stimulates collaboration between Architect and Roofer, is therefore needed. Such a design process for the design of a (new) product is called a Collaborative Design (Bento et al. 2004). Within such a setting, participants like Architects and Roofers, differ in cultural backgrounds, their way of working, and have a different motivation of collaboration (Korbijn 1999). Development of innovative products need an optimal exchange and development of the different knowledge types. To come to new products these different knowledge-types have to be exchanged and developed more optimal. Van Aken (2005) distinct between object-knowledge related to designers (Architects), and realization-knowledge related to contractors (Roofers). Object knowledge can be defined as knowledge on the characteristics and properties of artefacts and their materials as used by Architects, where realization knowledge is knowledge on the various physical processes to be used to realize designed artefacts, used by for instance Roofers (van Aken 2005). Both types of knowledge are communicated within the collaboration between Architect and Roofer, with different educational backgrounds and with large differences in competences and skills, through different kinds of representation (Brereton 1998). Collaboration between Roofers and Architects in the context of Collaborative Design is lacking. To investigate if this collaboration will result in a better insight and use of the different knowledge-types, a setting is needed to study this. This setting, the Workshop, needs to be designed in a way that is best suited for the different participants to work collaboratively. To investigate which Collaborative

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Design-setting is suited for professionals for optimal knowledge exchange, this setting needs specific characteristics. A broader view on collaboration shows that Collaborative Design is ‘bound to be difficult’ but also ‘the hidden question behind the request for lifelong designing’ (Jones 1983). Jones also put forward that it will be hard to achieve collaboration. Kvan supports this view and shows the uniqueness of Collaborative Design in architectural practice (Kvan 1997, 2000). Related to research on Collaborative Design theory, as the way to describe the nature of it, two different approaches are recognized (Achten 2009); the way Collaborative Design should be managed, or how it distinguishes itself from other types of design. Our research is concerned with how to achieve Collaborative Design in order to enrich the design with object- and realization knowledge. Until now there is no consensus how this may be achieved (Achten 2009). Related to research on training Collaborative Design two main approaches are detected (Achten 2009); Pedagogical Models and Virtual Design Studios. For pedagogical models, similarly to the situation in design studio work, ‘learning by doing’(Schön 1987) is the predominant pedagogy. Much of the work in the field is technology driven, but there is a strong tendency not do any ‘reality-check’ how much of the work is applicable in practice, or to see what actual the demands from practice are (Achten, 2009, p. 362). The method as presented here has to result in a set of conditions for creation of knowledge exchange / development in the setting of Collaborative Design for participants with different educational background. The workshop-method is used for training the professionals to optimise their knowledge exchange and offer them a method for support. In the second paragraph the development of requirements and set-up for the workshop for professionals from design and construction practice, is described. In the third paragraph the final setting, the model for the Collaborative Design Workshop, is presented which is already executed in two workshops with 48 professionals. In the final paragraph first conclusions are drawn and a brief view on future research possibilities.

2. Development of a method for collaborative design workshops Aim was to design a method for the Collaborative Design Workshops which could serve the professional participants as well as the researcher. This workshop method is developed iteratively mainly based on reflections and redesign practically using the DRM-methodology. DRM consists of four stages: Research Clarification, Descriptive Study I, Prescriptive Study and Descriptive Study II. Blessing and Chakrabarti emphasise that it cannot be expected that each of the stages of the methodology will be executed in depth in every single project. Resources might be limited or it might not be necessary to do so. DRM is not a purely sequential process: many iterations can take place, and some stages may have to run in parallel. Several variations of the methodology are possible and necessary to suit the focus and constraints of a particular project. A clear consequence of framing research as motivated by a problem is the need to define criteria for the successful solution of the problem. DRM emphasises the need for formulating success as well as measurable criteria. These criteria need to be defined in the first stage of the DRM research, so that they can be measured against in the fourth and final stage of DRM. This paper focuses on the second stage, the Descriptive Study 1, which emphasizes the need to increase the understanding of the aspects related to the specific designsetting as an experiment; the Collaborative Design Workshop. Through design a first Collaborative

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Design Workshop with specific characteristics and analysing the setting related to specific aspects necessary to work as a practical and research setting, the next setting is defined. Goal is to achieve the final setting where all characteristics are clearly defined: the Prescriptive study for the Definitive Collaborative Design Workshop, prescribed in the third paragraph. The set-up of the workshops included aspects related to the organisation, location, program with timeschedule and design-tasks. The type of monitors and type monitoring are related to the requirement monitoring and analysing methods. These aspects are addressed separately in another parallel paper. The methodology used for this development is comparable to a design of this setting with iterative design steps related to analysis, selecting and shaping the set-up of the workshops. The results of the previous workshop led to the requirements of the next workshop. To describe the development of the model for the Collaborative Design Workshop we used for each step in this development five criteria; the characteristics of the method to train participants in a Collaborative Design-setting. These criteria were; aim or outline, steps within the development, evaluation, communication and testing. First a brief description of these criteria. The aim and outline for each step in the development has to be described before executing this step; each step has the outline of a workshop. The aim should cover each time the criteria which are necessary to function as a method. This defines the next characteristic; the method should have clear steps to be taken to develop and execute. Through evaluation of each step, related to the criteria, the definition of the next step(s) or aim(s) is generated. A method can only be defined as such if the execution of this method can be communicated in such a way that other competent individuals or organizations can execute the method in the same way as it was developed and used by the researcher. This makes the method able to test the specific aims in the specific context. Aspects of time; is the organisation of the method time-consuming, and functionality; is the method easy and to use in the correct way, are related to testing the method. At the end of each workshops there was an evaluation part; the participants / design teams could present and discuss their designs, the collaboration related to the workshop setup and the use of the design method. Through a predefined questionnaire the participants could reflect on the set up of the workshop and the introduced support tool (Morphological Overviews). Six month after the workshop was held a second identical questionnaire was sent to the participants to get a better insight in the impact of the workshop and design method into practice. All participants could submit freely to the workshops with the restriction of 10 years of practical experience, all architects are member of the BNA, all roofers are member of the Roofer Organization Het Hellend Dak or Vebidak. Through coupling with the Competence Profiles the relationship with the ‘theoretically present specific knowledge (object- or realization knowledge) and the type of professional (Architect or Roofer) can be identified. The workshops where announced as workshops for Integral Design for Innovative Roofs organized by the BNA and the Roofer Organizations in collaboration with the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven. In the workshops the focus was on working collaborative together on a design task with or without a supportive design method, there was no stress on the research part of the University. The steps of the pre-workshops, the Descriptive Study 1, are described next. The type numbers of the workshops in the text start with WS 03 due to the fact that the first two workshops WS 01 and WS 02 were given with students and not commented in this paper. The lay-out for the first workshop (WS 03) was positive for the participants for an In Companysetting because they could experience the different settings in the traditional way and with the use of

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the MO in a sequential way. The learning effect for the participants and the firm was effective due to the setting and feed-back in the second-day / cross appraisal tables. The different settings created a set-up for the participants to experience the influence of working in multi-disciplinary teams in relationship with the use of MO. The questionnaires (table 2.) gave a positive feed-back as well as the feed-back by the Company; they introduced the way of working and the use of MO for the research & development-group. The program was agreeable for the participants although there was too much stress on the research-part. The assistance of the students was agreeable but the missing process knowledge and the missing of a good introduction had to be improved. Next step in the set-up change was to transform the setting for a non in-company environment and to work on a workshop-script to make the organisation and collaboration for it easier and less time-consuming. Also the influence on time in relationship to introduced support tools and type of design tasks had to be determined. For workshop two (WS 04) we offered the participants a location in the centre of Holland. More focus in the program on the use of sustainable energy with an overview of possibilities technically and in design and architecture through two lectures. Through collaboration with Professional Organisations it became easier to introduce the workshops to the potential participants. The design-part in the program was modified with better comparable design-tasks, which made working with it easier for the participants as well as for analysing-purpose. As an extra step we wanted to compare the influence of introduction of two different support tools: the Morphological Overviews and a web based Database developed on the characteristics of MO. This setting was difficult to organise and introduced too many variables to execute in a correct way. Even more important was the fact that the program was too intense and overloaded for the participants in one day. Also there was no possibility to work with the support-tool in different settings with the possibility to reflect and learn from it. Another feedback item from the participants was that there were too many items introduced in the workshop as well as that there was not enough time for the several design tasks. For the organization part it appeared very time-consuming to prepare all aspects for the workshops such as a good location, speakers, catering etc. The fact that the researcher was also the organizer could also be give too much steering to the participants and therefore steering of the results. The assistance by post-master students was positive although more and better introduction with an in advance lecture should be developed. These findings defined the requirements of workshop WS 05, which was organized with the Dutch Organization of Architects (BNA). The workshop was now part of the BNA Academy and presented primary as a training for Collaborative Design as part of the professional education. Part of the organization was therefore done by this party, therefore a workshop-script was developed. The location was fixed on one central point in the Netherlands, easy to attain for participants by car or public transport. The program was remodelled, less subjects – just only the introduction of the Collaborative Design and Morphological Overviews – so the participants could better concentrate on fewer subjects.

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Table 1: Overview of average ratings questionnaire-format for all workshops WS 03,WS 04 and WS 05; average ratings for questionnaires after 6 months related to response are evaluated. The ratingrange was from 1 to 5, were 1 was a lowest ranking and 5the highest possible ranking. Q1

Q3

Q4

Q8

Q11

Q12

How important use MO to your practice

How did you experience amount of information and time

What rate for the Workshop set-up

Use of MO general

Usefull to stimulate use MO within practice

Expectation future use of MO

2,7

1,7

2,7

3,3

3,2

1,8

WS03 - A average after 6 months / 8 out of 9 / 88,9% 2,6

1,5

3,0

3,0

3,1

2,0

WS03 - R average direct / 8 out of 8 / 100%

3,7

2,3

3,7

3,7

4,3

3,4

WS03 - R average after 6 months / 8 out of 8 / 100% 3,5

2,5

3,5

3,5

3,9

3,4

WS04 - A average direct / 8 out of 9 / 88,9%

3,8

3,0

3,8

3,4

2,2

2,5

WS04 - A average after 6 months / 6 out of 9 / 66,7% 2,7

2,7

3,3

2,6

2,7

2,5

WS04 - R average direct / 9 out of 9 / 100%

2,3

3,0

4,0

3,6

4,0

3,4

WS04 - R average after 6 months / 6 out of 9 / 66,7% 2,3

2,5

3,5

3,0

3,5

3,5

WS05 - A average direct / 6 out of 6 / 100%

2,8

3,0

3,8

3,2

3,0

3,0

WS05 - A average after 6 months / 4 out of 6 / 66,7% 3,0

3,0

3,5

3,0

2,7

2,7

WS05 - R average direct / 5 out of 6 / 83,3%

4,0

3,0

4,0

3,7

3,8

3,5

WS05 - R average after 6 months / 4 out of 6 / 66,7% 3,0

2,5

3,7

3,2

3,3

3,6

A = Architect / R = Roofer Rating from 1 - 5 WS03 - A average direct / 9 out of 9 / 100%

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The third and final design task was again with teams, but with a different constitution to avoid teamcollaboration influence. In the third task they were again asked to work with the Morphological Overviews; the second loop for learning. There was support of post- master students for videorecordings, photographs and a general report of the workshop-setting. These students got an introduction lecture and the workshop-script in advance, although a better embedding in their curriculum should be developed. The workshop as well as the use were experienced as very positive, average with a higher rating by roofers. The check of the competence profiles of the participants although should be more strict, it was difficult to get enough participants from the roofer industry with the right competences. Table 1 gives an overview of another monitoring tool we used to evaluate the workshop setting; predefined questionnaires taken from the participants after six month by e-mail. All these findings were processed in the Definitive Workshop-setting as described in the next chapter.

3. Collaborative design workshop method First the final workshop-setting as a model is described, than the criteria of the model are explained and discussed. The goal of the Collaborative Design Workshop is to train professional Architects, Roofers and Installers in Collaborative Design. The Collaborative Design Workshop is to be used in the preliminary phase of the design. The workshop introduces a Collaborative Design-setting and a specific design tool – Morphological Overviews – for supporting professionals with different educational background in organizing the design process and the knowledge needed for this design process from the different participants. The final product of the Collaborative Design Workshop is that the process approach as well as the Morphological Overviews are accepted as such and experienced by the participants as positive contribution to their practice in collaboration and design. First step is to come to a coherent program, amount and type of participants and a location. The program should contain introduction of the support tools by the researcher, lectures by experts for state of the art, use and innovation related to sustainable energy systems on roofs. All design tasks are comparable in difficulty and time-schedule (1 hour). The program contains a structure of collaboration steps and learning steps. By starting individually the traditional setting is experienced. Than the groups are split up equally in teams, Architect-Roofer or Architect-Installer, to work on a second comparable design task. One group starts immediately with this task. The other group of teams gets first an introduction of the support tool MO and continues afterwards with the same design task. The first group will get this introduction after they have finished their design-task. At the end of the first day the different experiences are discussed with the different groups related to the workshopsetting and the use of the Morphological Overview. There should be at least one week between the first workshop-day and the second-day to give room to reflection on the first experiences. The second day starts with a short summery of the first day. Changed teams work, after a third lecture and introduction of the task on a third design-question. One group will work for the second time with the support tool, the other group for the first time. After this task again there is a discussion with the teams about the workshop-setting and the use of the support-tool. After a fourth lecture and designtask introduction, the last design task is a more free design task were changed teams are working together, they are also free to use the Morphological Overviews. The final part of the workshop is a final evaluation, fill in of the questionnaires and a more informal part with a drink.

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There is a strict Competence Profile needed for the participants. At least 10 years of process and project-knowledge / experience and of course interest in collaborative design and new ways of working and use of sustainable energy systems. Related to a possibility to work each time in a different team-setting at least 6 Architects and 3 Roofers and Installers are needed for each workshopsetting. More optimal is 12 Architects, 6 Roofers and 6 Installers. These Competence Profiles are available through the Professional Vocational-Organisations. The Competence Profiles are the basis of the specific knowledge each specific profession has with a certain experience. The workshop-script describes all the other steps needed such as location, attainableness, technical equipment, including the time-schedules for the different parts as well the financial aspects. The script can be seen as a check-list where the result of each step is formulated and the dependencies between these steps are explained. For the organisation part the evaluation of the steps as described in the workshop-script are used as a check-list if the several steps have been achieved. By testing the workshop-settings different times, at least three times, with the Vocational-Organizations, the ADMS-students as well as the participants the most important workshop-setting aspects are evaluated. The third workshop will be the correctionworkshop to avoid the possible situation that two different results from the two former workshops will give not enough insight. The following criteria are set to the different goals. Participants: positive results of all questions of the predefined questionnaire format (see table 2) used for immediately after the workshop and 6 month after the workshop, combined with the evaluation sessions after each design-task. Post-master students: positive response in written report on the workshop-setting as well as script for assistance for monitoring with photographs and video-recordings as well as assistance for practical help during the workshops such as checking team-constitution. Organisation (BNA, BGA, TVVL): positive practical use of the workshop-script related to program, participants and location as well as timeconsumption and financial aspects. The way the workshop should be executed is described in the workshop-script in such a way that it should be usable by the organisers, assistance and participants without the researcher who made the script. Two tests with this setting were done; in June and November 2009. The first Definitive CDWorkshop was done with students. The second workshop was attended by 11 Architects, 4 Roofers and 5 Installers. There were three ways used to test the workshop-setting; evaluation with the vocational-organisations, the post-master students and the professional participants. The evaluation with the organisations and students were done without a predefined format within the setting of a meeting and additionally a written report by the students. The predefined format of the questionnaire, as used in all former workshops, was also used for the participants in this workshop. To organise each workshop the workshop-script is needed with additionally the design tasks, the lectures of the speakers and the background information about the Collaborative Design approach and the Morphological Overviews. The knowledge and different means required are available in the professional vocational-organisations involved. Beside of the time to analyse the data of the

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workshop-setting the time needed to organise is important. The time-schedule in the workshop-script starts 3 month in advance with the first actions. To execute the workshop-setting we tested the workshop in this set-up two times until now. In the discussion part of this paper we will evaluate the aspects related to the question how easy or difficult the developed workshop-model is to apply correctly. After evaluating the results of the former workshops with students and professionals, was to arrange the Definitive Workshop-Setting (see figure 1; workshop WS D01). The organization part changed in several ways. In order to activate more the relationship with practice and the professionals involved the three main professional organizations were part of the organizations . This inhabited the initial contact with the professionals for information, briefing, competence-check and registration for the workshops as well as organization of the location and catering. Through this step a more professional approach was taken towards the participants as these workshops were now part of the official of their permanent vocational training. This was also a next step in organizing the collaboration on organisation-level; for the first time the vocational organisations of BNA (Architects), TVVL (Installers) and BGA (Roofers) joined their expertise and interest for improving collaborative vocational-training for professionals with different educational background. The researcher was involved with the program of the workshop as well as with the organization-script as communication of the workshop-setting / organization. Also the communication of the workshop-setting towards the ADMS-students was improved. The workshop as well as the theoretical aspects such as the Morphological Overviews were developed as part of their curriculum; the lecture design systems and additional script and design-analysing task. This more professional approach made it easier to organize and less time-consuming for researcher as well as the vocational-organisations. For the research part it was a next step to make the workshop working as a method and to create better circumstances for monitoring. To give the participants, as part of the learning cycle, time to reflect on the use of the Morphological Overviews and the Workshop-setting (figure 1.) the workshop is divided in two parts; there is one week between the first part (design task 1 and design task 2) and second part (design task 3). For generalization of the results parallel to the setting the workshop-setting incorporates teams with Architect and Roofer, as well as Architect and Installer. First part of the workshop has two steps; step one working individually without the support tool, this to get insight in the specific discipline knowledge related to the Competence Profiles and found functions, aspects and solutions. The second step implied the working in teams (design task 2) parallel with and without Morphological Overviews (MO). After one week the same participants come together. Now the teams are changed so that there is no influence on the group-learning process. Changed teams formally working with Morphological Overviews (MO) are now working for the second time with the Morphological Overviews. Changed teams from the other group which were not working yet with the Morphological Overviews are now working for the first time with this design support tool. Explicit Design knowledge can be compared as well within this step as with step 2. Using the second-loop-learning effects method as Argyris (1999) described, finally changed teams are working all for the second time with Morphological Overviews as a support tool and can reflect on this as well as on the workshop-setting itself. Due to the parallel design-sessions in separate rooms comparison of the monitoring situation is optimized.

164

steps

results

design task 1 - functionalities and solutions

design task 2 - functionalities and solutions > design

Architects

Roofer/Installer

individual without tool

individual without tool

1

2

3

4

MO

MO

MO MO

1

2

3

1

MO 7

-presentation / evaluation

2

3

MO MO 6

5

team with tool (MO)

5

6 6

7

8

7

8

4

team with tool (MO) design task 3 - feed-back > design - team with tool (MO)

5

functionalities and solutions Individual without tool registration (analyzing phase)

team without tool (MO) 4

MO 8

5

6

7

8

MO

MO

MO

MO

3

2

1

4

team withtool (MO)

Functionalities, solutions + design team with / without tool registration + observation (synthesyzing phase) functionalities and solutions team with tool registration+ observation(learning effect)+ questionnaire (synthesyzing phase)

Figure 1: Overview of the steps for the workshop model; Collaborative Design Workshop (DWS 01). Table 3: Overview of average ratings questionnaire-format for the Collaborative Design Workshops DWS 01 and DWS 02, direct after the workshops. The rating-range was from 1 to 5, were 1 was a lowest ranking and 5 the highest possible ranking.

A = Architect / R = Roofer / I = Installer

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q8

Q11

Q12

How important use MO to your practice

How do you rate the relationship Integral Design and Methodical approach

How did you experience amount of information and time

What rate for the Workshop set-up

Use of MO general

Usefull to stimulate use MO within practice

Expectation future use of MO

3,1

3,5

3,6

3,8

3,3

3,4

2,9

Rating 1-5 A average R average

2,8

4,0

3,0

4,0

3,3

3,8

3,3

I average

2,8

2,5

3,5

3,0

3,0

3,3

3,3

4. Discussion and conclusions By testing the model for the Collaborative Design Workshop twice, as part of the Prescriptive Study, with professionals and in collaboration with the Professional Vocational Organizations a tendency is indicated concerning the use of the developed model can be used as a method. For that three views are important, beside of the described criteria. These are the views of the organizing Vocational Organisations, the assisting post-master students and the participating professionals. The organizing Vocational Organisations are BNA (Architects), the TVVL (Installers) and BGA (Roofers). Each Organisation has its own task in organising. The BNA is facilitating their BNAAcademy as a platform for Permanent Professional Education for Architects. Their role is to bring forward to potential participants from architecture the correct information about the workshops through newsletters and website and to register them. The TVVL has the same tasks for the Installers. The role of BGA is, beside of the tasks equal to that of BNA and TVVL, more comprehensive. The

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BGA is also the party which has to organise the workshop itself, beside of the research part which is done by the students and the researcher. The role of BNA and the TVVL is rather stable for both sessions and they can work in the correct way and within time with the information which is given to them. For the BGA it appeared difficult to adapt the working of the workshop model in order to organise them. The organisation of BGA is quite hierarchal so that many organisation-aspects are complicated and time-consuming. For Another aspect is the relation to potential participants. Although the BGA has an extended network for Roofers it is difficult to contact those Roofers which have the right competence-profile. After all workshops done, the three pre-workshops as well as the two Collaborative Design Workshops, it is clear that the group of Roofers which has the right competence Profile and time to participate is quite small. The assistance by the post-master-students was in both cases, with different students, experienced as positive. This was partly because of a better introduction with two lectures Design Methodology in combination with the workshop-script and an analysing task for the course Design Methodology. This part of the model works satisfying; they can also fulfil their role correct and within time. The role of the participants themselves there is the aspect of ‘if it is possible to gather the right amount of participants with the right competence profile within time’. To approach architects we collaborated with the BNA and Syntens; a governmental organisation involved to encourage innovation. The TVVL had no problems to get enough Installers with the right Competence Profile in time. As mentioned before, the BGA had many problems to collect Roofers. Although we have also help from Het Hellend Dak and Vebidak, two other Vocational Roof Organisations, the expectations are that this situation will for the present not change quickly. Table 3 gives the view from the participants through the questionnaires directly after the workshops (table 3). The second check is six month after the workshops; these data were not available within the time-schedule for this paper. Therefore only the first questionnaires are shown. Analysing the average results we can see a positive tendency in rating the model for the Collaborative Design Workshop on all aspects. Only negative result is that for the second Collaborative Design Workshop no data are available of the Roofers; no Roofer could stay until the end of the second Collaborative Design Workshop. Only one Roofer did all design-tasks in the second Collaborative Design Workshop. First conclusions are that the developed model for Collaborative Design Workshops can work as a method. Critical aspects are a stable organisation-participant especially in relationship contacting the Roofer-industry and the Roofers. A necessary third Collaborative Design Workshop in the beginning of 2010 will affirm the found tendencies or correct them.

References Achten H (2009), What Happened to Collaborative Design, In Proceedings of the eCAADe Conference Proceedings, Session 10: Collaborative Design – eCaad2 27: p. 357-365. Aken J van (2005), Valid knowledge for the professional design of large and complex design processes. Design Studies, 2005, 26(4): 379-404.

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Argyris C (1999), On Organizational Learning, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Bento J D, Heitor M V, Mitchell W J (2004), Collaborative Design and Learning:Competence Building for Innovation, Preager Publishers, Wesport. Blessing L.T.M., and Chakrabarti, A, (2002), DRM: A Design Research Methodology, Proceedings of Les Sciences de la Conception, INSA de Lyon, Lyon Blessing L T M, Chakrabarti C (2009), DRM, a Design Research Methodology, Springer. Brereton M F (1998), The role of hardware in learning engineering fundamentals, PhD Thesis, Standford University, Palo Alto. Hatchuel A, Weil B (2008), C-K design theory: an advanced formulation, Research in Engineering Design, Online 19 August 2008. Jones J C (1983), Continuous design and redesign, Design Studies, 4(1), pp. 53-60. Korbijn A (1999), Vernieuwing in Productontwikkeling, Strategie voor de Toekomst, STT62 Stichting Toekomst der Techniek, Den Haag. Kvan T (1997), But is it collaboration?, In Proceedings of the 15th eCAADe Conference Proceedings, Vienna, Austria17-20 September 1997 (cd-rom). Kvan T (2000), Collaborative design: what is it?, Automation in Construction, 9(4), pp. 409-415. Quanjel E M C J, Zeiler W (2003), ‘Eindrapportage Onderzoek Integraal Ontwepen’, Technische Universiteit Delft, The Netherlands. Savanović P (2009), Integral design method in the context of sustainable building design;closing the gap beween design theory and practice, PhD Thesis, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven. Schön D A (1987), Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions, Jossy-Bass, San Francisco. Van den Kroonenberg, H H, and Siers, F J (19992), Methodisch ontwerpen [English translation: Methodical Design], Educaboek, Culemborg. Zeiler W (1993), Methodical Design Framework for Design Improvement, In proceedings of the International Congress of Industrial Engineering, Marseille. Zwicky F, Wilson A G (eds.) (1967), New Methods of Thought and Procedure, Contributions to the Symposium on Methodologies, Pasadena, Springer Verlag, New York.

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Enhancing Quality of Lessons Learned: Evaluating Knowledge Management Practices in Project Management Lo, T.K.M. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (email: [email protected]) Fong, P.S.W. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (email: [email protected])

Abstract Lessons learned (LL), or knowledge obtained from experiences, are keys to effective learning in project-oriented organizations, especially in the construction industry. Many public or private organizations have developed information technology systems for collecting, sharing and maintaining lessons learned as a crucial element of their knowledge management policies. For efficient knowledge sharing and dissemination, the contents of the learned lessons are usually codified into explicit and structured knowledge in textual form like cases, reports, research studies, best practices or guidelines that are accessible to their staff for reference. While issues about data and information quality have been widely investigated, there is little research on the quality of the content of knowledge per se. Evaluation of lessons learned systems in terms of knowledge quality has not been conducted, implying a lack of detailed criteria for effective codification of knowledge, which is one of the key factors for successful knowledge management. This paper offers a brief overview of LL followed by discussion on the quality dimensions of knowledge with a view to answering the question: “What kinds of lessons are more effective in terms of learning and transferring knowledge?” This is related to the way of evaluating LL, together with suggestions on how to apply these quality dimensions in the perspectives of context and content. For example, many lessons learned programs focus on the 'what' and 'how' aspects but do not adequately address the 'why' perspective. Knowing the reasons why past practices succeeded or failed is essential for project team members in order to avoid reinventing the wheel and to achieve continuous improvement. Project team members can reach informed decisions not just by blindly following rules and decisions but also by reflecting on the reasons why their predecessors have made the choices and taken the actions specified in the lessons learned. A quality lesson learned should state the rationales behind the decisions in the content. This study contributes to project management research by showing the importance of good contextual knowledge and content in lessons learned on decision-making. The “Failure Knowledge Database”, a knowledge database of failure cases, is used as an example for illustration. Keywords: knowledge management, lessons learned, failure, quality, failure knowledge database

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1. Introduction 1.1 Lessons learned in knowledge distillation As an important component in knowledge management, lessons learned (LL) are the knowledge gained from people’s successful or failed experience. From the perspective of knowledge processing, an LL program can be considered as a set of concepts and techniques of collecting, validating, analyzing, storing, transferring and using knowledge from the lessons. LL is particularly important for project-based organizations, such as those in the construction industry. However, it is difficult for project teams to learn, transfer and retain knowledge, because of the diverse expertise and different backgrounds of team members, frequent personnel changes and temporary nature of projects (Lo & Fong 2009). Various kinds of knowledge bases, case retrieval systems and document repositories have been developed to capture, store and use LL. In the following section, this paper gives a brief overview of LL and discusses general quality dimensions of LL with a view to answering the question: “What kinds of lessons are more effective in terms of learning and transferring knowledge?” which is related to the way of evaluating LL. Taking the constructivist approach, knowledge is not simply an object which exists “out there”, but concepts constructed through people’s intellectual efforts along the knowledge process. If we take the petroleum industry as a metaphor, then at the lowest level, the experiences gained by individuals and teams, just like crude oil drilled from the earth, are consolidated and transformed into LLs by knowledge-capturing activities such as after action review, event-recording by knowledge historians, etc. Later on, LLs are gradually refined and converted into best practices after discussions and debates within the community, experimentation with the actions recommended in the LL, etc. Knowledge is validated. Useless side products, say, irrelevant or contradictory knowledge, are removed – what we can describe as the “distillation of knowledge”. Finally, some of the best practices survive and are condensed into widely recognized standards, usually after successful implementation of the practices for years, or acceptance by stakeholders in industries. Thus a hierarchy of products of knowledge distillation is formed as illustrated in Figure 1.

Knowledge  distillation  process 

Figure 1: Products of knowledge distillation

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1.2 Types and examples of lessons learned With a broad definition and a wide variety, LLs can be classified according to different facets, such as formats, content domains, functions, and consequences of the lessons, to name just a few. The format of an LL falls along a long continuum with a well-structured table of information at one end and a loosely-presented story at the other. Since there is little restriction regarding its content, an LL can cover a broad range of domains, from engineering designs to private lives. The functional roles of an LL also vary: as an immediate product of project reviews, as materials for training purposes, etc. Finally, the consequence of an LL may be categorized on the basis of the degree of benefits or damage (no matter whether actual or would-be) that results from the lesson, namely the success, near miss or failure. For example, an official report about a site accident submitted by the safety officer on a pre-defined template stipulated by safety regulations can be described as a well-structured LL on construction, while a story told by a veteran member of a building project team on his personal experience of a successful negotiation with a contractor on budget cutting is a typical non-structured LL on project management. Speeches delivered by guests in an award presentation ceremony on the opening of a road tunnel may be full of LLs on success so as to praise the workers for the completion of such a huge and complex project. An academic study on a tragic bridge collapse commissioned by a government is definitely an LL from failures, while an investigation report on a narrowly avoided plane crash is a good example of LL on a near miss. As LL are captured from experience, the content of the LL should ideally be real or authentic, in contrast to other forms of knowledge representations, like stories or fables, in which the content can be factitious, or only partly real. However, for the sake of privacy and other reasons, the details of LLs may sometimes be intentionally modified without detriment to the integrity of the knowledge. An LL is said to be tacit if the knowledge of its content cannot be articulated, or explicit when the knowledge has been codified. Official reports, the results of research studies, best practices or guidelines, if they consist of knowledge gained from experience, are good examples of explicit LLs. Many public or private organizations have developed knowledge management systems for collecting, sharing and maintaining knowledge. For efficient sharing and dissemination, knowledge is usually codified into explicit and structured textual forms that are made accessible to their staff for reference. Many organizations want their staff to learn from the codified knowledge as a way of continuous improvement. These documents then serve as representative materials for reflecting organizations’ approaches to learning. Nevertheless, authentic LLs of organizations are usually not open to outsiders, probably because of the lack of practices of keeping LL, confidentiality or fear of competition from rivals, except for a few public organizations or quasi-government agencies, such as the Japan Science and Technology Agency (Japan), NASA (USA), the Hospital Authority (Hong Kong).

1.3 A special type of lesson learned – lessons learned from failures Lessons from failures are a special kind of LL. Literally, “failure” means “a lack of success in doing or achieving something, especially in relation to a particular activity” (Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 2001), or “omission of occurrence or performance, or a failing to perform a duty or expected action” (Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary 2010). In the project

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management environment, failure can be interpreted as the result unexpected at the beginning of a project (Hatamura 2009). It is understandable that individuals and organizations prefer success over failure due to the credits and rewards brought by success. Even discussions of success are more welcome, and people are better motivated by success than by failures. Discussing failures is avoided because of the blame usually accompanying such discussion, as well as the frustration caused and the damage inflicted on people’s confidence (Sitkin 1992). Fear of losing face is another reason. Not surprisingly, people tend to embrace successful experience and avoid stories of failure. This bias leads to imbalance between these two sources of learning possibilities. Failures are necessary in the sense that they are essentially prerequisites for learning, especially for learning lessons with repeated minor failures (Sitkin 1992; Hatamura 2009). First, small successes may unintentionally weaken attention. Secondly, failure, at a modest level, can encourage employees of an organization to take risks and foster resilience-enhancing experimentation. Yet this benefit of failure experience for individual and organizational learning in terms of encouraging exploratory actions has been overlooked (Sitkin 1992). Lastly, discussion of conflicting issues leads to doubleloop learning, which stimulates deep level reflection. Learning occurs when errors are detected and corrected (Argyris et al. 1985). Organizations needs double-loop learning focused on the root causes of errors. Organizations require modification of an organization's underlying norms, policies and objectives, which is an essential element for corrective action such as an organizational self-appraisal exercise. In view of the serious consequence of failures, the study of LL from failures, as well as near misses, is obviously of concern to the construction industry. Reflection

Action

Learner

Feedback

Operational change

Lessons learned

Action

Learner

Changes in norms, policies and objectives

Single-loop learning

Feedback

Operational change

Double-loop learning

Figure 2: Single- and double-loop learning

2. Quality of lessons learned Issues surrounding data and information quality have been widely studied. Surveys have been conducted to identify dimensions of data and information quality (Madnick 2009; Redman 2005; Pipino et al. 2005; Eppler 2006). Criteria raised on information quality include relevancy, accuracy, timeliness, cost, validity, empirical evidence, completeness, comprehensiveness, clarity, correctness, security, interpretability, conclusiveness, etc. By contrast, studies that focus on the quality of knowledge are rarely found in the literature. There is little research on the quality of the content of knowledge per se except for a few studies concerning management or IT aspects, e.g. about enablers

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and constraints of KM in human enterprises (Malhotra 2003), security, control and assurance of knowledge management systems (KMS) (Jamieson & Handzic 2003) and KM software (Tsui 2003). Although surveys on the collection, format and implementation have been conducted by researchers (Caldas et al. 2009), similar inquiries regarding the content of knowledge are not enough. Evaluation on LL systems in terms of knowledge quality has not been widely conducted. There remains a lack of detailed criteria in the literature for deciding the most efficient and effective way of codification. Davenport & Prusak (1998) state that the thing delivered is more important than the delivery vehicle. Given the increasing amount of knowledge, the quality of knowledge has become one of the key factors for successful knowledge management. Although there is neither general agreement on knowledge quality dimensions nor a commonly accepted definition of exactly what dimensions of knowledge quality mean, a diverse set of dimensions has been mentioned in the literature. Table 1 covers some of the examples of dimensions of knowledge quality found in the literature which are considered as relatively important. These quality dimensions are not exhaustive. There are still important dimensions not mentioned in the literature, e.g. learnability. On the other hand, the concepts brought by the dimensions can be overlapping. It can be difficult to draw a line between them, as in the case of importance and applicability. However, Table 1 serves as a good start for choosing criteria for evaluating the quality of knowledge of an LL. It will be of great significance to study the effectiveness of knowledge transfer of LLs with the quality given in Table 1. Table 1: Examples of dimensions of knowledge quality Dimensions

Explanation

Literature

Location

Position of knowledge in organization, proximity to needs

Fong & Choi 2008

Originality

Degree of innovation relative to users

Cantner et al. 2009; Mol & Birkinshaw 2009

Comprehensibility

Clarity and ambiguity: number of possible meanings which may cause confusion

Holsapple 2003

Validity

Accuracy, completeness and consistency

Holsapple 2003

Reliability

How reliable the knowledge source is

Kwong & Lee 2009; Mort 2001

Relevance

Pertinence to a problem

Cortada 2009

Importance

Crucial for the task

Fong & Choi 2009

Proficiency

Level of expertise in the subject area

Wiig 1993

Applicability

Knowledge can be universally applicable or localized for special circumstances and contexts

Fong & Choi 2009

Predictive power

How far can the knowledge claim to predict future events accurately

Harvanach 2003

Viscosity

Richness or thickness of knowledge, quality of absorption

Szulanski 2003; Zhao & Anand 2009

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It is reasonable to assume that no single dimension can dominate the judging of knowledge quality. Multiple dimensions can enrich the understanding of knowledge content and knowledge processes. The crux is to discover the correct combination of dimensions. Some of the quality dimensions are content-related, for example, clarity, ambiguity, completeness, consistency, while some are contextrelated, such as location, applicability, etc. Generally speaking, the quality dimensions can be applied from two approaches: the context and content of LL.

3. Context of lessons learned 3.1 Meta-knowledge – what is the lesson about? Meta-knowledge is knowledge about knowledge. In data management, the use of meta-data has been standardized to articulate a context for objects of interest based on International Organization for Standardization (ISO) official standards such as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, which consists of elements like title, creator, subject, publisher, language, etc. (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative 2010). They are primarily designed for enhancing the interoperability of meta-data. Similar relations can be applied to meta-knowledge and knowledge. An overall picture of the LL is necessary for users to place the lessons in appropriate positions. With reference to Table 1, the dimensions of location, importance and applicability all fall within the category of meta-knowledge, which provides a time-space-scope framework for the lessons. Such meta-knowledge can be found in many LL systems. Specifically, knowledge about creator and contributor are highly useful in enabling the learner to follow and judge the quality of knowledge in terms of some quality dimensions, e.g. originality and reliability. With meta-knowledge, LL users are able to grasp the whole picture of the knowledge and predict what they need to understand in the future.

3.2 People – who will learn? Knowledge creators, knowledge administrators and knowledge users play different roles in knowledge processing. Most knowledge users, with the intention of making decisions, taking actions or solving problems in mind, are enthusiastic about learning from lessons. Therefore, users of LL are not just an audience or readers but, in more precise term, learners. Learners are not passive receivers of knowledge. LL developers should take into account the backgrounds of the potential knowledge users within a reasonable period after the launch of the LL program. In addition, LL users rarely enjoy the right or chance to discuss with the knowledge creator, not to mention to clarify the details of the context or content of the LL. Ultimately it is the users who will judge whether the LL program is fit for use.

4. Content of lessons learned 4.1 Language – how should the lesson be presented? Texts remain the most frequently used media of explicit LL, though audio and visual materials are not uncommon. With reference to Table 1, comprehensibility is a dimension related to the proper use of language. Clarity may be another one. Whether the content of an LL is clear or comprehensible

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depends on the language use. Who the users will be, as discussed in section 3.2, is crucial. Developing tips on construction safety, a choice may have to be made between words selected meaningfully from everyday language or a text full of jargon and technical terms. While the latter is understandable to architects or engineers, it may be barely comprehensible to general site workers. Suitable use of terminology is essential.

4.2 Reasons – why is the lesson valid? LL systems may stress which practices work or fail but do not address why they work or fail. While many learning processes focus on the “what” and “how” aspects, they are not well supplemented with “why” perspective. Not only what should and should not be done and how they could be done or avoided are necessary; the reasons why past practices succeeded or failed are equally essential to improve performance and address future challenges. LL is not merely a set of strict procedures or guidelines that the users can simply follow. In order to reach informed decisions, we should not blindly follow rules and figures but should also reflect on the reasons why such choices were made in the past and why such actions were taken. This follows an old Chinese proverb: “知其然，而不知其所 以然”, which literally means “One knows it happened but does not know why it happened”. “Why” is also crucial for providing contextual knowledge in organizational learning, as supported by the constructivist theory of learning which argues that knowledge is not just an objective thing “out there” to learn but rather a personal and social construct of meanings through interaction between people and the environment. Since curiosity is a good motivator for learning, knowing the reasons why past practices succeeded or failed is essential for encouraging users to gain and share knowledge that contributes to organizational learning. It is argued that LL should provide the rationales behind the lessons, fostering users’ reflection and extension of the application of lessons to other situations.

5. An example – the Failure Knowledge Database (FKD) 5.1 Background The FKD is a collection of LLs from failure. It has been developed since 2001, commissioned by the quasi-governmental Japan Science and Technology Agency in order to study accidents and failures in the fields of science and technology. Its purpose is to enhance safety improvement and education. The database, which is accessible to the public (available online at http://shippai.jst.go.jp/fkd/Search), consists of a structured repository of cases and scenarios on accidents/failures categorized into various fields. All cases share a common hierarchical structure of presentation in terms of cause, action, and result. The collection of FKD keeps growing, with new cases contributed by academics and practitioners. The developers of FKD hold that failure knowledge is not being effectively communicated. The answer to the problem is therefore the provision of a picture of how to structure failure knowledge and to ask people encountering failure to describe the case in terms of that structure (Hatamura 2005). The main idea is to present failure knowledge in a well-defined framework so that high accessibility of the cases can be achieved as well as effective exchange of knowledge. Effective communication is vital to knowledge transfer, especially in the construction industry, due to the increasing specialization of professionals.

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5.2 Discussion on the quality of context and content The FKD is rich in meta-knowledge. All its cases offer case name, data, place, field, and author, in line with the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. The meta-knowledge helps the users of the database to decide at first sight if the lessons are interesting to them, and to speed up the searching process of relevant cases. The knowledge creators of the database are mostly professors, researchers, professionals and technical personnel. So are the target users of the database, who are expected to have attained certain educational background and be able to understand technical terms in the case details without difficulty. The content of the cases is presented in short paragraphs and points, usually in a direct and indicative style. Cases were recorded in Japanese and then translated into English, irrespective of where the incidents happened (e.g. “Collapse of the Korea Seoul Seongsu Bridge” and “Disaster of Chemical Plant at Flixborough”). In the Japanese version, there are 1,167 cases (as at 25.1.2010), while there are only 547 cases in the English version, implying that at least one half of the cases have not yet been translated. The FKD adopts a “cause-action-result” concept in describing the structure and sequence of failure. According to the interpretation of the database, result (e.g. electrical failure) refers to the observable fact while cause is the human error (e.g. carelessness) leading to the result and action means the human intervention (e.g. missing a signal) that links the cause and result of the failure. The developers of FKD maintain that neither cause alone nor action alone will lead to failure and failure can only result when both cause and action exist (Hatamura 2005). Conceptually, the sequence of events is like this: first a human cause, followed by human action, then the result. While this “cause-action-result” sequence is simple enough to understand, this approach is not without problems -- the problem of sufficiency, which means that assuming the cause given had not been established, would the failure still occur? Simply put, there may be other causes leading to the failure. In one of the cases, “By the signal error, the train was stopped” (written by M. Kitajima, about a signal error incident happening in Yachimata, Japan, in Sep 2003), the author of the case attributes the incident to a mistake made by a train lookout man who gave the wrong flag signal. The case writer further suggested that, among other countermeasures, the experience of the train lookout man should be checked, and he should be replaced by a person with more experience. While it is reasonable to believe the result of failure was “caused” by the train lookout man’s mistake, this knowledge is just about the “how”, whereas the question to address should be “why”. How the case writer arrived at his conclusion cannot be found in the content of the LL. It might be that the train lookout man was suffering from fatigue after having worked for long hours, or the design of platforms was defective because of unnoticed blind spots. The linear “cause-action-result” may mislead us to jump to immature conclusions and hamper users’ reflection on the underlying problems. Several claims about the authors’ constraints in the discussion of FKD have to be made here. First, the analysis of the quality of the context and content of the database is based on its English version only. If there is any wrong interpretation due to translation and discrepancies between the Japanese and English versions, the errors belong to the authors. Second, without conducting a comprehensive survey on the cases, the criticisms are not meant to be generalized to the whole database. Third, the comments are based on the content of texts available, without clarification or exchange of ideas with the database administrator.

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6. Conclusions This paper describes the quality dimensions of LL with respect to two main approaches: context and content. Meta-knowledge, people, language and reasons are among the areas to which more attention should be paid. The Failure Knowledge Database (FKD) is introduced as an example to show the evaluation of an LL. The FKD is a good example of knowledge transfer in terms of LL from failures in the field of science and technology, including the construction industry. Release of knowledge in the public domain in terms of cases of failures should be encouraged, as this kind of sharing of accidents with analysis and structured knowledge is rarely found in the world. Lastly, it is worth noting that once the knowledge has been captured and codified as LL, the content will become fairly static. As the external environment keeps changing, the conditions when the knowledge is produced may alter and render the lessons no longer applicable, partly or fully. Hence, the LL needs maintenance which is costly and time-consuming. As an alternative, richer contextual information should be provided so that users can decide if the knowledge is to be used.

7. Acknowledgement The work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. PolyU 5160/07E).

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Eppler, M. J. (2006) Managing information quality: Increasing the value of information in knowledge-intensive products and processes (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. Fong, P. S. W., & Choi, S. K. Y. (2009) “The processes of knowledge management in professional services firms in the construction industry: A critical assessment of both theory and practice”, Journal of Knowledge Management, 13(2), 110. Hanvanach, S., Droge, C., & Calatone, R. (2003) “Reconceptualizing the meaning and domain of marketing knowledge”, Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(4), 124. Hatamura, Y. (2005) “Structure and Expression of Failure Knowledge Database – Explanation of Failure Mandalas”, (available online http://shippai.jst.go.jp/en/Contents?fn=1&id=GE0704 [accessed on 23.1.2010]) Hatamura, Y. (2009) Learning from design failures. Tokyo: Springer. Holsapple, C. W. (2003) “Knowledge and its attributes”, Handbook on knowledge management (1st ed.) Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Jamieson, R., & Handzic, M. (2003) “A framework for security, control and assurance of knowledge management systems”, Handbook on knowledge management (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Kwong, E., & Lee, W. B. (2009) “Knowledge elicitation in reliability management in the airline industry”, Journal of Knowledge Management, 13(2), 35. Lo, T. K. M., & Fong, P. S. W. (2009). “Capturing, sharing and re-using lessons to improve learning in construction”, Proceedings of the First International Postgraduate Conference on Infrastructure and Environment: 5-6 June 2009, Hong Kong, China, 597-602. Madnick, S. E., Wang, R. Y., Lee, Y. W., & Zhu, H. (2009) “Overview and framework for data and information quality research”, J. Data and Information Quality, 1(1), 1-22. Malhotra, Y. (2003) “Why knowledge management systems fail: Enablers and constraints of knowledge management in human enterprises”, Handbook on knowledge management (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Mol, M., & Birkinshaw, J. (2009) “The sources of management innovation: When firms introduce new management practices”, Journal of Business Research, 62(12), 1269. Mort, J. (2001) “Nature, value and pursuit of reliable corporate knowledge”, Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(3), 222. Pipino, L., Wang, Y. R., Kopcso, D., & Rybolt, W. (2005) “Developing measurement scales for dataquality dimensions”, Information quality (1st ed.). Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.

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Influential Individual Factors of Knowledge Sharing Behavior in Hong Kong Construction Teams Zhang, P. Department of Real Estate and Construction, HKU, HKSAR, China (email: [email protected]) Ng, F.F. Department of Real Estate and Construction, HKU, HKSAR, China (email: [email protected])

Abstract This exploratory study employs social exchange theory to investigate individual factors that affect people’s knowledge sharing behaviour in Hong Kong construction teams. This study supports the view that knowledge is embedded in individual mind, highly personal and context based. Thus people may be reluctant to share knowledge due to potential costs involved. Given that knowledge sharing is social exchange behaviour, people may be motivated to share knowledge if they perceive that benefits obtained from knowledge sharing are more valuable than the associated costs. So individual factors are analyzed from the perspectives of cost factors and benefit factors. This exploratory study is carried out with a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews are conducted with professionals from a large local construction company. The transcripts of interviews are analyzed using the content analysis technique. The results show that people share their knowledge for both intrinsic benefits (e.g. enjoyment, knowledge self-efficacy) and extrinsic benefits (e.g. monetary rewards, knowledge feedback). Perceived costs involved in knowledge sharing include time cost and losing face. Keywords: knowledge sharing, social exchange theory, benefits, costs, construction team, Hong Kong

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1. Introduction In our modern society with knowledge economy, knowledge has been recognized as an important resource of organizations for competitive advantage (Nonaka, 1994; Spender, 1996). Many organizations have formulated knowledge management strategy aiming to manage and leverage collective knowledge in order to maintain sustainable competiveness (Alavi and Leidner, 2001). Knowledge management in construction industry also receives significant attention from researchers because the construction industry is a knowledge intensive industry. The service product (e.g. buildings) significantly relies on specialized expert knowledge and problem solving know-how (Egbu and Robinson, 2005). As one essential and important participant in construction industry, construction companies (or ‘contractors’) involve in knowledge activities as well. Construction of facilities requires input of large amount of professional knowledge and technical expertise. Many studies indicate that encouraging knowledge sharing among employees can effectively leverage knowledge and lead to creation of new ideas (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Ipe, 2003; Nonaka, 1994). Current study adopts the view that knowledge is embedded in individual mind, highly personal, context based, and difficult to be communicated. As a result, people may not be willing to share their knowledge due to potential costs involved, such as codification effort and loss of knowledge power (Gray, 2001; Huang et al., 2008; Kankanhalli et al., 2005). However, social exchange theory suggests that social behavior is exchange and people may be motivated to perform the behavior if they perceive that the benefits they will receive from performing the behavior exceed costs. This study uses the social exchange theory to study the cost and benefit factors that would discourage or motivate people to perform knowledge sharing behavior. More specifically, the target is focused on individuals in construction teams internally organized by contractor companies. Construction industry operates around projects. A project (also called construction project) is commissioned by a client and executed by multi-disciplinary organizations, e.g. consultant, constructors; each part of the construction project (e.g. design of the facility, construction of the facility) carried out by each participant company is also a project from the perspective of the participant company (Kamara et al., 2005, p. 105). So the ‘construction team’ in this study refers to the project team internally organized by a contractor company to implement and manage the construction works on site. Fast track is a notable characteristic on construction site. It is believed that team members sharing knowledge together would help to formulate effective methods to do work and solve problem quickly. A construction team usually dissolves for other projects once the current project is completed. Important knowledge identified and learned by team members through knowledge sharing in current project team can be transferred and applied in other projects (Ma et al., 2008). This process helps to avoid effort on reinventing the wheel. Many researches have been found studying factors influencing people’s knowledge sharing behavior from different perspectives. For instance, Riege (2005) conceptually discusses various barriers for employees to share knowledge. Ardichvili et al. (2003) and Wasko and Faraj (2000) use qualitative method to investigate the motivations and barriers to engage in knowledge sharing in electronic communities of

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practice (CoP). Cabrera et al. (2006) and Bock et al. (2005) use quantitative method to empirically examine factors affecting people’s knowledge sharing behavior from perspective of individual, organizational climate and technology. In construction area, Ma et al. (2008) investigate influential factors of knowledge sharing in project teams of China construction companies. The factors are identified from a perspective of nature of knowledge (explicit and tacit knowledge) and the team environment (e.g. environment of trusting and justice). It is observed that there is a lack of study on individual factors affecting people to participate in knowledge sharing behavior in Hong Kong construction teams. Hence, this paper explores why people choose to share or not to share knowledge with teammates in construction teams. An exploratory qualitative study is designed to evaluate the potential factors identified from literature review as well as to explore any additional factors that would affect people’s knowledge sharing behavior in construction teams. Social exchange theory is employed to identify costs and benefits factors. Semistructured interviews are conducted with seven professionals from a large local construction company currently involving in projects. Content analysis technique is used to analyze the interview transcripts. The findings from the exploratory study are discussed and compared with insights from relevant literature.

2. Theoretical background 2.1 Knowledge Knowledge can be defined from different perspectives. One perspective is ‘knowledge as object’ based on a positivist view of knowledge (Baskerville and Dulipovici, 2006; Wasko and Faraj, 2005). This perspective believes that knowledge can exist regardless of people who know it and regardless of the context where knowledge is created. Knowledge can be separated from human mind and exist independently (Wasko and Faraj, 2005). Typical definition of knowledge from this perspective is ‘justified true belief’ suggested by Plato (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Based on this perspective, knowledge management strategies adopted by organizations aim to codify and convert personal knowledge into structured organizational assets, which is stored in organizations’ knowledge repositories (e.g. documents, electronic database). The structured organizational knowledge can be accessed and transferred to other people in the organization. Another perspective is ‘knowledge embedded in individuals’. Being contrary to former perspective, this perspective argues that knowledge only resides in human mind and knowledge is inseparable from people who know it (Wasko and Faraj, 2005). This perspective recognizes that knowledge is highly tacit and context based. Knowledge is rooted in an individual’s action and experience, and it is difficult to be communicated. People can only externalize their knowledge into explicit form (e.g. article, speech) to be accessed by others. The explicated knowledge is regarded as information in this study. According to Kakabadse et al. (2003), information is a form of message. Information standing alone is less useful until someone applies it in a specific situation and internalizes it into knowledge with his/her personal elements

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(e.g. belief, interpretation and judgment). Knowledge embedded in individual perspective requires knowledge management strategies focusing on human resources management (Wasko and Faraj, 2005). People are encouraged to interact with each other. Through individual interactions, people may obtain useful information that he/she can apply in situations and gain new knowledge (Koskinen et al., 2003). A third perspective of ‘knowledge embedded in community’ defines knowledge as the social practice of knowing (Wasko and Faraj, 2005). This view suggests that knowledge is developed in the context of a community and exits in the form of routines, shared languages, etc (Wasko and Faraj, 2005). According to this view, organizations formulate communication of practice (CoP) strategies to encourage knowledge sharing among a group of people. CoP promotes sharing of experiences and story telling among people who have similar background and interests. This study takes the stand point that knowledge is embedded in individual. Accordingly, people have the control over the knowledge they owned. People can choose to share or not to share their knowledge with others. Social exchange theory suggests that people may exchange their knowledge for returns and the returns can either be tangible or intangible (e.g. status, confidence).

2.2 Knowledge sharing Because knowledge is embedded in people’s mind, individuals usually seek knowledge and advice from team members rather then searching in knowledge repositories (e.g. database, manuals) in project environment (Koskinen et al., 2003). Alternatively, people turn to knowledge repositories when team members direct them to a specific point (Koskinen et al., 2003). According to Hendriks (1999), knowledge sharing involves at least two parties, one possessing knowledge and the other one seeking knowledge. Hendriks (1999) argues that knowledge sharing is different but related to information sharing. This study holds the view that knowledge is rooted in human mind and is difficult to be shared. In order to share knowledge with others, the one who possesses knowledge need to firstly externalize or codify his/her personal knowledge into information (or called explicit knowledge) in a specific form (e.g. speech, acts, sketch or writing). People who seek knowledge then take the action of internalization, such as learning by doing, interpreting the codified knowledge on existing knowledge base, etc. Thus, Ipe’s (2003) definition of knowledge sharing is adapted and used in this study: knowledge sharing is the behavior that people convert his/her knowledge into a form which is accessed, used and absorbed by other individuals. This study explores factors influencing knowledge sharing behavior from the perspective of knowledge contributor.

2.3 Social exchange theory Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the most influential conceptual bases for understanding workplace behavior (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005). SET was developed in late 1950s with key proponents of Homans. Homans (1961) suggests “social behavior as exchange” and exchange between people is based

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on the principles of costs and benefits. This implies that people involve in exchange with the purpose of maximizing benefits and minimizing costs. People may evaluate the potential benefits and costs before they perform a behavior. If the costs associated with the behavior exceed the rewards, people possibly choose to terminate the behavior. As social behavior is an exchange, Cropanzano & Mitchell (2005) suggests that resources are involved in the social exchange process. The resources can be regarded as the currency of social exchange. There are two main forms of resources, i.e. economic and socioeconomic outcomes (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005). Economic outcomes are usually associated to financial needs and tend to be tangible. Socioeconomic outcomes are related to one’s social and esteem needs, which is intangible. In the exchange process, resources given away during social exchange or negative outcomes of exchange can be seen as costs. Resources received as a result of social exchange or positive outcomes of exchange can be seen as benefits (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). Knowledge sharing is considered to be a form of social exchange (Bock et al., 2005). Previous researchers have applied SET to study people’s knowledge sharing behaviors, e.g. Kankanhalli (2005), Bock and Kim (2002), and Lin (2007). This research also adopts a cost-benefit analysis based on SET to identify individual factors affecting individual knowledge sharing behavior in construction teams.

3. Research method 3.1 Research setting This exploratory study is conducted by qualitative method. Semi-structured interviews are conducted with seven professionals from a large local construction company, who are currently involved in construction projects. The respondents include an assistant project manager, a site agent, an engineer, two quantity surveyors, a product manager, a safety manager and a safety officer. Based on literature review, an interview guide is designed with open-questions to assist the interviews. All the seven interviews are recorded with respondents’ permissions.

3.2 Data analysis Transcripts are taken down for all interview records. Content analysis method is chosen to analyze the text data. Content analysis is a research technique using a set of specific procedures to make replicable and valid inferences from text (Krippendorff, 2004; Weber, 1990). The central process of content analysis is coding, which categorizes words of the text into content categories that can be manageable (Weber, 1990). A coding strategy is formulated based on Gillham (2000), Holsti (1969), Miles (1994), and Strauss (1998). Main procedures in the coding strategy include: 1) Researcher inductively codes all the transcripts to develop a list of categories with descriptions;

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2) Researcher prepares coding manual and invites an independent coder to deductively code sample transcript; 3) Researcher checks the inter-coder reliability and makes necessary revision to the list of categories and coding manual until the inter-coder reliability is accepted. The revision process is based on researcher’s negotiation with the independent coder; 4) Independent coder deductively codes all the transcripts based on revised list of categories and coding manual; 5) Researcher checks the final inter-coder reliability and makes further modification based on negotiation if necessary until the final inter-coder reliability is accepted; 6) Coding results are transferred to analysis grids. In this study, the number of respondents who report corresponding category is counted. The categories reported by only one respondent are disregarded to avoid the case of occasional incident. Since one purpose of this study is explore as many factors influencing knowledge sharing behavior as possible, categories reported by more than one respondent are regarded as valid.

4. Findings 4.1 The perceived costs of sharing knowledge Two main perceived costs are identified from this exploratory study. Time cost is reported to be associated with knowledge sharing activities by most respondents. For instance, respondent 1 reports that some people consider knowledge sharing (e.g. give a presentation) as extra work and costs extra time, thus they are not willing to share knowledge with others. Since time spent in sharing knowledge can be considered as opportunity cost (Kankanhalli et al., 2005), people may not be willing to share knowledge if they perceive they can obtain more benefits by using the time to do other things. Losing face is another perceived cost identified. Respondents report that they may feel shame to share some bad experience (e.g. mistakes they made), or they feel embarrassed or being dishonored when others think what they share is useless or the quality is low. Sometimes they may choose not to share knowledge in order to save face: ‘you don’t know how other people will consider after you speak out. Maybe you think you are successful but others may think you are stupid…’[Respondent 1]. People’s fear of losing face becomes a barrier for them to share knowledge with others.

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4.2 The perceived benefits of knowledge sharing •

Extrinsic benefits

This study discovers that some individuals share knowledge with others to generate extrinsic benefits. Several respondents report that people may get organizational reward (i.e. money, promotion) by sharing knowledge with teammates. For example, respondent 5 describes an incentive policy of the company. If the project is completed without any injury, each one in the construction team would be rewarded with one thousand dollars. This policy, to certain extent, encourages people to share ideas and discuss with each others to find the most safe and suitable way to carry out work in order to achieve zero-injury in the project. Similarly, respondent 7 notes that knowledge sharing within construction team helps to improve work efficiency and quality, and reduce re-do work. As a result, ‘boss may think well done, and will increase your salary or promote you’ [Respondent 7]. Another identified extrinsic benefit is knowledge feedback. It is noted by six respondents that they can obtain knowledge feedback from other’s response when they share knowledge with others. The feedback includes others’ pointing out mistakes, and others’ comments, suggestions, experience, etc. Knowledge feedback helps people to refine their thinking and develop new insights. One typical manifestation is made as ‘if what you shared can be challenged by others, for example you may have neglected something in the past, which is found by others, this is quite good. You may think your previous experience is correct all the time, but actually it has some defects. Then you can find out those defects through other’s challenge and get to know that it is better to do in another way’ [Respondent 6]. In addition, several respondents perceive that sharing knowledge with others can reduce their own workload. Respondent 1 states that ‘I tell him/her my experience of how to do and how he/she should do…this will save my time’. Respondent 4 says ‘When more people know how to do the task, more people share the workload’. This result may imply that in the context of construction project, teamwork is emphasized. No one can handle all the tasks. It may be worthless to hoard knowledge because normally the performance appraisal is based on the overall project achievement instead of individual achievement. In other studies, researchers find that people may not be willing to share knowledge if they perceive that they will lose knowledge power. As an example, Huang et al (2008) find that loss of knowledge power has a negative effect on the attitude towards knowledge sharing. This situation happens most in circumstances where individual performance is assessed in the appraisal strategy. In construction project environment, people need to share knowledge and work cooperatively in order to complete projects successfully. •

Intrinsic benefits

Four respondents report that they can get enjoyment from sharing knowledge with others. Enjoyment is described as people’s feeling of happiness from knowledge sharing. Respondent 1 believes that the knowledge sharing experience itself makes people feel pleasure: ‘you tell your experience and your

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opinions, and share them with others…sharing makes people happy, many people discuss together… ’[Respondent 1]. Respondent 2 feels happy because sharing knowledge with others makes him feel more professional. Another point reported by respondent 4 and 7 is that people enjoy sharing knowledge because the knowledge they shared can help others to solve work related problems: ‘I helped them to solve the problems, maybe reducing the time in searching materials, reducing time in setting up, then I feel happy’ [Respondent 7]. Besides, respondents report that people share knowledge with others because they can achieve knowledge self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy comes from Bandura (1986), which is defined as ‘people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute course of action required to attain designated types of performance’. Knowledge self-efficacy refers to people’s confidence in their capabilities of using knowledge to solve work related problems, improve work efficiency or helping others in work. For instance, Respondent 2 states ‘If he/she asks me questions about law, I reply quickly on how he/she should do so that he/she does not need to search, which improves his/her work efficiency and (helps) him/her to solve problems’; Respondent 5 notes ‘knowledge sharing can make project process run more smoothly’. Thus, perceived knowledge self-efficacy can drive people to share knowledge with others in construction project team. In a project-based working environment, people who work together on a project may never know each other. Knowledge sharing provides opportunities for people to interact with each other and develop interpersonal relationship. This study observes that sometimes people share knowledge with others in order to enhance their personal relationship with others, e.g., ‘sharing experience has a loop effect on personal relationship, and let people have common topics to communicate’ [Respondent 3]. Two respondents also report that their confidence is increased if what they shared is recognized by others. According to Bock et al (2005), others’ responses provide evidence for people to judge whether his/her thinking and behavior is correct or not. If others’ responses are in line with his/her anticipation, he/she may get a kind of reflected appraisal which contributes to the formation of self-worth (Bock et al., 2005). This idea is supported by this study where one comment is stated as ‘you will feel good when people agree with what you talk about. People understand what you talk about, and you will build up your confidence’ [Respondent 5].

5. Discussion and conclusion This exploratory study identified people’s perceived benefits and costs associated with knowledge sharing behavior in construction teams. It is found that time cost is one barrier for people to share knowledge with others. In the study carried out by Kankanhalli et al. (2005), it is also mentioned that expense of time and effort in explicating and codifying knowledge may discourage people to share their knowledge. Sometimes, people choose to not share knowledge because they are afraid of losing face. This finding is consistent with prior research in knowledge sharing behavior. In the context of knowledge sharing in electronic communities of practice, Ardichvili et al. (2003) discover that people may fear that the knowledge they shared is not important, not entirely accurate, or not relevant to a specific discussion.

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Huang et al. (2008) also observe that people have a low intention to share knowledge if they are afraid of sharing wrong or incorrect knowledge in order to ‘save face’. Both extrinsic benefits and intrinsic benefits of knowledge sharing are identified in this study. The benefits are in line with Wasko and Faraj (2000), who argue that people share knowledge to generate both tangible and intangible returns. Identified extrinsic benefits from this exploratory study include organizational reward, knowledge feedback, and reduced workload. Organizational reward has been addressed by many researchers, but some researchers claim that organizational rewards do not impose positive influence on knowledge sharing (Bock and Kim, 2002; Bock et al., 2005; Kwok and Gao, 2005). In this study, respondents report that incentives are rewarded based on team performance instead of individual performance. Thus, individuals are encouraged to share knowledge with others in order to improve the team performance. The benefit of knowledge feedback is a kind of reciprocity return in knowledge sharing. By sharing knowledge with others, knowledge contributor could learn new things as well from other’s response and comments. The finding is consistent with Wasko’s (2000) view that answering others’ questions helps to refine their own thinking, learn new things and keep current on new innovations. Intrinsic benefits mainly concerns individual’s inherent satisfaction and esteem needs. This exploratory study finds that people share knowledge with others may gain intrinsic benefits of enjoyment, knowledge self-efficacy, enhanced relationship with others and increased confidence. Enjoyment as a benefit from knowledge sharing has been reported by others researchers. For example, Wasko and Faraj (2000) find that enjoyment is perceived to be an intangible return by people to share knowledge in electronic community of practice. This study also confirms Kankanhalli et al.’s (2005) observation that perceived knowledge self-efficacy increases people’s intention to share knowledge. People in construction team are more likely to share knowledge with others if they perceived that they build confidence in their capability to solve work-related problems or improve work efficiency by sharing their knowledge. People also regard knowledge sharing as opportunities to build up personal relationship with teammates in construction team. Bock and Kim (2002) and Lin (2007) hold similar view that sometimes people intend to share knowledge with hope of strengthening social times with others and expand the scope of association. In addition, this study observes that people can increase their self-confidence when their shared knowledge is recognized by others. Other’s recognition leads to an increase of one’s selfsatisfaction and respect. There are a number of implications from this study. Firstly, organizations can provide incentives to promote knowledge sharing among employees. Appraisal for reward should be based on collective performance instead of individual performance. Incentive strategy based on individual performance may lead to personal knowledge hoarding because people may try to protect their individual knowledge power in work place. Secondly, organizations should emphasize teamwork spirit. In project environment, no individual owns knowledge for all tasks or has the ability to handle all work. Team spirit moves people to contribute their effort, support other team members and care the collective performance of the team.

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Besides, organizations can organize various activities (e.g. workshops, meetings) for people to interact with others, share ideas and collect feedbacks. This study serves as an exploratory study, thus limited interviews are conducted and only one construction company is focused. The results only provide a limited extent of insights to the knowledge sharing behavior in Hong Kong construction teams. However, this exploratory study provides a basis for future explanatory study. The extent of significance of those identified factors shall be examined and measured in future empirical survey.

References Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Review: Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 107. Ardichvili, A., Page, V., & Wentling, T. (2003). Motivation and barriers to participation in virtual knowledge-sharing communities of practice. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(1), 64. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action : a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. :: Prentice-Hall. Baskerville, R., & Dulipovici, A. (2006). The theoretical foundations of knowledge management. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 4(2), 83. Bock, G. W., & Kim, Y. G. (2002). Breaking the myths of rewards: An exploratory study of attitudes about knowledge sharing. Information Resources Management Journal, 15(2), 14. Bock, G. W., Zmud, R. W., Kim, Y. G., & Lee, J. N. (2005). Behavioral intention formation in knowledge sharing: examine the roles of extrinsic motivators, social-psychological forces, and organizational climate. MIS Quarterly, 29(1), 87-111. Cabrera, A., Collins, W. C., & Salgado, J. F. (2006). Determinants of individual engagement in knowledge sharing. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(2), 245. Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social Exchange Theory: An Interdisciplinary Review. Journal of Management, 31(6), 874. Davenport, T. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working knowledge : how organizations manage what they know. Boston, Mass :: Harvard Business School Press.

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Egbu, C. O., & Robinson, H. S. (2005). Construction as a knowledge-based industry In C. J. Anumba, C. Egbu & P. Carrillo (Eds.), Knowledge management in construction. Oxford ; Malden, MA :: Blackwell Pub. . Gillham, B. (2000). Case study research methods. London :: Continuum. Gray, P. H. (2001). The impact of knowledge repositories on power and control in the workplace. Information Technology & People, 14(4), 368. Hendriks, P. (1999). Why share knowledge? The influence of ICT on the motivation for knowledge sharing. Knowledge and Process Management, 6(2), 91. Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Reading, Mass. :: AddisonWesley. Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior : its elementary forms. London :: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Huang, Q., Davison, R. M., & Gu, J. (2008). Impact of personal and cultural factors on knowledge sharing in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 25(3), 451. Ipe, M. (2003). Knowledge Sharing on Organizations: A Conceptual Framework. Human Resource Development Review, 2(4), 337. Kakabadse, N. K., Kakabadse, A., & Kouzmin, A. (2003). Reviewing the knowledge management literature: Towards a toxonomy. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(4), 75. Kamara, J. M., Anumba, C. J., & Carrillo, P. M. (2005). Cross-project knowledge management. In C. J. Anumba, C. O. Egbu & P. Carrillo (Eds.), Knowledge management in construction Oxford ; Malden, MA :: Blackwell Pub. Kankanhalli, A., Tan, B. C. Y., & Wei, K. K. (2005). Contributing knowledge to electronic knowledge repositories: an empirical investigation MIS Quarterly, 29(1), 113. Koskinen, K. U., Pihlanto, P., & Vanharanta, H. (2003). Tacit knowledge acquisition and sharing in a project work context. International Journal of Project Management, 21(4), 281. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis : an introduction to its methodology (2nd ed. ed.). Thousand Oaks :: Sage.

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Kwok, S. H., & Gao, S. (2005). Attitude towards knowledge sharing behavior. The Journal of Computer Information Systems, 46(2), 45. Lin, H.-F. (2007). Effects of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on employee knowledge sharing intentions. Journal of Information Science, 33(2), 135-149. Ma, Z. Z., Qi, L. Y., & Wang, K. Y. (2008 ). Knowledge sharing in Chinese construction project teams and its affecting factors: An empirical study. Chinese Management Studies, 2 (2), 97 - 108. Miles, M. B. (1994). Qualitative data analysis : an expanded sourcebook (2nd ed. ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif. :: Sage. Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5(1), 14. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company : how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York :: Oxford University Press. Riege, A. (2005). Three-dozen knowledge-sharing barriers managers must consider. Journal of Knowledge Management, 9(3), 18. Spender, J. C. (1996). Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17, 45. Strauss, A. L. (1998). Basics of qualitative research : techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed. ed.). Thousand Oaks :: Sage Publications. Wasko, M. M., & Faraj, S. (2000). "It is what one does": why people participate and help others in electronic communities of practice. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 9(2-3), 155-173. Wasko, M. M., & Faraj, S. (2005). Why should I share? Examining social capital and knowledge contribution in electronic networks of practice. MIS Quarterly, 29(1), 35. Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic content analysis (2nd ed. ed.). Newbury Park, Calif. :: Sage Publications.

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Exploring Knowledge Sharing Strategies of Design Practice; Co-Location Bektaş, E. Delft University of Technology, Netherlands (email: [email protected]) Heintz, J.L. Delft University of Technology, Netherlands (email: [email protected]) Wamelink, J.W.F. (Hans) Delft University of Technology, Netherlands (email: [email protected])

Abstract For years the construction industry has been notorious among both academics and practitioners as a field troubled by repeating cost overruns, time delays and/or degraded architectural quality. In the background to these problems, current features of the industry such as increasing complexity of the projects play an important role, especially in large-scale building projects. This complexity is becoming unmanageable when combined with both the current fragmented nature of the industry, comprising dispersed domain knowledge which is represented by different design disciplines, and weak communication between the various actors involved. In this research, we will focus on the creation of an efficient and effective environment in which disciplinary knowledge is shared, engendering interdisciplinary knowledge which can be integrated in the design process among design-team members. We will call such an environment a knowledge sharing environment. Through an effectively regulated knowledge sharing environment, design members are stimulated to share their understanding of project objectives, their work progress, their aims and roles, as well as responsibilities to each other. In this paper, we intend to provide (1) understanding drawn from literature about what constitutes a knowledge sharing environment, and (2) explorations of current knowledge sharing environments in design practice. Examples of practice interventions are drawn from a preliminary case study which is a large-scale underground project conducted by a global engineering company. This paper will conclude with the current research progress, which is part of an ongoing PhD research into design knowledge integration in large-scale building projects. Keywords: knowledge management, knowledge sharing, co-location, design and construction, large scale buildings

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1. Introduction The construction industry is becoming more knowledge intensive, due to the increasing levels of demands, complexity of projects (comprising costs, programs, technology, and collaboration forms) and new types of contracts, (Anumba et al. 2007). Particularly in complex and large projects, many people or groups collaborate in the design process. This process requires multi-designer and multidisciplinary involvement in which the individuals act collectively as a single body (Bektas et al 2008). Through this involvement, designers share their expertise, ideas, resources or responsibilities and arrive at shared agreements (including technical, financial, social and aesthetic requirements of the contributors). As Lombard and Yesilbas claim (2005) “… 75% of an engineer’s design work consists of seeking, organizing, modifying and translating the information, often unrelated to his own personal discipline…”. In other words, designers spend a significant portion of their work on interpreting information that is embedded in their boundary objects1 they exchange (i.e. drawings, personal conversations (Fong 2003), reports, documents that particular project actors provide and e-mails), rather than sharing their knowledge (Bektas et al. 2008). However, domain knowledge is dispersed among the many different participants, and interaction between team members on a design-team is often weak, leaving any knowledge captured during the project unavailable for reuse (Fruchter et al. 2002). Poorly managed knowledge usually causes a considerable amount of rework, delays and cost overruns on construction projects. This study firstly surveys the concepts of knowledge, knowledge sharing and knowledge sharing strategies from knowledge management literature. A framework is proposed in order to approach the aspects of knowledge sharing with the drivers, tools and constraints. Thereafter, through a case study this paper explores current knowledge sharing strategies of design practice which 1) attempt to decrease communication breakdowns and 2) ease access to people involved in large-scale building projects. The exploration of the strategies will be done through answering the following questions. Is there an intentionally (and literally) implemented “knowledge sharing strategy”? •

If yes; which aspects of knowledge and knowledge sharing are considered?

•

If not; Is there any attempt that is not defined as “knowledge strategy” but covers the aspects of a knowledge sharing strategy that is drawn by literature?

1

These boundaries are drawn by functional specialism, discipline types or contractual relationships which give legal, physical, and social character to the boundaries. In a project environment, the interactions by team members across disciplinary (expertise) or organizational boundaries (between client, consultant and contractor) constitute “boundary crossing” moments. These boundaries are crossed by individuals and realized by different mechanisms such as exchanging “boundary objects” such as drawings, personal conversations Fong, P. (2003), reports, documents that particular project actors provide and e-mails. Information is embedded in boundary objects. In this research, boundaries which individuals create are excluded. These types of boundaries are created due to the various personalities in the project environment. The interest lies in the characteristics which derive from disciplines and organizational structures that individuals carry.

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In either situation; the sub-questions will be asked: •

Who initiated the strategy, and in which phase of the project?

•

What is the motivation behind the attempted strategy?

•

What are the outcomes of the implemented strategy based on what was initially aimed for?

Thereafter, the main finding, “co-location” which purposed to bring people from various disciplines together in a same physical place during the design and construction course is discussed. We propose creation of the environment2 with this purpose as an initiative of knowledge sharing strategy. Furthermore we discuss the premises and actual operations of co-location through analyzing data (interviews, field observations and documents). As a final point, the paper outlines a further research direction.

2. Background 2.1 Knowledge Before treating knowledge sharing strategies, we must first arrive at a definition of knowledge and knowledge sharing itself. The following section will give different definitions of knowledge in the knowledge management literature, and concludes with an attempt to construct a consensus definition of knowledge. Then knowledge sharing and strategies to facilitate knowledge sharing will be clarified. This section concludes with a framework which enables us to understand knowledge sharing strategies in design practice. Davenport and Prusak (1998, p.5) describe knowledge as "a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information.”. According to Perrott, knowledge is “actionable information” (Perrott 2007). For Olsson et al. knowledge exists in people’s head but it is the result of social interactions in a group of people who shares a common interest (Olsson et al. 2008). Davenport, De Long et al. claim that knowledge is information connected with experience, context, interpretation and reflection. It is a high value form of information ready to apply to decisions and actions (Davenport, De Long et al. 1998). “While information is basic to knowledge, the latter is more

2

We call a knowledge sharing environment which accommodates open and transparent sharing culture among individuals in design crews and/or organizations. We propose an environment in which people –with their knowledge are present (physically and/or virtually), an object (boundary) to be exchanged, and translated to the other disciplines design task (i.e. decisions taken, sketches are made), and communication channels are used (i.e. dialogues, telephones, e-mails, sketching etc.) as environment in which potentially knowledge is shared. But measuring the amount of shared knowledge (in implicit form) is almost impossible in these environments. Our focus is to increase the probability of shared knowledge and avoid high potential misinterpretations in a design environment.

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connected to values, belief, and action – and it is not obvious whether individual and organizational knowledge are similar or different (Bouthillier 2002).” According to Bresnen (2003), knowledge is often tacit, intangible and context-dependent and it is articulated in the changing responsibilities, roles, attitudes and values in the work environment. Two concerns are clearly evident among the above definitions. The first one is an emphasis on the basic two types of knowledge: implicit (or tacit) and explicit. The second concern is the distinction between information and knowledge. What differentiates information from knowledge is that knowledge is acquired via the interpretation of information. We are constantly searching for information in order to fulfill our responsibilities, tasks, necessities and interests. The purpose of receiving and seeking information is to build or enhance our personal knowledge repository, which becomes an emergent instrument about our ability to do things. We propose knowledge as an uncountable repository framed by beliefs, values, actions (Bouthillier 2002), individual experiences and expert insights. It is highly personal, difficult to share and includes both interpretation and validation of previously obtained information from individuals, project teams or organizations. This feature makes knowledge a highly valued form of information (Davenport, De Long et al. 1998). In a project environment, knowledge enables individuals to solve problems, take decisions, and apply them to actions. As a consequence of taken decisions and actions, knowledge and its amount are reframed and primed for adding new knowledge during the project course. This is a process of accumulating knowledge which starts generating it from individuals and preserved in organizations through accomplishing projects3. We call this process as the space of knowledge. The space of knowledge scheme (left) shows that these types of knowledge are interconnected in a project environment. They enhance and develop each other in a knowledge sharing process. In this process, creation, transfer and generation of knowledge are realized through knowledge sharing strategies. These strategies (to be described in the following section) are intended to facilitate the elicitation of the tacit and explicit knowledge of individuals, to make possible the sharing of this knowledge among the actors (organizations or groups), and to enhance the re-use of knowledge in future projects.

3

In-depth knowledge discussions can be found in the proceeding, A Review Of The Consensus Between The Theory And The Practice Of Knowledge Management In Collaborative Design - Esra Bektaş, John L. Heintz, J.W.F. (Hans) Wamelink

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In project environment, sharing tacit knowledge becomes highly important as 80% of useful knowledge is tacit and cannot be written down (Anumba et al. 2007). The following section expresses of different perception of knowledge sharing and its facilitating strategies.

2.2 Knowledge sharing strategies After agreeing upon both the definition and an understanding of the different aspects of knowledge, it is important to define what knowledge sharing is, how it is facilitated and how knowledge strategies will be discovered in design practice. Tsui defines knowledge sharing as a process including exchanging knowledge (skills, experience, and understanding) among stakeholders (Tsui 2006). According to Fong, it is a multitude of processes taking place directly without language (socialization) and with language (externalization) (Fong 2005). Knowledge sharing relies on reaching a shared understanding of underlying knowledge, not just the content but also the context of the knowledge (Fong 2003). The essence of sharing knowledge lies in unveiling and synthesizing paradigmatic differences through social interaction (Fong in Anumba, Kamara et al. 2002). And this interaction (so called ‘socialization’) is a valuable mode of sharing knowledge in teams without language through imitation, observation and sharing experiences face to face (Fong 2005). Hence, communication becomes the key to knowledge sharing (Fong in Anumba, Kamara et al. 2002). Two characteristics become evident in these definitions; 1- Knowledge sharing as a social process –with language and without language Knowledge sharing is treated as a social process which focuses on sharing understandings, values, experiences and insights which refer to implicit types of knowledge. Facilitating knowledge sharing is achieved through increasing social interactions, communications, observations and imitations. In While social interaction and communication are more language-dependent (i.e. requiring a response to share), imitation and observation are more passive ways of sharing. In other words, individuals subconsciously observe methods of other individuals (i.e. how works are deduced, analyzed, synthesized, and then proceeded), and may then imitate these by applying them to their own work routines. However, imitation which turns into knowledge sharing requires awareness that is informed by an understanding 1) of the social environment’s dynamics, 2) the source of knowledge (or interrelation with other knowledge resources) and 3) the use of knowledge in the “right” context. In order to facilitate knowledge sharing without language, analyzing types of behaviors in a social work environment becomes inevitable. This inevitability comes through acknowledging different methods of implementing knowledge types (of various disciplines), and the possibility to apply these into a work process (of a discipline/individual/team who are observed). 2- Knowledge sharing –using technology as a medium tool to support the sharing process Knowledge sharing is treated as a process which introduces a technology use as a medium. This type of approaches aims user (i.e. designers, client, specialist consultants) to prepare their meta-data which enables user to act regarding the issue needs to be solved. Building information models (BIM), or interface management tools, special software which are design to fulfill this aim are counted as examples. However exchanging information in knowledge sharing represents only the partial view of

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shared knowledge (Fong in Anumba, Kamara et al. 2002). As given our definition of knowledge as opposed to information, only tools without any drivers towards improving the social process of knowledge sharing may become insufficient. The field of knowledge management has fallen victim to a mixture of poor implementation practices and software vendors eager to turn a complex process into a pure technology play (Miltiadis 2005, Hemati et al. 2009). Thus managing knowledge is far more than implementing intranet, document management systems or ICT communication systems in the organization. Organizations that do not appreciate this issue when using such new ‘KM tools’ often are confronted with disappointing results (Hemati et al. 2009)

Rational Factual Objective

Expertise Practice Beliefs Values

Explicit

Implicit

Knowledge Knowledge sharing Technological Aspects

Social Aspects

. Repositories . BIM’s . ICT

. Social Interaction . Business Culture . Communication . Organization Culture . Observation & Imitation . Discipline Culture

Tools

Drivers

Cultural Aspects

Drivers (And/or constraints)

Knowledge Sharing Strategies Short term / Long term

Figure 1: the framework of knowledge sharing expresses that a knowledge sharing strategy should encompass various aspects together. It should include drivers and tools which also respond to constraints in a project environment regarding knowledge sharing. With this type of emerging strategy knowledge sharing in which 1- disciplinary knowledge is generated by individuals 2- transferred among each other and 3-built multidisciplinary knowledge can be enabled as mentioned in the space of knowledge scheme.

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In any type of strategy, the key concerns become changing current culture which may have obstacles for knowledge sharing and providing a climate in which people are open, trusting and transparent. As (Bock et al.2005) claim the movement of knowledge across individual and organizational boundaries, into and from repositories, and into organizational routines and practices is ultimately dependent on employees’ knowledge-sharing behaviors. When knowledge sharing is limited across an organization, the likelihood increases that knowledge gaps will arise, and these gaps are likely to produce lessthan-desirable work outcomes (Bock et al.2005) Hence, there is an emerging strategy that stimulates people to share their knowledge, attempt to change dysfunctional climate and provide an efficient environment regarding knowledge sharing in a project environment. These strategies are called knowledge sharing strategies. And they are planned approaches for enabling knowledge sharing by responding the different aspects such as technological, social and cultural. They require planning of knowledge sharing activities in order to improve access to information, ease communications with colleagues, and encourage participation in learning and decision-making communities (Tsui 2006). These strategies can be applied for a particular moment in a project (such as in a problematic situations, or as a project start up activity), or whole process of design activity.

3. The case study In the previous section, we draw definitions and different perception of knowledge, knowledge sharing and knowledge sharing strategies from the literature. The aspects of knowledge sharing are also drawn from the literature. The following section will explain the case study which was conducted to explore what are the actual knowledge sharing strategies in practice based on a framework proposed. Through this framework, we look at an example of a complex and large scale building project in a major city of an European Country. The project is the renovation and extension of one of the most-frequently used railway and metro stations in a major European city. The existing station was heavily congested and in need of modernisation. The project location included and also surrounded by historical buildings. This character brought a long chain of procedures along for obtaining building approval. The client is a public organization which is responsible for overall railway projects. This public organization tendered an engineering company in order to be responsible for all disciplines, engineering, and architecture (including the disciplines of survey, construction planning, traffic, health & safety, quantity surveying, planning and consents, environmental, value engineering and acoustics). Therefore the project environment accommodated 12 design crews4 in which 123 designers, draftsmen worked (i.e. individuals from architecture, public health, structural, electrical, mechanical, tunnels, commercial and administrative).

4

We have reserved the word ‘team’ to refer to the multi-disciplinary group of all designers from the several different firms involved in the project. The word ‘crew’ refers to a group of designers within one firm.

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As lead designer the engineering company was able to select an architectural firm with a significant degree of experience in such a complex underground projects. While design work continued, the public organization’s position (as initial client) changed as they appointed a privately owned consortium for development of railway projects under the PPP contract (Public-Private Partnership). This contractual change resulted in structural alterations of the client’s design team and design task. This change of client (from public to private) affected the chain of command, and broke the direct relationship between the public organization and the designers. The new team set-up of client (consisting of new people, their new organizational objectives and different methodologies to achieve these objectives) concluded new program of requirements. Since the project had many interfaces amongst various disciplines, design crews were co-located in order to avoid communication breakdowns, to stimulate sharing information through increased social interaction, and ease access to the people in the project. The first step was to create a physical environment in which architecture, HVAC, public health, programming and phasing, commercial and financial crew, client representatives and contractor’s representatives (when selected) would all be accommodated. We consider this initiative as creation of a knowledge sharing environment for a successful knowledge sharing strategy in design practice.

Co-location; creating a multi-disciplinary and physical environment for synchronizing design processes –“bringing people together” In this section, firstly co-location is discussed as intended strategy which aims to “bring people together” (The Overall Design Leader, 2008). The motivations of practitioners and their views about co-location are claimed in order to see the premises of co-location. The main issue whether it is an effective knowledge sharing strategy is discussed. Therefore three steps will be taken, 1) the intended strategy, co-location, is clarified by using the quotes of interviewees. 2) Through data analysis5 actual operations of co-location is discussed. In this discussion, the issues in the proposed framework are explored, 3) A conclusion is drawn for a formulating effective knowledge sharing strategies. The idea behind co-location was to bring together several design processes in one environment in order to synchronize these processes. Co-location was a proposed a solution by the consensus of the design leader and the client. The premises of co-location below provide better understanding before discussing actual perception and the operation of co-location. These premises are explored through these statements of the interviewees and the documents collected in the field (i.e. reports, feedbacks of people which were stored, logs, minutes of meetings etc.) Premises of co-location

5

Data comprised a) the statements of interviewees (comprising the program manager, the lead architect, and the overall design director), b) field notes of the observation of the project team–conducted by the first author, c) project documents (i.e. reports, drawings etc.)

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•

To provide a shared location for the daily project work for all actor for the duration of the project.

•

To create a culture of easy daily exchange between the different actors.

•

To provide easy access to project actors.

•

To increase social and physical interaction between designers and managers.

•

To synchronize different practices, languages of varied disciplines through more social interactions that are contained in a daily project routine

•

To achieve a common language while observing/working/experiencing everyday practices of “others”.

•

To increase the likelihood of more informal actions may turn to any ad-hoc meetings, discussions, dialogues etc.

•

To provide openness between project actors literally and psychologically (through an open office layout).

•

To build trust among project actors and design members based on an openly interacted working environment.

•

To enable the possibility of achieving a common understanding.

•

To diminish communication breakdowns by way of designers working in a common environment.

•

To diminish disciplinary, organizational, and contractual boundaries.

Initially co-location was decided as bringing people together” (Overall Design Leader, 2008) in order to manage the main two interrelated difficulties in a project environment. The first difficulty was managing design changes in a complex project since the project was claimed to be one of the largest project of the history of the engineering company. “.“…Managing change which was happening all the time made the project even more complicated… the architectural team [is] almost [at] the front line of change. …The difficulty is architects are not totally knowledgeable about civil engineer’s and building services requirements. So when you get a change coming true… we have to try and make sure that the other disciplines are consulted about these changes otherwise you end up with an impossible situation…” The Program Manager, 2008. One issue instantly emerges here; architects are blamed not to be knowledgeable enough about engineering services and not any other services. On one side, co-location was a strategy and an opportunity to break through all the prejudices in design environment. On the other hand, the strategy did not change enough the blame culture of the industry. The second difficulty was interchanging design information by sustaining fixated design version in

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order to overlap various disciplinary solutions. The traditional teams have their design task, start to work parallel but in their own domain islands and frequently or occasionally get inputs from other disciplines. The risk is while this parallel process, working on the same design version becomes difficult. “… The advantage of the co-location is that they are just down there in the office. You can just walk and talk. I talked to all the disciplines if I picked up a particular problem I could mention it to the appropriate discipline and say were you aware of that? And trigger total process again… So managing the team involved finding out what was happening trying to get people talk together… but this is vital, if doesn’t happen, then you get disconnection…” Program Manager. Although this quote basically emphasizes information sharing, it does highlight the two important issues. The first issue is attitude change which is also interlinked with the previous concern. Although co-location meant providing a new office space in which all the crews had a chance to build a new culture and they carried their existing working habits; working in an island. The second issue is in the danger of the attitude; a self-gained “trigger role”. Since the program manager “walks and talks”, get information about different design processes and tries to inform the relevant designers (or even add the inputs) individually, this attitude may influence the perception of the designers in a way that they do not need to communicate strongly any more. There is an individual being who tries to patch the potential missing parts of the design. This brings a double-sided profile of this attitude; although this attitude was performed by good intention, it can be an obstacle that diminishes the social interaction between disciplines.

-

Architecture HVAC Structural Engineering Commercial Management (finance) - Document management - Public Health - IT support etc.

Figure 2: the figure illustrates the plan of co-location and the boundaries preserved by domains. The image above illustrates the plan of the co-location drawn by the first author in the field study. It contains the domains and their division in the working space. Architects modified their layouts to be as single large open space, they use partitions to surround their territory and provide a semi-private place. Electrical engineering crew worked in cubicles. The document management crew (officially responsible for providing that everyone work on the same version) was located at the end of the office and had almost no access comparing to other domains. Commercial crew had their own fully isolated room with the motivations that finance of a project is a sensitive issue and there should be limited access to the area they worked in. These different settings in co-location show that each discipline representing their own domain has an impact on their working space no matter what co-location attempted to provide. On one hand, the requirement of a sub-environment which provides work comfort to the designers in a large office space is clear to understand. On the other hand, modified settings in co-location contradicted the initial aim; let people work together, ease the access to knowledge as well as information, make them openly share and synchronize their design processes. As the lead architect claims; “…[at] the end of the day, it depends on people...It is all about co-

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location, yes it is a fabulous idea to bring all the people [together] …but it is about personal relationships and about being able to bring all the problems to the table. I think we have a pretty good relationship with at the moment, well, we, our office, and the leading engineering company…” While the quote of the lead architect emphasizes the actual situation of co-location, depending on people and their relationship, it also highlights the need for social and cultural support to make co-location successful. More details can be found in the following statement. “…It seems like a very much a blame culture over there (referring the privately owned consortium, the appointed as new client)…They [the private consortium as a client] don't get the people to collaborate actually between the jobs. In many case you work with unqualified people…That is effectively is a fundamental problem and there are few really good people. And they made a serious effort starting about a year and half ago to increase the weight of their team. They have just realized it… It just did not happen that people have a right caliber. In caliber is partly experience, partly we call intelligence, taking information, weight it and make decisions and move forward and it also the attitude they brought in. I think they brought a little bit problems…Before there was a quiet good line of communication in the relationship with the people in the Public Company (which was the initial client body) comparing to now…” Lead Architect. The quote of the leading architect highlights several issues which directly influence the flow of communication, interaction and presences of organizational boundaries as well as the importance of contractual boundaries. The points were made on 1- weight of the team 2- collaboration difficulties between people and the jobs, 3- technical incompetence of people involved 4communication problems across organizations. These points are all interrelated but also heavily personal. After minding that, the “caliber” and being qualified refer to intelligence and also the ability to both take and process information in order to make decisions apply in to design and proceed in the design process. Referring the concepts we defined, these ability calls knowledge itself. However, what is implicit here is that the designers had to train the client to change dysfunctional nature of the project. Furthermore, “blame cultures” can exist among the actors and are often reciprocal. This culture can be read through the efforts of generalizing incompetence of other people. Below the actual operations of co-location as potential knowledge sharing environment is discussed. Actual operations of co-location •

Contractual relations determined strong legal boundaries; these relations determined the design team member’s actions. The legal restrictions and definitions of roles encourage actors to guard their knowledge closely since “knowledge is my power”. Therefore co-location may not match to traditional contract types since no-one is responsible for other organizations contracted differently by client.

•

The disciplinary boundaries were preserved due to little interactions that actually occurred. Except formal interactions such as ad-hoc or regular meetings, and workshops, informal interactions did not work. The spatial differences were created in the layout of co-location. These differences were the consequences of different practices which end up modifying the working environment

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•

Continuity of people did not succeed6. In this project, appointing new client through PPP caused a new team to be built as a client’s representatives. The orders of chains had changed, people had changed. If this change is not managed carefully, the history of design (i.e. decisions, discussions, conflicts, consensuses etc.)

•

Behaviors –comprising by disciplinary and organizational culture remains the same. Providing a physical place initially a great step to bring knowledge with their owners (as “knowledge resides people’s head”). However expecting an overnight change regarding sharing behavior does not seem realistic. Along with a new strategy, the awareness of people (designers, any individual who takes part in the strategy) needs to be provided. This awareness should lead people whether the actions they take contradicts to the intended strategy. This leads the point that is the layout of collocation which had been modified during the use of co-location by designers.

After clarifying what was intended and implemented, we tried to provide the actual operations of colocation as a knowledge sharing strategy. Referring the questions stated in the introduction, colocation is an intentionally implemented strategy that covers social aspects 7 by aiming 1) to stimulate social interaction, 2) to diminish communication breakdowns, 3) to enable both observation and imitation of knowledge creation and implementation by other disciplines. In order to achieve these aims, co-location accommodated brainstorming, dialogues, workshops and regular meetings as well as aiming a daily collaborative working routine. The strategy was initiated by the proposal of the overall design leader (representing the engineering company with full design service) and implemented by the consensus between the engineering company ad the client. In the actual operations of co-location, we tried to depict the “as-is” processes of a knowledge sharing strategy and see the missing aspects. These missing aspects are such drivers that stimulate several cultural changes. The designers perceived co-location as continuity of their previous work processes in a new environment with no change. Before implementing the co-location, purposes, opportunities with constraints and potential obstacles of co-location needed to be clarified. And drivers to tackle with the potential obstacles8 and constraints (see the figure needed to be considered. Project actors (at managerial and technical levels) need to understand why they share, what they share and when they share. The actors need to interact socially, communicate strongly (both with and without language), and observe their practice carefully towards their goals by promoting empathy, both within their own organizations (in order to fulfil their organizational or crew objectives), as well as with “others” outside their company. This entails learning and applying a process of knowledge sharing in which individuals generate, transfer

6

The reasons differ from one case to another; they can be due to project’s nature or individual’s nature. In individual level, it is due to 1) better opportunities, 2) dissatisfaction of the jobs, cultures of organizations. In project level, it can be due to changing forms of agreements. 7 Although there are other findings that refer technological aspects (i.e. document management systems, 4D simulations, submission management softwares –developed by the individuals work in the project, knowledge management systems –diverse organizational intranets etc.), in this paper in-depth analysis of the technology aspect is not included. The technology discussion will be in our following paper. 8 Further discussions of the obstacles for efficient knowledge sharing, can be found in the proceeding, A Review Of The Consensus Between The Theory And The Practice Of Knowledge Management In Collaborative Design Esra Bektaş, John L. Heintz, J.W.F. (Hans) Wamelink

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and integrate their knowledge into an overall design. This process should be formulated with proportions of use in technology, sociology and culture. As proposed in the framework, there are three aspects referring to knowledge sharing and each aspect has a role in being a driver, tool or challenge. These three aspects are interrelated. Therefore, a knowledge sharing strategy should provide 1) building trust amongst the actors, 2) understanding the project’s needs, 3) attempting to find a way to work together while acknowledging various personal and organizational approaches with tools that ease and/or support design and work routine.

4. Conclusion This paper attempted to 1) understand knowledge sharing strategies in literature and 2) to explore these strategies in design practice. In order to understand what constitutes a knowledge sharing strategy, a framework was derived from the literature. This framework contained the types and characteristics of knowledge (i.e. explicit and implicit), the aspects of knowledge sharing (technical, social and cultural) and an ideal way for a strategy which encompasses all these aspects of knowledge sharing. As proposed in the framework, there are three aspects referring to knowledge sharing and each aspect has a role in being a driver, tool or challenge. These three aspects are interrelated. Therefore, a knowledge sharing strategy should enable 1) building trust amongst the actors, 2) understanding the project’s needs, 3) attempting to find a way to work together while acknowledging various personal and organizational approaches with tools that ease and/or support design and work routine then provide knowledge sharing. In our current project, this type of formulation of an efficient and effective knowledge sharing across disciplines in large scale building projects are being explored.

References Anumba, C., J. Kamara, et al. (2002). "Knowledge management in the architecture, engineering and construction industry." Construction Innovation 2(1): 53-67. Bock, G., R. Zmud, et al. (2005). "Behavioral intention formation in knowledge sharing: examining the roles of extrinsic motivators, social-psychological forces, and organizational climate." Mis Quarterly 29(1): 87-111. Bouthillier, S. (2002). "Understanding knowledge management and information management: the need for an empirical perspective." Information Research 8(1). Chimay J. Anumba, C. E. a. P. C. (2007). Knowledge Management in Construction, Blackwell Publishing. Davenport, T., D. De Long, et al. (1998). "Successful knowledge management projects." Sloan Management Review 39(2): 43-57. Esra Bektaş, John L. Heintz, J.W.F. (Hans) Wamelink (2008). A Review Of Knowledge Management In Collaborative Design: The Necessity of Project Knowledge Integration in Large Scale Building Projects. Innovation in AEC 2008. Antalya, Turkey.

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Fong, P. (2003). "Knowledge creation in multidisciplinary project teams: an empirical study of the processes and their dynamic interrelationships." International Journal of Project Management 21(7): 479-486. Mike Bresnen, L. E., Sue Newell, Harry Scargrough, Jack Swan (2003). "Social practices and the management of knowledge in project environments." International Journal of Project Management. Perrott, B. E. (2007). "A strategic risk approach to knowledge management." Business Horizons 50(6): 523-533 Renate Fruchter, P. D. (2002). Knowledge Management for Reuse. International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction, CIB w78 conference 2002 Tsui, L. (2006). A Handbook on Knowledge Sharing Strategies and Recommendations for Researchers, Policymakers, And Service Providers, CUP. Yesilbas, L. a. (2005). "Towards a framework to manage formalized exchanges during collaborative design." Zmud, R. W. and J. N. Lee (2005). "Behavioral Intention Formation IN Knowledge Sharing: Examining THE Roles OF Extrinsic Motivators, Social-Psychological Forces, AND Organizational Climate." MIS Quarterly 29(1): 87-111.

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Key Issues for Implementing Knowledge Management in Relational Contracting Project Settings Bakri, A.S. School of Built Environment, University of Salford, UK (email: [email protected]) Ingirige, B. School of Built Environment, University of Salford, UK (email: [email protected]) Amaratunga. D. School of Built Environment, University of Salford, UK (email: [email protected])

Abstract The necessity of relational approaches or inter-organisational relationships in construction industry might due to the nature of construction itself which often highly specialised, complex projects, involving various participants, and also with extended durations for commencement and completion. Since the construction project teams works as a disparate collection of separate organisations rather than as a unified team, the project teams suffers from lack of integration. Besides this, there is still an unwillingness to share knowledge between the construction participants, thus, there is poor knowledge flow. Relational Contracting (RC) is one way to solve the problems of fragmentation. It is believed that RC when integrated with Knowledge Management (KM) can successfully address the major problems of the industry. RC and KM are two significant management paradigms where communication is a common issue. The concepts of trust, knowledge sharing, cooperation and commitment are significant in both literatures. The issue of culture is also important to be considered. Implementing effective KM in RC project settings involves various challenges that need to be considered. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to highlight the key issues in order to give better understanding before any construction participants could embark into a RC project setting and at the same time considering to implementing KM in order to improve project performance within the construction industry. Keywords: Knowledge Management, Relational Contracting, Challenges, Construction Industry

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1. Background to the study The construction industry involves a wide range of different activities and participants from the design to the construction stages of a project. The industry is often typified as fragmented where the traditional construction process involves players that are disconnected from each other and work in isolation resulting inefficiencies (Latham, 1994). It has long been suffering from little cooperation, limited trust and ineffective communication, thus resulting in an adversarial relationship between different parties (Chan et al., 2004b). Generally, construction project teams are composed of different hierarchically and interlinked parties, such as clients/owners, architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, main contractors, subcontractors, specialist contractors and suppliers. As a result, this situation creates complicated relationships within project teams and they can adversely affect a project’s performance if they are not managed effectively (Walker et al, 2000a). Over the last decade, Relational Contracting (RC) has thus been introduced to be an innovative and non-confrontational relationship-based approach to the procurement of construction in many countries, such as the UK, the USA, Australia and Hong Kong (Rahman and Kumaraswamy, 2005; Palaneeswaran et al., 2003). RC is an approach to manage such complex relationships between the players in construction teams (Chan et al., 2010). Construction project teams have to work together to realise a successful construction project. Working together involves sharing of ideas, information and knowledge which underpins the successful execution of complex construction projects. Each construction participant contributes its knowledge in a form of people, processes and technologies (Maqsood et al., 2003), at varying degrees of intensity to the construction process. Therefore, the management of knowledge within construction project settings is very important since information and knowledge are scattered over different processes, trades, and people in different construction projects and in different organisations (Fong and Chu, 2006). Therefore, Knowledge Management (KM) has a role in improving more collaborative behaviour among organisations and individuals involved in the construction processes (Fong, 2005). Although the importance of KM has been widely promoted and recognised, it seems that only few organisations are capable of leveraging and managing knowledge in their organisations (Robinson et al., 2005) and also in construction projects. KM is one of the importance ways for organisations to identify, transfer and internalise external knowledge. Kogut (1988) highlighted that one of the organisations main motivations for entering into collaborative arrangement was to transfer organisational knowledge. KM through knowledge sharing and knowledge transfer is important for the effective communication and collaboration. Within a complex environment of construction works, knowledge flow and sharing are the backbone of effective communication of project teams. There are different organisations working in a construction project and the documents shared between these organisations vary from technical drawings, contract documents, project reports, and schedule (Titus and Brochner, 2005). Besides the tendency to keep knowledge, the nature of the construction projects is also a disadvantage for knowledge sharing. Construction projects usually consist of temporarily designed teams from different organisation to produce a unique product. The project team members are generally new to each other and have not necessarily worked together before. Thus, it is difficult to set up channels to exchange information and knowledge within the construction project teams. In addition, lack of common goals make project participants focus only in their part of work and ignore the knowledge needs of the other project members (Titus and Brochner, 2005). Therefore, it is significant to enhance the use of RC concepts such as partnering, strategic alliancing, joint venture

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and public-private partnerships in the construction industry in order to improve integration/ collaboration and project performance. At the same time, KM can be used to facilitate better relationships within project teams by giving more focus on the aspect of trust, communication, cooperation, and teamwork. Besides all this, it is also important to understand some barriers of effective KM within RC project settings. This paper therefore aimed to highlight the literature review of several key issues of implementing KM in RC projects.

2. Relational Contracting (RC): a brief overview Theories that emphasise the benefits of close, long-term relationships among different organisations are receiving increasing emphasis throughout the academic literature. One of the theories that have received high attention is Relational Contracting (RC). Relational contracting (RC) (also known as relational contract theory) has been defined as “the relations among parties to the process of projecting exchange into the future” (Macneil, 1980, p4). Previously, Macaulay (1963) defined RC as the working relationship amongst the parties who do not always follow the legal mechanism offered by the written contracts, and the parties themselves govern the transactions within mutually acceptable social guidelines, Therefore, the relationship itself develops obligations among the construction parties (Chan et al., 2010). In RC theory, a need for enforcement of formal contract or agreement is of less importance than the need to maintain the relationship for future cooperation (Arrighetti et al., 1997). RC is an appropriate way forward to provide the necessary flexibility in smothering contractual relationships and overcoming transactional barriers to teambuilding (Rahman and Kumaraswamy, 2004). Colledge (2005, p31) defines RC as “a transaction or contracting mechanism that seeks to give explicit recognition to the commercial “relationship between the parties to the contract. In essence, the terms of the contract assume less important than the relationship itself, with mechanisms for delivery that focus on trust and partnership.” Key issues that have been arisen from literature include trust (e.g. Swan et al., 2002, McDermott et al., 2005), commitment, mutuality, openness, flexibility, long-term perspectives, teamwork and honesty (Cheng et al., 2004). It was also suggested by Kwawu and Hughes (2007) that the success of the relationship is basically dependent on mutual trust, commitment and cooperation in both performance and further planning.

2.1 RC in the construction industry RC has been proposed as substitutes to traditional or formal contracting in overcoming inadequate organisational systems, adversarial contractual relationships and mistrust in the construction industry (Latham, 1994; Egan, 1998). RC is an approach to manage complex relationships between the players in construction contracts or teams (Chan et al., 2010). Recognition of mutual benefits and win-win scenarios through more cooperative relationship between parties are the foundations of RC (Macneil, 1978; Rowlinson and Cheung, 2004b; Kumaraswamy et al., 2005). RC underpins different collaborative approaches such as partnering, alliancing, joint venture (JV), and public-private partnership (PPP) (Macneil, 1978; Alsagoff and McDermott, 1994; Rahman and Kumaraswamy, 2002a, 2004). Table 1 shows the various types/forms of RC approaches that are commonly used in the construction industry.

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Table 1: Summary of definitions, comparisons and similarities in various types/form of RC. Types of RC

Definitions

Gain-/ Pain share

Legal Bindin g

Formal contrac t

Project partnering (PP)

A long-term commitment between two or more organisations for the purpose of achieving specific business objectives by maximising the effectiveness of each participant’s resources. This requires changing traditional relationships to a shared culture without regard to organisational boundaries. The relationship is based on trust, dedication to common goals and an understanding of each other’s individual expectations and values (Construction Industry Institute, 1991).

No

No

No

Strategic partnering (SP)

The major difference between project partnering and strategic partnering is that the former is for a single project (Construction Industry Institute, 1991) but the latter involves at least two projects (Bennett and Jayes, 1998).

No

No

No

Project alliancing (PA)

A cooperative arrangement between two or more organisations that forms part of their overall strategy and contributions to achieving their major goals and objectives for a particular project (Kwok and Hampson, 1996). With alliancing, there is a ‘joint’ rather than ‘shared’ commitment. Parties agree on their contribution levels and required profit beforehand and then place these at risk. If one party in the alliance under-performs, then all other alliance partners are at risk of losing their rewards (profit and incentives) and could even share losses according to the agreed project pain-sharing/gainsharing model (Walker et al., 2000a, 2002).

Yes

Yes

Yes

Strategic alliancing (SA)

The major difference between project alliancing and strategic alliancing is that project alliancing has a defined end, which is most commonly the practical completion date of a project (Peters et al., 2001). However, a strategic alliance usually exists between two companies that extends beyond a specific project (Walker et al., 2000a).

Yes

Yes

Yes

Joint venture (JV)

Involve two or more legally distinct organisations (the parents), each of which shares in the decision-making activities of the jointly owned entity (Geringer, 1988).

Yes

Yes

Yes

Publicprivate partnershi p (PPP)

The collaborations where the public and private sectors Yes both bring their complimentary skills to a project, with different levels of involvement and responsibility, for the sake of providing public services (Hong Kong Efficiency Unit, 2003). Source: adapted from Chan et al., 2010

Yes

Yes

Kumaraswamy et al. (2005) points out that the core of RC is to establish the working relationships between the parties through a mutually developed, formal strategy of commitment and communication aimed at win-win situations for all parties. In earlier research, Manley and Hampson

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(2000) viewed RC as an umbrella concept which implying an approach to projects that emphasizes teamwork and cooperation. Palaneeswaran et al. (2003) viewed that win-win RC approaches such as partnering and alliancing provide vehicles for clients and contractors to drive towards excellence by achieving quality with greater value. Kumaraswamy et al. (2005) stressed that RC is a philosophy that has to be tailored for each situation to which it is applied. Therefore, it is important for companies considering RC to evaluate their business objectives, analyse the roles of RC in assisting them to achieve those objectives and determine the appropriate style of collaboration to implement (Chan et al., 2010). RC provides a more efficient and more effective contracting mechanism for certain types of transactions particularly where these demand close collaboration of parties to realise a complex construction project or long term development programmes (Colledge, 2005). At a project level in construction, RC can improve working relationships between all project stakeholders, can facilitate efficient and effective construction, can enhance financial returns and can minimise the incidence and make easier the conflict resolution (Colledge, 2005). RC can benefit clients, main contractors, consultants, sub-contractors and on-site employees (Palaneeswaran et al., 2003). Several benefits have been identified from previous literature and Chan et al. (2010) concluded that the main benefits that was most frequently cited was i) better cost control; ii) better working relationship; iii) sharing of risk; iv) better time control; v) efficient problem solving; and vi) enhanced communication.

3. Knowledge Management (KM): a brief overview Knowledge has become one of the critical driving forces for business success. It is one of the most important organisational resources, the one sure source of lasting competitive advantage (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Organisations are becoming more knowledge intensive and the needs for leveraging the value of knowledge are increasing. As a result, knowledge has been treated systematically just like other tangible resources and many organisations are exploring the field of knowledge management (KM) in order to improve and sustain their competitiveness. Internal knowledge, such as operational procedures, special skills, and technical know-how, makes the most valuable asset for organisations (Spender, 1996). Davenport and Prusak (1998, p.5) has defined knowledge as “a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. The knowledge is originates and applied in the minds of knower. In organisations, it often becomes imbedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organisational routines, processes, practices, and norms.” Earlier, Nonaka (1994) have defined knowledge as a justified belief that increases an entity’s capacity for effective action. It is also important to understand different perspectives on knowledge and different taxonomies of knowledge from various literatures such as i) individual, social, causal, conditional, relational, and pragmatic (Alavi and Leidner, 2001); ii) embodied, encoded and procedural (Venzin et al., 1998); iii) declarative and procedural knowledge (Singley and Anderson, 1989; Kogut and Zander, 1992); and iv) tacit and explicit knowledge (Polanyi, 1966; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). The most common taxonomy is the tacit and explicit knowledge introduced by Nonaka and Takeuchi where their theory of knowledge creation depends on the idea that tacit knowledge can be transferred. They argued that to transfer tacit knowledge successfully, the organsiations must plan by using tacit methods appropriate to tacit

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knowledge transfer (Esmi and Ennals, 2009). It is not sufficient to have knowledge assets, patents, or other intellectual property. The firm must be capable of translating the knowledge into value for customers. The increase of understandings on the value of knowledge has brought more interest on the management of it. Knowledge management (KM) has been defined in many different ways. Wiig (1997) suggests that KM deals with the management of knowledge-related activities which includes creating, organising, sharing and using knowledge in order to create value for an organisation. A more formal definition of KM, given by the American Productivity and Quality Center, is the strategies and processes of identifying, capturing and leveraging knowledge (Carrillo and Chinowsky, 2006). Within the KM literature, there are at least two classifications of knowledge processes. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) define one in which there are four processes: internalisation, externalisation, combination, and socialisation. Another classification of knowledge processes is focuses on the lifecycle of knowledge within an organisation (Alavi and Leidner, 2001; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Teece, 1998). It includes knowledge generation (creation and knowledge acquisition), knowledge codification (storing), knowledge transfer (sharing), and knowledge application. The present state of KM is primarily concerned with the capture, codifying, transfer and sharing both tacit and explicit knowledge (Nonaka, 1994) which both types of knowledge can be manage through the use of technology, and soft human-related factors such as leadership, vision, strategy, reward systems and culture (Maqsood, et al., 2003). Such knowledge generally resides in employees’ heads in a tacit form. Organisations have been provided with new tools for the capture, coding, transfer and sharing of knowledge such as the internet, intranets, and ICT (information communication technologies) (Maqsood et al., 2003). Unfortunately, these initiatives resulted in ineffective KM (Davenport and Prusak, 2000; Fernie et al., 2002). Storey and Barnett (2000) points out that the failure of KM initiatives was affected from the role of human factors such as top management support, organisational culture, motivation, and training.

3.1 KM in the construction industry KM is not entirely new to the construction industry. In some form, construction organisations have always managed their knowledge. They always relied on the expertise of key members of staff (Carrillo et al., 2004). The role of effective management of knowledge is evident in improving innovation, reducing project time, improving quality and customer satisfaction (Kamara et al., 2002; Love et al., 2003). In projects, KM can improve communications within teams, and provide more informed knowledge. The failure to capture and transfer project knowledge leads to the increase risk of reinventing the wheel, wasted activity, and impaired project performance (Siemieniuch and Sinclair, 1999). KM has always been a challenge to the construction industry, which is predominantly a project-based industry (Kamara et al., 2002). Information overload, lack of time to share knowledge, not using technology to share knowledge effectively and difficulty capturing tacit knowledge are few challenges in implementing KM (Carrillo et al., 2004). Other identified barriers include lack of management support, employee resistance to sharing knowledge, poor ICT infrastructure, lack of dedicated resources, poor organisational culture, poorly articulated strategy, and difficulty in evaluating benefits (Robinson et al., 2005; Dainty et al., 2005). There are two categories requiring

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KM in the construction industry: at inter-organisational level, which is within projects, across temporary, multidiscipline project organisations; and at intra-organisational level, i.e. within individual firms (Kamara et al., 2002). Kamara et al. (2002) points out that tacit knowledge is gaining attention and the management of it is very important, as engineers, architects and other professionals are not ready to use and follow best practice from the past, due to the unique and complex nature of construction projects. Tacit knowledge evolves from past practices and experience of individuals, and the company’s intangible assets come from shared practices of individuals. When tacit knowledge is made explicit, it becomes the basis of new knowledge such as concepts, images, and written documents. The challenge of KM is to make it explicit through the balanced use of technology, and soft human-related factors like leadership, vision, strategy, reward systems and culture (Maqsood et al., 2003). Previous researches results revealed the importance of tacit knowledge in relation to organisational performance and achievement of competitive advantage and has further highlighted the relevance of tacit knowledge in the construction industry (Pathirage et al., 2007). Several problems for tacit knowledge are loss of experience, loss of know-how, problem-solution loss and loss of innovation (Tsergn and Lin, 2004). Therefore, the above mentioned problems can be solved by the implementation of KM by construction organisations and can be extended to construction project settings.

3.2 KM in the context of RC KM and RC are two significant management concepts. Communication is at the heart of both concepts, and issues such as trust, knowledge sharing, loyalty and commitment are to be found in both literatures (Rowley, 2004). Similarly, repositories of data or information can be used as a platform for processes associated with both relationships and knowledge. Both RC and KM recognized the value to be created through appropriate synergies of technology, people and process. KM principles and techniques play an important part in the success of RC. In the construction industry, organisations come together with their specialities and knowledge to complete a construction project. They contribute their knowledge in a form of people, processes and technologies, to the construction process (Maqsood et al., 2003). However, the large number of organisations in construction and their complexity make it difficult to facilitate fluent knowledge flow and sharing (Titus and Brochner, 2005). Moreover, because the organisations in construction industry come from different disciplines, the shared information and knowledge may not have the same meaning for the construction project team (Love et al., 2005). Various literatures highlighted the importance of knowledge in different types of inter-organisational relationships (Khamseh and Jolly, 2008). It is one of the precious ways for organisations to identify, transfer and internalize external knowledge. Kogut (1988) highlighted that one of the organisations’ main motivations for entering into collaborative or relationship contract was to transfer organisational knowledge. The diverse settings brought under the umbrella of RC such as partnering, joint ventures, alliances (Ingirige and Sexton, 2006) and supply chain management, have create unique knowledge sharing and learning opportunities for the partner organisations (Inkpen, 1996). Through systematic KM, project team in RC projects settings are able to minimise wasteful activities and improve productivity and efficiency. KM, together with RC will ensure that knowledge as well as information is shared by various project participants. In RC, collaboration is very

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important and it requires high level of trust, commitment, and knowledge and information sharing based upon partners who share a common vision of the future (Maqsood et al., 2003). The next section discussed these key issues of implementing KM within the RC project settings.

4. Key issues for implementing KM within RC project settings 4.1 Knowledge sharing Lee (2001, p.324) has defined knowledge sharing as “activities of transferring or disseminating knowledge from one person, group, or organisation to another. Knowledge sharing is defined as the process by which individuals mutually exchange their knowledge or ideas and collaboratively generate new knowledge (Magnini, 2008). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) emphasized KM by creating new knowledge continuously within organisations, where KM and sharing is achieved through the interactions and conversion between tacit and explicit knowledge: socialisation, externalisation, combination, and internalisation, which also indirectly facilitates the knowledge sharing between organisation and its members (Choo, 2003; Meso and Smith, 2000). They argued that effective knowledge sharing depends on the mutual understanding and respect of team members. Hendriks (1999) contended that knowledge sharing is a process of communication. He argued that knowledge is not like other commodity that can passed around freely, it is tied to a knowing subject. Knowledge sharing presumes a relation between at least two parties, one that possesses knowledge and the other that acquires knowledge, and as a result, effective communication becomes essential in the process of knowledge sharing. Eriksson and Dickson (2000) and Senge (1997) point out that organisation should create a conducive environment for knowledge sharing. They argued that knowledge sharing is different from information sharing in that knowledge sharing requires more than just communicating the information to the other party; knowledge sharing includes helping the other party understand the contents of the information communicated and learn from the information so as to reconstruct the information into his/ her own knowledge and to develop new capabilities. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) contended that knowledge is created by individuals and knowledge sharing in organisations is accomplished through knowledge conversion where existing knowledge is converted into new knowledge. With knowledge sharing wherein individuals socialise and internalise knowledge, project participants obtain project knowledge such as knowledge about project progress, costs, and quality. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), organisational knowledge is created through the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and vice versa. They further explained that organisational knowledge comes from individual knowledge and project knowledge, and convert it as organisational technology, patents, production and management know-how, and further as organisational norms and culture, organisational procedures or work habits. Knowledge sharing in organisations involves i) knowledge sharing between individual and individual; ii) knowledge sharing between team and team; and iii) knowledge sharing between organisation and organisation (Ma et al., 2008). While knowledge is created by individuals, the context or internal environment of project teams such as in RC project settings will influence individuals’ willingness to share knowledge with other project participants. Wherever knowledge sharing takes place, it is

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necessary to understand the characteristic of the knowledge itself (tacit or explicit knowledge), in order to obtain effective knowledge sharing. Before any KM initiatives can take place in effective manner in any RC project, it is important to first identify the types of knowledge that can be shared between the project participants.

4.2 Trust Trust has been considered as one of the most complex issues within construction project teams, and is a critical factor for the success of RC implementation. Rowlinson and Cheung (2004b) viewed that trust between RC partners is vital because it creates an opportunity and willingness for further alignment, reduces the need for partners to continually monitor one another behaviour, reduces the need for formal controls, and reduces the tensions created by short-term inequities. In the context of KM, it is very important for each project participants in a RC project setting to build a high level of trust between them in order to success in both RC and KM implementation. Chan et al. (2010) identified several key elements of trust such as relationship, contact people with the information, truthfulness, reliability of information, perform what is said, exchange and sharing of ideas, having faith in the person, and sharing good and bad information. In construction industry, trust is negatively affected by many factors such as lack of honest communications and reliability, and the problems in the delivery of the project (Khalfan et al., 2007). It is more important to build trust between employees and employer in order to motivate and retain knowledge workers in the organisations. Goman (2002) points out that trust and confidence in construction leaderships makes a more cooperative knowledge sharing environment. For construction project to be completed on time, every member of a construction project must feel confident that they can trust the other team members and can make real contribution. In this way, team members’ knowledge, views and contribution will be shared among themselves. This point is very much relevance to the implementation of KM especially during the sharing of knowledge within different project participants in a RC project setting. Good KM initiatives create trust that helps to break down cultural barriers and alter the way individuals and group share their knowledge (Low and Mohammed (2005). Without trust, project participants may be less willing to share knowledge with others. Once knowledge is shared, it becomes public to every one, and this creates a situation where some team members may be afraid of losing their privileged status if they share their own expertise or special skills (Ma et al., 2008). As a result, it is necessary to have a high level of trust to make sure knowledge sharing is perceived fair and well recognised within the project participants in order to encourage more knowledge sharing.

4.3 Commitment Commitment is the physical and mental manifestation of the concept of trust. It is the proof of trust. It is the willingness to reciprocate energy invested through trust in the process of transformation of this energy into tangible results. Commitment means that another party will take this trust on board and “live up to” the spirit of the bargain by probably committing more personal pride and obligation to ”do the right thing” than would otherwise be the case. Meyer and Allen (1997, p.11) identify three types of commitment; i) affective (want to) commitment requires intrinsic motivational responses; ii)

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continuance commitment (a need to comply) relates to a transactional exchange in which extrinsic rewards are provided; and iii) normative (ought to) commitment results in obligation and duty in which grudging acceptance. In order to achieve successful implementation of KM within RC project settings, it is important to understand the impact of commitment. In the context of this study, commitment can be regarded as the willingness for the involved parties to integrate continuously to the unanticipated problems (Bresnen and Marshall, 2000a; Cheng et al., 2000). More committed parties are expected to balance the attainment of short-term objectives with long-term goals, and achieve both individual and joint missions without raising the fear of opportunistic behaviour (Mohr and Spekman, 1994). In implementing KM initiatives in RC projects, all parties should commit their best effort to support KM activities such as knowledge sharing within the project participants and the commitment should be established throughout all management levels (Stonehouse et al., 1996; Li et al., 2005).

4.4 Culture Organisational culture is another important factor that needs attention for KM implementation (Davenport et al., 1998; Hung et al., 2005; Wong, 2005; Hasanali, 2002). Wong (2005) had defined culture as the core beliefs, values, norms and social customs that govern the way individuals act and behave in an organisation. In the context of this study, the focus is on organisational culture. Organisational culture is defined as the shared value, beliefs and attitudes in an organisation (McDermott and O’Dell, 2001). It collectively guides how organisational members perceive, think about, and react to its environments (Smith and McKeen, 2003). In general, a culture supportive of KM is one that highly values knowledge and encourages its creation, sharing and application. The biggest challenge for most KM efforts actually lies in developing such a culture (Wong, 2005). A survey result reported by Chase (1997) affirmed that culture was the largest obstacle faced by organisations in creating a successful knowledge-based enterprise. In fact, it has been asserted that the success of KM is 90% dependent on building a supportive culture (Liebowitz, 1999). Important facets of a knowledge-oriented culture include such attributes as trust, collaboration and openness (Wong and Aspinwall, 2005). The influence of organisational culture on KM especially knowledge sharing is often manifested in the organisational values for knowledge sharing. Developing a knowledge sharing culture in an organisation is an effective means for promoting KM in RC projects. Such culture can encourage employees to voluntarily share knowledge within organisations. According to Davenport and Prusak (1998), knowledge sharing culture is usually embedded in organisational routines, processes, practices, and norms. The development of organisational culture supporting KM initiatives involves changing organisation culture (Smith and McKeen, 2004). It involves adjusting values and changing attitudes of individuals in an organisation. As a result, changing organisational culture is a long-term process which takes time and effort. Each project participant that enters into a RC project should prepare themselves to make a change on their organisational culture in order to successfully implementing KM.

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5. Conclusion In this paper, the key issues that need to be considered in order to implement KM within RC project settings are discussed based on previous literature review. Organisations need to value and manage both knowledge and relationships in order to improve integrations within construction players. It is important to understand the interaction between the complementary paradigms of KM and RC. Clearly, successful KM implementation or initiatives and the great potential of using RC to engage the construction industry clients and practitioners in overcoming the fragmentation and adversarial nature of contracting is not being fully realized in practice.

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Knowledge Management to Improve the Sustainability of Refurbishment Projects Leblanc, H. School of the Built and Natural Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University (email: [email protected]) Nitithamyong, P. School of the Built and Natural Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University (email: [email protected]) Thomson, C. School of the Built and Natural Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University (email: [email protected])

Abstract Despite growing sustainability awareness amongst design and construction professionals and a strong commitment by the government to promote sustainable development, the United Kingdom (UK) construction industry is still struggling to implement sustainability in work practices. This paper argues that the current UK government strategy is inadequately focused on demolition and new build projects. Such policy therefore fails to sufficiently address sustainable refurbishment with high energy efficiency. The paper presents a review of the current situation and suggests that the social housing sector has a very high potential to become a leader for sustainable innovation and development in the UK construction industry. However, the limited communication of sustainability information and knowledge between social housing professionals due to the social housing sector’s fragmentation and project-based nature is identified as a major barrier to the development of sustainable work practices. The need to manage such information and knowledge in a more efficient way is highlighted and an ongoing research effort to develop a knowledge management framework for social housing professionals is introduced. Keywords: communication, knowledge management, social housing, sustainability, sustainable refurbishment.

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1. Introduction It has been scientifically proven that the way we live is unsustainable and will lead to the destruction of the planet’s natural resources and, potentially, to the extinction of the Human race (Rees, 2009). The construction industry has been ‘among those industries leading the charge against the environment’ (Rees, 2009). Paradoxically, the industry is in a relatively good position compared to other industries because many sustainable solutions already exist (BSHF, 2002). Indeed the past decade has seen considerable innovation in sustainable construction materials and techniques and new approaches to the development of energy sources have emerged (Vanegas et al., 1995). In the UK, for instance, the government has made some progress towards a sustainable construction industry. Several documented best practice examples have demonstrated how sustainable development could be applied in work practices (Hall and Purchase, 2006). Technical advice has been made available to households and businesses via agencies such as Building Research Establishment and the Energy Saving Trust and Carbon Trust (Pickvance and Chautard, 2006). The government is also tightening building regulations with a lead objective to work towards zero carbon emission for new builds in 2016 (Communities and Local Government (CLG), 2006). Yet the majority of new build and refurbishment projects have still been developed in an unsustainable manner (Hall and Purchase, 2006). Construction industry professionals generally understand and accept that sustainability must be core to every project to ensure a better future for the industry and the planet. However, the industry remains inconsistent in applying sustainability principles to practice (Carter and Fortune, 2008). In order to encourage greater sustainable development, it is imperative to better understand the current difficulties facing industry professionals. A more developed understanding in this respect can be used to develop effective strategies which could eventually be practically applied to promote sustainability in work practices. In this paper an overview of the UK construction industry indicates that current sustainable development strategies in construction are not relevant to the situation. The paper recognises the social housing sector as a potential leader for sustainable development. Additionally, the limited communication of sustainable knowledge and information between stakeholders is identified as a major barrier to sustainable development in practice. Based on the sustainable development context of the construction industry, (and with a guiding objective to overcome these communication limitations), this paper introduces an ongoing research to develop a knowledge management framework aiming to improve the sustainability of social housing refurbishment projects.

2. Sustainable development in the UK construction industry 2.1 The current situation In terms of energy only, the construction industry accounts for an estimated 40% of total UK energy consumption (EC, 2005) and around 50% of all UK carbon emissions can be attributed to energy used

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in buildings (DTI, 2007). Therefore the UK construction industry has a crucial role in delivering a sustainable energy society. From a wider perspective, the construction industry has a central role to play in UK sustainable development since it has many environmental, economic and social impacts (Sev, 2009). Until now the UK government strategy, based on encouragement rather than compelling regulations, has failed to implement sustainability in the construction industry (Pickvance and Chautard, 2006). Moreover it can be argued that the government’s target of zero carbon new houses for 2016 is inappropriate because it represents only a microcosm of the total building stock. In fact incentives and recommendations given to construction professionals concern all the industry, but mandatory directives concern only the new build end of the sector. However, new buildings add, at most, 1% a year to the existing stock. The other 99% of existing buildings produce 27% of all UK carbon emissions (OCC, 2007). To achieve the government’s target of carbon emission reduction over the next decade, the refurbishment of existing building stock must be a priority. Rees (2009) stated that in slow growing developed countries such as North America or Europe, new construction must be limited and efforts must be concentrated on refurbishments programmes targeting existing stock. In fact many European countries such as Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark or Sweden already understand the need to focus on existing building stock and have developed strategies for sustainable refurbishment (Mickaityte et al., 2008).

2.2 Refurbishment with high energy efficiency It is generally accepted that over the short term future (for example over the next 10 years) refurbished buildings will produce less carbon emissions than new builds mainly because of the major environmental impacts of new materials used for new constructions (Power, 2008). However the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP, 2007) argues that, over a longer time frame of approximately 50 years or more, new build with low energy use may eventually outperform refurbished properties. This corroborates the observation that only refurbishments with high energy efficiency levels can save more energy than new builds over the short and long term (Power, 2008). As an example, private householders refurbished a Victorian Villa in Nottingham (UK) and demonstrated that relatively large energy consumption reductions were achievable where readily available efficiency measures were adopted (BBC, 2004). The German Programme ‘Zukunft Haus’ is also an example of high sustainability standards governing a refurbishment project at a larger scale. The programme involved upgrading and installing energy efficiency measures in around 330 houses across Eastern and Western Germany (DENA, 2005). As a result of these measures energy consumption was reduced by over 80% and the renovated homes became twice as energy efficient as the current German new build standard (Power, 2008). The energy saving efficiency demonstrated by this German refurbishment programme serves as a valid benchmark to follow since new build standards are higher in Germany than in the UK (Power, 2008).

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2.3 Sustainable refurbishment Energy efficiency is a key element of sustainable refurbishment. However, to be qualified as a sustainable refurbishment project the wider meanings of environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability must be acknowledged (El-Haram et al., 2007). According to Mickaityte et al. (2008:57) a sustainable refurbishment must meet the following dimensions: social (collaboration, public awareness and education, social safety), ecological (ecological construction materials, energy, waste, noise, land use, health, air quality), economic (cost-efficient price, fair price and good service, energy saving reliability), cultural (cultural heritage, behavioural norms), architectural (comfort, aesthetics, decoration, environment, buildings purposes matching exterior), and technical (innovative technologies, energy saving technologies). These dimensions are interrelated and Mickaityte et al. (2008:59) argue that sustainable refurbishment should be implemented based on the following principles: citizen’s healthcare (the building must be safe to occupants), effective energy use (reducing the energy consumption of buildings), rational resources use (efficient construction materials and natural resources as well as extension of the building life cycle in order to reduce waste), environment conservation (negative impact of the building on the environment must be minimized) and affordability (refurbishment must be affordable and not too expansive). Similarly Sitar et al. (2006) argue that a sustainable refurbishment should improve the user living conditions, provide user-friendly apartments, increase the flexibility of building according to the current and future needs of inhabitants, decrease the energy use and related building operational expenses, increase the use of environment-friendly materials and renewable energy sources, and be economically favourable to users. It can be concluded that sustainable refurbishment does not only imply reduced environmental impacts from buildings (Priemus, 2005) but that economic (life cycle approach) and social (well being and healthy building) aspects are also core to its delivery.

3. Social housing leading the change In the UK, social housings are managed by local authorities (LAs) and Registered Social Landlords (RSLs). In the majority of cases, RSLs are housing associations, but some are also trusts, cooperatives and companies (CLG, 2009). RSLs and LAs are major housing providers. In Scotland, social housing organisations manage 594,000 dwellings which represent 24.1% of the Scottish housing stock (The Scottish Government, 2010). The essential characteristics of social housing is that it is provided by non-profit organisations (Harriott and Matthews, 2004:3) and that for over 20 years this sector has continued to be recognised as the sector that is most able to deliver improvements to the UK construction industry (Egan, 1998; Goodchild and Chamberlain, 1999). Presently, one of the main challenges facing the social housing sector and the construction industry is the development of sustainable practices to reduce the environmental impact of buildings and improve the social and economic aspects of projects. The UK government accounts for approximately 40% of all UK construction procurement and in 2008 it clearly stated its commitment to develop sustainable practices by presenting its objective to be amongst the European Union’s leaders in sustainable procurement for

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the public sector (Hall and Purchase, 2006; SFC, 2008). Social housing represents a significant part of the public procurement. In Scotland, during the last few years, relatively important investment has been allocated to the social housing sector in order to improve the stock quality (Carter and Fortune, 2007). Therefore, it can be concluded that the generally recognised capacity for innovation and its central position in the public procurement of a government committed to develop sustainable practices place the social housing sector at the forefront of sustainable development in the UK construction industry (Hall and Purchase, 2006). The term ‘sustainable housing’ is mostly associated with environmental protection despite its social and economic dimensions (Priemus, 2005). However, the term ‘sustainable housing’ can also be used to refer to housing that is affordable to a cohesive community (Pickvance, 2009). In fact the Office of Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) (2005) ‘Sustainable Communities: home for all’ plan contained no additional requirements for environmental sustainability. This lack of uniformity around the definition of ‘sustainable housing’ stresses the importance of sustainability policies governing social housing providers. Currently, social housing providers have access to an abundance of advice and guidance on how to deliver sustainability in practice (Carter and Fortune, 2007). As an illustration, the Sustainable Housing Design Guide for Scotland (Stevenson and Williams, 2000) and Six Steps to Sustainable Development for Housing Associations (Beyond Green, 2004) provide a strong base of information for the design and management of sustainable social housings. However every project is different by nature, size or location and having access to a wealth of information about sustainability leaves social housing providers with the difficult task of having to choose some measures and rejecting others (Carter and Fortune, 2007). The result is a paradoxical situation. Theoretically, social housing providers possess or have access to all the necessary information in order to realise sustainable refurbishment but past studies have shown that they still have limited sustainability knowledge and struggle on how to apply such knowledge in refurbishment projects.

4. Fragmentation of the industry limiting the communication of information and knowledge 4.1 The need to manage sustainable information and knowledge The construction industry is one of the most information dependent industries (Tam, 1999). Effective communication between construction stakeholders is critical to the overall success of construction projects (Sommerville et al., 2004). Therefore it can be argued that the development of sustainable construction practices is dependent on the exchange of sustainable information and knowledge between stakeholders. It can also be argued that the slow development of sustainable refurbishment in the construction industry is due to problematic communication between stakeholders (Sommerville et al., 2004). These communication difficulties are mainly attributed to the fragmentation of the construction industry into various professional bodies with distinct culture, knowledge and sustainability interpretation (Bresnen et al., 2003).

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It is generally agreed that the construction industry should focus on the development of collaborative practices between professionals where information and knowledge can be freely exchanged (Egbu, 2000; Sommerville et al., 1999). Another aspect of the continuing fragmentation of industry slowing down the development of sustainable practices is the project based nature of the industry leading professionals to constantly reinvent the wheel and only reuse a limited part of the previously created knowledge (Egan, 1998; Kamara et al., 2002). It can be summarised that information and knowledge communication between construction stakeholders is limited and is a major barrier to the improvement of the industry’s general performance and sustainable development. In the social housing sector, similar communication problems occur and social housing providers struggle to implement sustainability in their projects (Hall and Purchase, 2006). In trying to improve the communication process associated with sustainability, Carter and Fortune (2008) developed a tool to help establish the meaning of the sustainability concept at a project level. This tool can help housing association stakeholders to prioritise and agree on the meaning of sustainability during the procurement stages of projects. However, the usefulness of this tool is limited in the sense that it helps housing association stakeholders to agree on sustainability issues but it does not help with the decision making process. Therefore, a need exists to help social housing providers improve the way they communicate knowledge and information related to sustainability issues.

4.2 Knowledge management for social housing professionals During the last two decades Information Management (IM) systems mainly based on Information Technologies (ITs) have been developed in order to capture and transfer knowledge from one project to another (Carrillo et al., 2000). However, it is now widely recognised that IT systems alone are not sufficient to successfully manage knowledge (Davenport, 1997). The growing need to improve management knowledge among construction stakeholders and the limitations of IM systems has led to a growth in Knowledge Management (KM) solutions. To differentiate IM and KM it can be said that knowledge management starts where IM stops and it is the inability of IM to handle knowledge that has created interest in KM (Stenmark, 2001). In this sense Terra and Angeloni (2002) argue that the main concerns of KM (and traditionally not of IM) should be the provision of context for and validation of available information and increasing the connections among people (who have knowledge) that would likely not occur without the help of a KM system. The role of knowledge management and learning as a source of potential advantage for construction organisations has been addressed by many researches (Kululanga et al., 1998; Carrillo et al., 2000). Moreover, many knowledge management solutions are now available to efficiently capture, store and transfer knowledge (Sommerville et al., 2004). Consequently there is no need to develop more KM solutions. The focus should instead be on the integration of KM systems into practice (Kamara et al., 2002). This paper has so far recognised the social housing sector innovation capacity and need for better knowledge management of sustainable refurbishment. This situation presents an opportunity to implement KM solutions at the core of stakeholders’ practices.

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5. A sustainability knowledge management framework for social housing refurbishment projects 5.1 Framework objectives This paper has so far highlighted three key facts about the UK construction industry: 1. There is a need to manage the past and newly created sustainable knowledge among construction stakeholders to improve sustainable practices, 2. Sustainable refurbishment with high energy efficiency standards represents a more sustainable option than demolition and new builds and should be developed, 3. The social housing sector offers the most favourable condition to the implementation of innovation and therefore to the development of sustainable practices. Based on these facts, research is being conducted to develop a knowledge management framework for the improved sharing of sustainability knowledge during the procurement phases of social housing refurbishments. Table 1 below presents the research objectives and deliverables. Table 1: Research objectives and deliverables.

1

2

Research objectives

Research deliverables

To identify the nature of refurbishment projects and procurement methods in the social housing sector.

Taxonomy of social housing refurbishment projects.

To examine the appropriateness and to get stakeholder’s requirements/opinions on a new system/framework to manage sustainability knowledge during the procurement of social housing refurbishment projects.

Social housing refurbishment stakeholders’ opinions and requirements for a sustainability related knowledge management framework. Stakeholders understanding of sustainable social housing refurbishment.

3

To identify the current sustainability issues and practices in social housing refurbishment projects.

List of critical success factor for social housing sustainable refurbishment projects. List of barriers and drivers for sustainable social housing refurbishment projects Sustainability knowledge present and missing in social housing refurbishment

4

5

To develop a knowledge management framework improving the sharing of knowledge related to sustainability during the procurement of social housing refurbishment. To validate the knowledge management framework and incorporate the stakeholders’ feedbacks.

Case studies knowledge maps. Conceptual knowledge management framework. Revised knowledge management framework according to social housing refurbishment stakeholders’ comments.

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The framework will help UK professionals involved in social housing refurbishment projects to clarify the meaning of a sustainable refurbishment in social, economic and environmental terms by identifying the main refurbishment project phases, key decisions and attached sustainability activities. It will be used for every type of social housing refurbishment project and will be adapted to social housing professionals’ needs and requirements in terms of contents and deliverables. The goal is to manage the explicit (codified and digitised in books, documents, reports, white papers, spreadsheets, memos and databases) and tacit (personal, context specific and therefore hard to formalize and communicate) knowledge associated with sustainability activities during the refurbishment project phases (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Awad and Ghaziri, 2003). The nature of the knowledge (tacit or explicit) and stakeholders’ preferences will determine the most effective communication channel to be used between professionals. Finally, the knowledge exchanged and used during a project will be stored and re-accessible further projects in order to break the construction industry’s well-known ‘reinvent the wheel’ symptom (Siemieniuch and Sinclair, 1999).

5.2 Research methodology This research aims to improve the sustainability of social housing refurbishment projects. It is therefore crucial to understand the context of knowledge exchange between stakeholders. This requires exploring social housing refurbishment project processes and stakeholders’ ideas, knowledge and communication practices. Considering the limited existing information available on social housing refurbishment projects and the complex nature of knowledge exchange between stakeholders a case study research strategy approach will be adopted (Yin, 1994). Collection of data on refurbishment projects and semi-structured interviews with social housing stakeholders will provide an understanding of the social housing refurbishment current practices and provide the basis of the case studies selection. Next, a critical literature review on knowledge management techniques and systems will identify appropriate approaches to improve the sharing of knowledge in the social housing refurbishment context. Case studies analysis will then be conducted to understand social housing refurbishment project processes, the flow of sustainable knowledge (knowledge maps) and stakeholders’ requirements and preferences toward a knowledge management system. The literature review and case studies findings will allow the design of a knowledge management framework to improve the sharing of sustainability knowledge. Finally, the conceptual knowledge management framework will be presented to social housing stakeholders through continuing professional development seminars and revised according to their comments.

6. Conclusion This paper has discussed the arguments in favour of the development of a sustainability knowledge management framework for social housing refurbishment projects. It has presented an ongoing research effort towards the development of such a framework. It is anticipated that the research will

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benefit social housing professionals involved in refurbishment projects by providing them with a tool to implement sustainability in practice.

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The Impact of Organisational Size on the Implementation of Knowledge Sharing Practices in Quantity Surveying Firms in Malaysia Nor, F.M. University of Salford (email: [email protected]) Egbu, C. University of Salford (email: [email protected])

Abstract Knowledge management (KM) is increasingly seen as a key factor for organisational success in the information era and in the knowledge economy. Knowledge sharing in organisations is an important aspect of knowledge management. There is an on-going debate as to the impact that organisational size have on the implementation of knowledge sharing initiatives in organisational contexts. Much of this debate takes place in different industrial settings, with very little in the construction industry sector. Similarly, there are little or no empirical studies conducted in this regard in Quantity Surveying Firm. Quantity Surveying Firms are, arguably, knowledge-intensive in nature, and currently face intense local and global competition in the current business environment. This paper seeks to explore the extent to which organisational size impacts on the implementation of knowledge sharing in Quantity Surveying Firms in Malaysia. Data based on both review of external literature and from pilot questionnaires completed by quantity surveying firms in Malaysia were analysed and provide the basis for conclusions and recommendations. The paper also observed that there are many constructs and measures of organisational size which needs due cognisance in understanding the different and complex ways in which organisational size may impact on the implementation of knowledge sharing practices and initiatives. Keywords: knowledge management, knowledge sharing, quantity surveying

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1. Introduction Size is an important variable that affects organisational aspects. Some studies mentioned that the size of organisations and functional areas influences the effectiveness of knowledge-sharing activities in and between business functions (e.g. Connelly and Kelloway, 2003; Sveiby and Simons, 2002). Size is defined as the size of workforce (i.e the number of employees), has influenced the flow of knowledge inside the organisation. The impact of size on group dynamics has been well explored in the social sciences literature, the discussion of organizational size has received less attention in management (Stoel, 2002). Employees in smaller firms are more flexible than employees of larger organizations in terms of making cultural shifts, but they perceive various cultural aspects the same way (Ismail, 2005). Lee and Xia (2006), stated that prior research has examined the impact of organizational size on information technology innovation adoption but the results appeared to be mixed and inconsistent because of the influence of other unaccounted variables. However Sˇtrach and Everett (2006) pointed out that the size of a subsidiary may influence internal knowledge distribution. Connelly and Kelloway (2003) also revealed empirically a negative relationship between organizational size and knowledge sharing resulting from changes in social interactions.

2. Quantity Surveyor (Qs) and Knowledge Management (Km) Quantity surveying has increased expectation by client because of the service offered and this coupled with greater competition both internally (from the same profession) and externally (from the globalisation) has resulted in a challenge to their professional status. To meet these challenges QS needs to enhance their professionalism and status in order that practitioners can maintain a competitive advantage. Knowledge is a key feature of the surveyor's portfolio and therefore effective knowledge management skills can help to improve their expertise. Practitioners learn from experience and this is a continuing process. In any organisation junior members draw on the experience of seniors as part of their learning experience and to some degree that learning flow can be reversed. What is required is some means by which that learning experience, together with intuitive 'knowledge', can be 'captured' and disseminated to colleagues within the same organisation. Knowledge management (KM) is a systematic management approach to identify and capture the 'knowledge assets' of a firm so that they can be fully exploited and protected as a source of competitive advantage (Scarborough & Swan 1999). BSI² 2003 (cited in Davis et. al., (2007) argues that KM does not only increase the profitability of the organisation but also reduces mistakes and waste of resources. Companies are realising that their competitive edge is mostly the brainpower or intellectual capital of their employees and management.

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Loberman (2002) stated that a, “corporate architecture” needs to be in QS firm to facilitate learning and to create knowledge sharing and dissemination mechanisms across the organisation and that the capture and systemisation of knowledge is a prerequisite to being a learning organisation. The growing number of organisations utilising intranets and ‘lessons learned’ databases gives some indication of the perceived value of knowledge management systems. However Newell (2004) found that where transfer of learning had occurred, it had depended far more on social networks and process of dialogue than on ICT. These finding coincide with the view of Nonaka (1991) in that the key to organisations gleaning greater knowledge is through facilitating: •

the sharing of tacit knowledge through socialisation

•

the collation of discreet pieces of explicit knowledge to create new knowledge

•

the conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge i.e. externalising what individuals know

•

the conversion of explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge, i.e. internalising explicit knowledge.

2.1 Knowledge Sharing (KS) Knowledge sharing (KS) is one of the knowledge management process ( Ryu et al., 2003) and also the main component in knowledge management systems (Alavi and Leidner 2001).It is a process between individuals (Ryu et al., 2003) and increases when it is shared (Halal E.,1997). Sharing knowledge between colleagues improves the economical benefits a firm can realise from the knowledge of their employees. This is true especially for professional service firms (Huang, 1998 p.582). According to (Al-Hawamdeh, 2003) KS is one of the important activities in knowledge management. In a broader perspective, KS refers to any type of knowledge including explicit knowledge or information, ‘know-how’ and ‘know-who’, and tacit knowledge in the forms of skill and competency. To share or disseminate knowledge is related to how individuals provide a right knowledge to right person at the right time (Larsson and Ohlin, 2002). KS involves the network to understand what others know (Wiig, 1999).

Hooff et al. (2003) defines KS as a process where individuals exchange knowledge (tacit and explicit) and collectively create new knowledge. According to Lee and Al-Hawamdeh (2002) KS is ‘the deliberate act in which knowledge is made reusable through its transfer from one party to another’. Yang (2004) defines KS as information and knowledge dissemination to entire organization or department. However,

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according to Coleman (1999) KS differs from information sharing because knowledge is not easily copied like information. Coleman insists that knowledge still belongs to the owner though it is shared.

2.2 Organisational unit size and knowledge sharing To encourage the use of KM, the QS firms should be given a clearer concept of KM and more guidelines for its implementation. The exact KM approach relies heavily on the type and size of the organisation (Davis et. al., 2007). Peter(1994) suggested that no organizational unit should exceed 150 individuals, because this is the point at which a formal structure is required, interpersonal relationships and communication start to break down, and trust diminishes; this decreases knowledge sharing among unit members. Similar observations have also been reported in the management and social sciences literature (Peters, 1994). Miller 1956 cited in Serenko et al., (2007) noticed that there seems to be some limitation built into us either by learning or by the design of our nervous systems, a limit that keeps our channel capacities in this general range. He contributed to the nascent field of knowledge management by highlighting what appears to be a natural limitation to handle information, a concept he called “channel capacity”. Dunbar (1992) explored a related concept with Miller about relationship between various primate groups and neocortex size. Dunbar noted that the size of the primate’s neocortex could be used to predict the average size of the social group that characterized specific group of primates and discovered that a group limit of 150 seemed to emerge organically. Another founder is W.L. Gore & associates the manufacturer of fluoropolymer products, which limits each production facility to a maximum of 150 people. According to Bill Gore, the company founder, “we found again and again that things get clumsy at a hundred and fifty” (Gladwell, 2002, p. 184). In limiting plants to no more than 150 people, Gore was able to eliminate a layer of middle management and engage in KM activities. Gore has created an organizational structure that allows managers to “really know somebody – know their skills, and abilities and passions – what you do, what you like to do, what you are good at” (Gladwell, 2002, p. 190). Company managers are able to successfully operate intellectual capital assets and use them to create wealth by observing the natural limits of human workers’ social channel capacity (Serenko et al., 2007). “Transactive memory”, developed by psychologist Wegner D. (1987) is for individuals to assign certain information and memory tasks to one another once close relationships have been established; however, the number of close relationships that can be included in any transitive memory system is limited by the social channel capacity of the actors. As a result, it is suggested that 150 employees is the breaking point

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at which Gita’s Rule takes place. Gita’s rule is a hypothesized relationship between organizational unit size and internal knowledge flows made by Gita Anselm in Serenko et al., (2007. Large organizations that require the efficient and maximal flow of knowledge across organizational units,should limit the number of individuals in any one unit to 150, and support activities that increase the likelihood that at least one individual with a high degree of public self-consciousness emerges from each unit with a strong reputation for trustworthiness (Serenko et al., 2007). This person can spearhead regular opportunities for these individuals to interact and share their accumulated unit knowledge. In addition with the organisational unit size, there are other factors that are proposed to be related to the impact of knowledge sharing in the QS firm. They are: •

interpersonal communication

•

interpersonal relationship and trust

•

connective efficacy

•

organisational unit structure

•

culture of the work environment

2.3 Interpersonal communication The table below summarises the approved SME definitions based on number of full-time employees and annual turnover in Malaysia. Table 1: SME Definitions Based On Number Of Full-Time Employees And Annual Sales Turnover. sector

Service sector (including ICT)

size micro

Full time employees less than 5 or annual sales turnover of less than RM200,000

small

full-time employees of between 5 and 19 or with annual sales turnover of between RM200,000 and less than RM1million

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medium

full-time employees of between 20 and 50 or with annual sales turnover of between RM1 million and RM5 million

Source : Secretariat to National Small and Medium Enterprises Development Council, Bank Negara Malaysia (2005). Based on the Table 1 above QS firms in Malaysia are categorised in SME because according to Egbu et. al., 2005: `the definition of SMEs is based on the numbers of employees, where organisations with less than 250 employees are considered as SMEs’… Communication is vital for the development of social intra-organizational networking that forms the foundation for knowledge sharing processes ( Al-Alawi et al., 2007). Interpersonal communication can refers to face-to-face, electronic or voice-based and interaction among organizational members. In SMEs’ organisation as well as in smaller units, the socialization process occurs naturally because most people work in close proximity of one another; this shortens interpersonal communications channels and enables the flow of information in any direction. Furthermore it may be argued that if no formal KM guidelines are in place, a major part of social interaction may relate to non-organizational aspects. It is often difficult to distinguish between business and non-business topics, especially, in small circles. In addition, such informal interpersonal communications may build long-lasting trusting relationships that in turn facilitate further knowledge flows (Serenko et al., 2007). An empirical study byMcAdam and Reid (2001) cited in Egbu et. al., (2005) revealed that the SME sector was less advanced, with a mechanistic approach and a lack of investment in KM.

2.4 Interpersonal relationship and trust Previous research reveal that the greatest willingness to share knowledge occurs when social relationships are based on emotional attachment, mutual trust, respect and genuine understanding of fellow workers’ strengths and capabilities. Trust and reputation are not necessary preconditions of one another. Lucas (2005) differentiates between the concepts of trust and reputation, and how they impact the transfer of best practices and knowledge within an organization. It is possible to trust someone who does not have a particularly good reputation, and it is equally possible to mistrust another person with a stellar reputation. Trust is engendered among individuals who develop relationships based on interactions with colleagues. Trust, then, can be assessed on the basis of personal interaction, and is limited to a specific small group of people; the larger the group, the fewer personal relationships employees have been established that impedes knowledge sharing (Connelly and Kelloway, 2003).

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2.5 Connective efficacy Connective efficacy is measured by the strength of the knowledge contributor-knowledge recipient relationship (Serenko et al., 2007). For example, an employee may believe she possesses vital knowledge that, if properly utilized by several other organisational members, would benefit the entire organisation (i.e. have a high degree of knowledge self-efficacy in QS task). At the same time, this person may feel that once her knowledge is distributed to the organisational unit, it is unlikely to reach those who require it (i.e. have a low degree of connective efficacy), the stronger this belief, the higher the probability of knowledge hoarding. In fact, there is no point contributing knowledge if this is not going to make any difference in organizational performance. McDermott (1999) provided a good explanation by noting that sharing someone’s knowledge involves a person guiding someone else through their thinking or using their insights to help others see their own situation better. Furthermore, the person who shares and distributes knowledge ideally is, or should be, aware of the knowledge purpose, use, needs or gaps of the person receiving the knowledge. This implies that not all employees need to share knowledge, because it would not be re-used or applied (Riege,2005).

2.6 Organizational unit structure The structure of an organisation or a unit is usually designed to form a horizontal and vertical division of work, activities, and responsibilities; it is a fundamental framework required to enable desired organisational processes and systems (Thomas and Allen, 2006). Traditional organisation structures are usually characterised by complicated layers and lines of responsibility with certain details of information reporting procedures. Nowadays, most managers realise the disadvantages of bureaucratic structures in slowing the processes and raising constraints on information flow. In addition, such procedures often consume great amount of time in order for knowledge to filter through every level. Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland (2004) argued that knowledge sharing prospers with structures that support ease of information flow with fewer boundaries between divisions. Furthermore ( Al-Alawi et al., 2007) state that flat, informal, decentralised, and flexible structures that have short communications lines are ideal for knowledge sharing activities. In Malaysia, the structures of QS firms are still based on hierarchical and bureaucratic procedures.

2.7 Culture of the work environment According to McDermott and O'Dell,(2001) companies that successfully implement knowledge management do not try to change their culture to fit their knowledge management approach but they build their knowledge management approach to fit their culture. As a result, there is not one right way to get people to share, but many different ways depending on the values and style of the organization. De Long & Fahey, (2000) mentioned that organization’s culture also shapes the perceptions and behaviours of its

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employees. Furthermore organizational culture is increasingly being recognized as a major barrier to effective knowledge creation, sharing, and use. Cultures are not homogenous across an organization (McDermott &O’Dell, 2001). Within organizations, there are also subcultures that are characterized by a distinct set of values, norms and practices, often resulting in their members valuing knowledge differently from other groups within the same organization (Pentland, 1995). Subcultures and their influence on knowledge sharing add even more complexity to determining those practices and norms that create the right environment to facilitate the sharing of knowledge.

3. Methodology This paper is part of an on-going PhD research entitled “The impact of effective knowledge sharing initiatives on Quantity Surveying Practices in the Malaysian construction industry”. The PhD research will employ a qualitative research approach. Prior to the actual data collection, a pilot study using structured questionnaire will be conducted on large, medium and small Quantity Surveying practices in Malaysia. A pilot study provides an opportunity to test out some objectives, research questions, and to explore methods (Yin, 1994), allowing any changes or amendments to be made before the main study is conducted. However, this paper is primarily based on a thorough review of relevant literature in the areas of knowledge sharing, organisational culture, and structure from Quantity Surveying Firms' perspectives. The articles reviewed in this paper have come from journals, text books, conference proceedings and websites.

4. Conclusions This paper has shown that there are many factors to be considered in order to achieve a successful knowledge sharing practices. From the literature this paper has shown the impact of the organisational size on implementing knowledge sharing in QS firm. In addition, there are another factors related such as interpersonal communication, interpersonal relationship and trust, connective efficacy, organisational unit structure and culture of the work environment. It is hoped that the literature in this study would help QS firm to plan better their knowledge sharing phenomenon. Effective knowledge management can help organizations to leverage core knowledge as means of building corporate intelligence, achieving innovation in process and products/services, effective decision-making, and organisational adaptation to the market for creating business value and gaining competitive edge.

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Scarbrough, H., Swan, J. And Preston,J., (1999)Knowledge Management: A Literature Review. London: Institute Of Personneal Nd Development. Serenko, A. and Bontis, N., Hardie T. (2007) Organizational size and knowledge flow: a proposed theoretical link. Journal of Intellectual Capital .Vol. 8 (4) pp. 610-627. Stoel, L. (2002), “Retail Cooperatives: Group Size, Group Identification, Communication Frequency And Relationship Effectiveness”, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 51-60. Sveiby, K.E. and Simons, R., (2002) Collaborative climate and effectiveness of knowledge work – an empirical study. Journal of knowledge management. Vol. 6(5),pp.420-433. Syed-Ikhsan, S. And Rowland, F. (2004) Knowledge Management In Public Organizations: A Study On The Relationship Between Organizational Elements And The Performance Of Knowledge Transfer , Journal Of Knowledge Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, Pp. 95-111. Thomas, K. and Allen, S. (2006), “The Learning Organisation: A Meta-Analysis Of Themes In Literature”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 123-39. Wegner, D. (1987) Transactive Memory: A Contemporary Analysis Of The Group Mind”, In Mullen, B. And Goethals, G. (Eds), Theories Of Group Behavior, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.pp. 185-208. Wiig, K. M. (1999). 'What Future Knowledge Management Users May Expect'. Journal Of Knowledge Management, 3(2), Pp. 155-165. Yang J.T. (2004) Job-Related Knowledge Sharing: Comparative Case Studies. Journal Of Knowledge Management. 8 (3) pp.118- 126. Yin, R.K. (1994), Case study research: Design and Methods (2nd ed.). Sage Publishing: Beverly Hills, CA.

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The Role of Knowledge Management in Extra Care Sheltered Housing Provisions Egbu, J.U. School of the Built Environment, University of Salford, Salford, M5 4WT, Greater Manchester, UK (email: [email protected]) Wood, G. School of the Built Environment, University of Salford, Salford, M5 4WT, Greater Manchester, UK (email: [email protected])

Abstract Many organisations are now embracing the benefit of knowledge management to improve their businesses. Knowledge management is emerging as a vital activity for organisations in the private, public and the third sectors in preserving valuable knowledge, and for exploiting the creativity of individuals that generates innovation. At the same time, changes in demographics mean that people are living longer, seeking housing with specific provision that enables them to live comfortably and independently in their homes, with real consequential challenges on the adequacy of provisions for extra care sheltered housing. By drawing on a thorough review of literature as part of an ongoing PhD project, the role that knowledge management plays, in its many disguises, in extra care sheltered housing provisions is discussed. There are many stakeholders involved at different stages of extra case sheltered provision. These players play different roles and are involved in decision making processes. They also draw on a variety of knowledge assets within and across boundaries as part of their roles. In doing this, new knowledge is created, existing knowledge shared, transferred and exploited. The paper presents and discusses the provisions in extra care sheltered housing, the benefits of knowledge management (KM) and how this might help to improve service provisions. Provisions in extra care housing are classified into building provision, social provision and service provision. Service provisions are seen to be very important as they provide improved quality of life for the users. Consideration is also given to the strategies, tools and techniques which might be of assistance in the provisions of extra care sheltered housing. It is concluded that the key challenges for the management of knowledge in service provision include the effective identification, creation, capture, storing and sharing of knowledge from different individuals and for different purposes. It is also noted that the commissioners and providers of extra care sheltered housing can benefit from effective knowledge management practices for effective quality of life for the users. Key words: extra-care sheltered housing, knowledge management, service provisions

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1. Introduction It is envisaged that one in five children born today can expect to live to 100 years old. The ageing society poses one of the greatest housing challenges. The challenges arising from the changing demographic profile and growing proportion of the aging population in the UK; promotes the development of a range of models of housing and support that allow older persons to live independently for as long as possible. At the same time the expectations of the elderly with regard to adequate and effective housing provision are increasing while the financial resources to provide such provisions are reducing in real terms. The Government’s National Strategy for Housing in an Ageing Society (2008) has shown the challenges and opportunities in meeting the needs of the larger and more demanding generation of people reaching old age. There are concerns within the housing industry about the oversupply of housing stock for older people in some areas and about a mismatch in supply between what people now want and the existing housing available. There are falling demands for bedsit homes, and yet these small units are a significant part of existing sheltered housing provision, particularly in older stock dating from the 1960s and 1970s. This situation of reducing financial resources with increasing demands for better housing provisions for the elderly calls for effective management, effective decision making, effective knowledge communication among key players, effective sharing of best practices and efficient utilizations of resources. This paper is based on an ongoing PhD study, which inter alia examines the role that knowledge management plays in the provision of service in extra care sheltered housing. The paper begins by describing the background to the development of extra-care housing and knowledge management. It identifies the benefits of knowledge management and how it can help improve services in extra care sheltered housing.

2. Literature review 2.1 Extra care sheltered housing: the definition Extra care sheltered housing is a new form of sheltered housing which was pioneered in the 1980s. In the literature, various terms have been used to describe and define extra-care housing such as “very sheltered housing”, “Supported housing”, “Integrated Care” ‘Enhanced sheltered housing’, “Close care”, “Flexi-care”, ‘Assisted living’, “Retirement village”, ‘Retirement community’ and ‘Continuing care retirement community’ (Croucher et al 2006). This new form of sheltered housing will be referred in this report as “Extra-care sheltered housing”. There is no unifying definition of extra care sheltered housing; as different housing associations and local authorities have different definitions. According to Baker (2002), no one extra care sheltered housing is quite the same as another.

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Tinker et al. (2008) define extra care sheltered housing as a scheme for frail elderly people which have more provision or a greater level of care than ordinary sheltered housing, supportive or intermediate care housing, for example the provision of meals, extra wardens, care assistants and additional communal facilities, such as special bathroom and sluice room. In describing Extra care, Baker (2002) is more specific, noting not just care services, but support with domestic tasks and opportunities for social interaction both within and outside the scheme. Riseborough and Fletcher, (2003) also define Extra care sheltered housing as a “concept rather than a housing type that covers a range of specialist housing models”. Furthermore, a Department of Health annual report (2006), described Extra care sheltered housing as giving choice to very frail or disabled people whose care needs might traditionally have been met by residential care. Extra care sheltered housing has all the features of ordinary sheltered housing, however it offers extra support to residents, including offering at least a meal a day, a flexible support and care, warden cover and assisted bathing facilities. Extra care sheltered housing is commonly seen as an alternative to institutional care. Over the past 20 years, more housing providers, largely local authority housing departments and housing associations, have been ‘quietly’ responding to the changing needs of the tenants in their sheltered housing schemes (Oldman 2000).

3. Provisions in extra care sheltered housing The development of extra care sheltered housing provides a further choice of accommodation to the elderly. Fletcher et al (2000) in their research identified two models in an attempt to ‘reinvent traditional sheltered housing’. The first is based on remodelling existing sheltered housing buildings. In this model schemes have been refurbished, a dedicated team of carers are provided, meals are provided and flexible care is provided at night. The second model is the provision of new buildings with wheelchair access, the provision of meals, day care facilities, extra office space, a warden and care team manager and on site 24 hour care and support. Extra Care Housing is designed to cater for frail older people who have physical or mental health difficulties, either living on their own or with a partner. The aim of this is to promote independence as much as possible. Extra Care Housing offers independent living with professional staff on site, and a 24 hours emergency alarm system to meet their needs. Many writers (Baker 2002; Riseborough and Fletcher 2003 and King 2004) have identified different provisions in extra care sheltered housing. In their study, Hanson el al 2007 identified 25 ingredients in extra care sheltered housing. And went further to model them in to a Venn diagram (see figure 1)

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Figure 1: Provisions in extra care sheltered housing, (Adapted from Hanson el at 2007 model)

3.1 Building provision The building provision of an extra care sheltered housing includes communal gardens, communal kitchen and communal lounge for social interaction and a well spaced out corridor for the wheel chair access. The building provision of extra care sheltered housing allows users to maintain independence while providing choice and control for the residents and allowing for social interaction amongst residents (Riseborough and Fletcher, 2003; Parker et al, 2004). The importance of building provision in an extra care sheltered housing has been praised and seen to be key in promoting the development of social network; and the opportunity to take part in on-site activities is greatly valued (Brooks et al., 2003 and Tinker et al., 2008). The building provision provides a “talking point” for resident. It is an informal meeting place for resident, encouraging social interaction amongst resident and thereby improving their social well-being.

3.2 The social provision Social provision is important to the lives of many older people in extra care sheltered housing as it can provide an opportunity for interaction. They provide an opportunity for friendship development and social interaction, and activities do seem to be valued by older people in extra care sheltered housing (Bernard et al., 2004 and Croucher et al. 2006).

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While it has been asserted that it can be difficult for residents who were frail or disabled to take part in social activities, for reasons including sensory impairment and wheelchair use (Croucher et al., 2006), another researchers (Cattan et al.,2005) notes that social activities for older people is designed as interventions to reduce loneliness and social isolation, were in fact seldom targeted to the needs of those people. Social provision is particularly important for the frailer older people, and can significantly enhance their quality of life. (Croucher et al., 2006). The encouragement of mutual support, neighbourly activities and formal social activities, especially dining rooms, is the main social hub of different settings.

3.3 The Service Provision The service provision is the defining feature of extra care sheltered housing. It includes 24 hour support and care staff, scheme manager and 24 hours community alarm cover and flexible care. Many older people chose to move into extra care sheltered care housing and have recognised that having an on-site service provision is better value for money. Knowing that staff are there to help in emergencies or provide more regular care also reduce people’s feelings and/or fears of being dependent on family members. Some researchers such as (Brooks et al, 2003; Croucher et al, 2006; Hanson et al, 2007; and Vallelly and Manthorpe 2009), indentify “24hrs support and care as a key component to extra care sheltered housing. The responsiveness of 24hrs onsite support staff is seen to be important in providing a sense of security as people need to feel confident that someone would come if they did call for assistance. It also relates to feeling safe from crime and intruders as well as knowing that someone is at hand in case of emergencies. Care provided is delivered to residents of extra care sheltered housing via their individual care and support plan in their own homes. The scheme manager formerly known as the “warden” is another important service provision. Scheme managers encourage independence and co-operate with tenants in organising social activities. The role has also become increasingly professional, with an increase in the level of staff training and qualifications. Residents in an extra care sheltered housing have the peace of mind through knowing that there is someone in the building most of the time and who would provide the needed support and care. The amount of personal concern and helpfulness shown by a scheme manager is extremely important. Such “value-added” aspects of a scheme manager's role make a large contribution to tenants' satisfaction and sense of well-being. On the other hand, telecare technology provides a delicate monitoring service for many older adults with support needs, which enables them to live independently in extra care sheltered housing. Gillies, (2001) states that It adds to an individuals’ sense of security, i.e., being able to contact someone in an emergency, and is recognised by older people as a preventative measure and they appreciate the benefits it afford them.

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While Bowes and McColgan (2003) assert that telecare technology provides support not just for the occupants of the scheme itself, but also for the people in need of care and support within the wider community through monitoring. Dewsbury et al’s (2001) study shows people’s scepticism about introducing new technologies into their homes, and changes in technology may cause rapid obsolescence. Assistive Technology is a key component in the drive to allow people the choice of staying longer in their own homes. The aims of providing these services are to promote independence, reduce social isolation and provide residents with a home for life.

4. Knowledge management: an overview Different authors have different meaning to the term knowledge. Iske and Boekhoff (2002) defined knowledge as a “combination of facts, experiences and perceptions that are being used to make a decision or to select an action by which a situation is changed into a more valuable situation. Davenport and Prusak (1998) defines knowledge as a fluid mix of framed experience, value, contextual information, and experts’ experiences that provided a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. While Hall and Andriani (2003) sees knowledge as skills, intuition and codified theory that potentially would influence human thought and behaviour. In general, knowledge could be classified as tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is subjective and it resides in human brain and cannot be easily captured or codified. It is a knowledge that is rooted in the organisation’s system; whereas explicit knowledge is objective and can be easily coded and transferred (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995; and Grewal and Haugstetter, 2007). Knowledge can be transferred into value and performance through a set of processes for creating, acquiring, organising, applying, sharing, and replenishing knowledge. These processes were regarded as knowledge management (34 Liebowtiz and Chen 2001). Hence, knowledge management is a process to underpin, observe and optimize a firms’ knowledge economies (Demarest, 1997). Whilst Gourlay (2001) points that effective knowledge management ensures people with needs can find people who can meet those needs within the organisation. Plessis (2007) asserts that knowledge management comprises many organizational elements such as technology, organizational structure and culture and human resources practices. Knowledge management is a management mind-set that includes building on experience and creating new avenues for exchanging knowledge.

5. Benefit of knowledge management An organisational ability to learn, adapt, change and innovate becomes a core competency for survival. Knowledge management benefits to business growth and performance have been identified in the literature. These benefits could be measured by financial and non-financial performance. With regard to financial performance, the benefits include profit growth (Choi et al., 2008), market share (Lee and Choi, 2003), and reducing costs (Hult et al., 2006). In contrast, the non-financial

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performance includes increasing productivity (44Knapp, 1998), employee satisfaction (Drew 1997) and better customer service (Plessis, 2007). Chuang (2004) assert that organisations that implement knowledge management often have competitive advantage over organisation that do not implement knowledge management. Furthermore, Demarest (1997) states that the most obvious link between knowledge management and enhanced economic growth is in the area of innovation. Popadiuk and Choo (2006) states that innovation depends on knowledge creation and application. Hence, knowledge management can result in innovations in products, process, services, and responsiveness to market change.

6. How knowledge management can help improve the service provision of extra care sheltered housing The public and private sector are turning to knowledge management, having recognised that they too face competition from alternative services. Increasingly, customers are demanding higher service quality, particularly in the in a service oriented industry. Knowledge management is thus a natural solution for them to improve productivity, operations, in order to enhance customer service. The success of knowledge management relies on technology combined with social relations and organisational culture to encourage knowledge capture, reuse and transfer between individuals ( Min and Yoon, 2002). Knowledge management can help improve the service provisions in extra care sheltered housing through the sharing of best practices. Foy (1999) highlights a number of success stories of a number of consulting and professional services firms. Their success stories range from sharing best practices through databases and virtual libraries, to innovative practices to encourage the sharing of ideals and experiences by staff. Hence the embedding and embracing of knowledge management in the service provision of extra care sheltered housing requires attention to objectives, types of knowledge, technologies, and organisational roles. The service provision of extra care sheltered housing can be improved through the collaboration and interaction of the knowledge worker to create value within organisation by providing support for effective decision making through the analytical skill that will be so valuable to the housing management. Lee and Choi (2003) have highlighted that an appropriate culture for interaction and dialogue between individuals or groups is the basis for the creation of new ideas and, in turn, improve organizational performance. Greengard (1998) assert that organisation has to highlight the value of knowledge management and encourage employees to share knowledge within an organisation.

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7. Conclusion Many organisations recognise the importance of knowledge management, and are engaged in projects that enhance their capabilities for knowledge processing. The implementation of knowledge management has significant consequences for the culture and structure of the organisation, and the roles of managers and workers. One of the conditions for effective Knowledge Management is an organisational culture that supports and facilitates the sharing of knowledge. But not all organisations have such a culture of sharing. Unfortunately, organizational culture is one of the hardest things for an organisation to change, and there is no consensus on how to even attempt such a change. This means that organisations that do not have a culture of sharing face a difficult task of establishing effective Knowledge Management practices. It has been identified in this paper that a number of things have to happen before Knowledge Management can have a reasonable chance of success. In the first place, because Knowledge management deals largely with practicing experts, and these experts must communicate with each other to improve their abilities and to train novices, the organisation must have a culture that encourages and facilitates the sharing of expertise. One of the basic principles of management is that you cannot manage what you do not know about. This means that an essential prerequisite for Knowledge Management to succeed in the service provision of extra care sheltered housing is to have a form of “Knowledge inventory” or “Knowledge Map” that provides explicit information of the organization’s knowledge assets. The existence of knowledge in an organisation repository is of little benefit; if it is not accessible and shared. It becomes a valuable business asset only if it is accessible. Undeniably knowledge management in different organisations may serve different organisational purposes. An understanding of the potential benefits of knowledge management and the way it can be used effectively and efficiently will become increasingly crucial for organisations.

Reference Baker, T. (2002) An Evaluation of an Extracare Scheme – Runnymede Court, Estover, Plymouth. Staines: Hanover Housing Association Bernard, M., Bartlam, B., Biggs, S. and Sim, J. (2004) New Lifestyles in OldAge: Health, Identity and Well-being in Berryhill Retirement Village. Bristol:The Policy Press Bowes A. M and McColgan G.M (2003) Evaluation of Home Comforts smart home technologies initiative. Final report to South Ayrshire Council. Brooks, E., Abarno, T., Smith, M. (2003) Care and Support in Very Sheltered Housing. Counsel and Care, London.

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Cattan, M. White, M. Learmouth, A. and Bond, J. (2005) Are services and activities for socially isolated and lonely people accessible, equitable, and inclusive? Research, Policy and Planning, 23 (3), 149-164. Choi B, Poon S.K and Davis J.G (2008) Effects of knowledge management strategy on organizational performance: a complementarity theory-based approach, Omega, The International Journal Management Science 36 (2) (2008), pp. 235–251. Chuang S.H. (2004) A resource-based perspective on knowledge management capability and competitive advantage: an empirical investigation, Expert Systems with Applications 27 (2004), pp. 459–465. Croucher, K., Hicks, L. and Jackson, K. (2006) Housing with Care for Later Life: A Literature Review. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation Davenport and Prusak, (1998) T.H. Davenport and L. Prusak, Working Knowledge, Harvard Business School Press, Boston (1998). Department of Health (2006) A New Ambition for Old Age: Next Steps in Implementing the National Service Framework for Older People. A Report from Professor Ian Philp, Demarest M.(1997), Understanding knowledge management, Long Range Planning 30 (3) (1997), pp. 374–384. Dewsbury G, Taylor B & Edge M (2002) Designing Dependable Assistive Technology Systems For Vulnerable People, Health Informatics Journal, June 2002 Volume 8, Number 2 pp104-110, ISSN 1460-4582 Drew S (1997), From knowledge to action: the impact of benchmarking on organizational performance, Long Range Planning 30 (3) (1997), pp. 427–441 Fletcher, P., Riseborough, M., Humphries, J., Jenkins, C. and Whittingham,P. (2000) Citizenship and Services in Older Age: The Strategic Role of Very Sheltered Housing. Beaconsfield: Housing 21 Foy, P.S. (1999). Knowledge management in industry, in: J. Liebowitz, ed. Knowledge management handbook pp. 15.1 - 15.10. New York, NY: CRC Press. Gillies B (2001), Smart Support at Home: Evaluation of Smart Technology in Dispersed Housing Livingston: West Lothian Council. Gourlay, S. (2001) Knowledge management and HRD. Human resource development international. Vol. 4 (1), pp. 27-46. Greengard S(1998), How to make KM a reality, Workforce 77 (10) (1998), pp. 90–92.

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Grewal D. and Haugstetter H. (2007), Capturing and sharing knowledge in supply chains in the maritime transport sector: critical issues, Maritime Policy and Management 34 (2) pp. 169–183 Hall R and Andriani P (2003) Managing knowledge associated with innovation, Journal of Business Research 56 , pp. 145–152 Hanson, J., Wojgani, H., Mayagoitia-Hill, R., Tinker, A. and Wright, F. (2007). The Essential Ingredients of Extra Care, The Health and Social Care Change Agent Team, Department of Health Hult G. T. M, Ketchen D.J, Cavusgil S.T. and Calantone R.J.,(2006) Knowledge as a strategic resource in supply chains, Journal of Operations Management 24 (5) (2006), pp. 458–475 Iske, P. and Boekhoff, T. (2002) A Framework for Valuing the Potential of Knowledge. In: Karagiannis and U. Reimer (ed.) Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference, Vienna, Austria, December 2002. King, N. (2004) Models of Extra Care and Retirement Communities, Housing Learning and Improvement Network Factsheet No. 4. London: Health and Social Care Change Agent Team, Department of Health Knapp E.M.(1998), Knowledge management, Business and Economic Review 44 (4) (1998), pp. 3–6. Lee H and Choi B (2003), Knowledge management enablers, processes, and organizational performance: an integrative view and empirical examination, Journal of Management Information Systems 20 (1) (2003), pp. 179–228. Liebowitz, J. and Chen, Y. (2001) Developing Knowledge Sharing Proficiencies. Knowledge Management Review. Vol. 3(6), Oldman, C. (2000) Blurring the Boundaries: A Fresh Look at Housing and Care Provision for Older People. Brighton: Pavilion Publishing in association with the Joseph Rowntree Foundation Parker, C., Barnes, S., McKee, K., Morgan, K., Torrington, J. and Tregenza, P. (2004) Quality of life and building design in residential and nursing homes for older people. Ageing and Society, 24 (6), 941-962. Popadiuk S. and Choo C.W.,(2006) Innovation and knowledge creation: how are these concept related?, International Journal of Information Management 26 (4) , pp. 302–312. Plessis M.D.(2007), Knowledge management: what make complex implementations successful?, Journal of Knowledge Management 11 (2), pp. 91–101. Riseborough, M. and Fletcher, P. (2003) Extra care sheltered housing – What Is It?, Housing LIN Factsheet 1. London: Health and Social Care Change Agent Team, Department of Health.

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Tinker, A., F. Wright, F., Mayagoitia, R. E., Wojgani, H. and Holmans, A. (2008). "Remodelling to extra care housing: some implications for policy and practice." Quality in Ageing 9(1): 4-12. Vallelly Sarah and Manthorpe Jill (2009) Building Choices part 2: 'Getting Personal' - the impact of personalisation on older people's housing: overall project summary; Housing 21; Tenant Services Authority (TSA). London: Housing 21, 32 pp.

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Issues Associated with Knowledge Sharing Initiatives in Government Agencies in Malaysia

Mohamed, O. University of Salford (email: [email protected]) Egbu, C. University of Salford (email: [email protected] )

Abstract Government agencies are mainly known as knowledge intensive organizations. In order to exploit effective knowledge sharing, they have to develop practical knowledge sharing implementation approaches. Nevertheless, strong demand and expectation from citizens for efficient service delivery, coupled with global challenges in the knowledge based economy have fuelled the need for government agencies to consider effective implementation of knowledge sharing as a strategy to improve service delivery. Effective knowledge sharing initiatives have the potential to benefit government agencies in view of their role. This paper aims to identify the core issues in knowledge sharing initiatives that government agencies face in delivering effective policies, particularly in their role and influence in the construction industry. Based on a critical review of literature on knowledge sharing in government agencies, dysfunctional bureaucracies, training, utilisation of information technology and adaptation to culture were identified as key issues. It is recommended that a balanced approach and support to these issues and challenges in implementing knowledge sharing initiatives are duly considered together with attention given to effective leadership, strategic alignments, capability and capacity building among teams.

Keyword: capacity building, knowledge sharing, Malaysian government agencies.

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1. Introduction Malaysian government agencies are mainly known as knowledge intensive organizations. The idea of the importance of knowledge management was first raised in 1991 by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, the Honourable Tun Dr Mahadir Mohamed. He highlighted the need to transform the economy toward a knowledge base economy (Mohamed, 1991). In the ‘Vision 2020’ (Wawasan 2020) speech by Prime Minister of Malaysia, he noted that: “In our pursuit towards developing the Keconomy, knowledge has to replace labour and capital as the key factors of production in our economy. The challenge for Malaysia is to develop this knowledge amongst our citizens so that our success will be due to the contributions of Malaysian talents and knowledge workers” (Mohamed 2001). In the context of Malaysian government agencies, Malaysian Administrative and Modernisation Planning Unit (MAMPU) have been given the remit to supervise the implementation of knowledge management initiatives. In order to exploit effective knowledge sharing, Malaysian government agencies have to develop knowledge sharing strategies on implementation approaches. A study conducted by Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland (2004) examined the availability of knowledge management strategy in Ministry of Entrepreneur Development. The study revealed that, currently, the Ministry does not have any specific knowledge management strategy. However, it showed that some form of knowledge management process was available and embedded. Effective knowledge sharing initiatives have the potential to benefit government agencies in view of their role. However, many researchers have attempted to address the benefits and the significant role that knowledge plays in private sector organisations; for example enhancing and improving organisational performance (Skyrme, 2003) and for enhanced employee capability and organisation learning Wiig (1999). Although knowledge management has been widely discussed by many researchers, there is relatively little information and empirical studies on knowledge sharing initiatives in the government agencies. Examples of studies done in public administration include effect of organisational factors and performance of knowledge management (Monavvarian and Kasaei, 2007), benchmarking of knowledge management (Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland, 2004a), benchmarking competence through knowledge management capability (Al-Athari and Zairi, 2001), knowledge management initiatives (Shields et al., 2000), organizational factors and the performance of knowledge transfer (Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland, 2004b) and impact of knowledge management practices, on decision making and situation handling (Wiig, 2002). Many knowledge management systems have failed to facilitate knowledge sharing. Many government agencies have also been slow to embrace knowledge management; at the same time, it would seem that government agencies in Malaysia do not fully understand how to achieve the benefits that knowledge management could deliver. The purpose of this paper is to identify the core issues in knowledge sharing initiatives that government agencies face in delivering effective policies, particularly in their role and influence in the construction industry.

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2. Strategy to improve service delivery Policy-making and service delivery have been the two main tasks of government agencies. In this processes, knowledge has been an essential resource of the agencies and assume most importance in the process of improving service delivery of government agencies. Knowledge in government agencies is divided into tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is highly individual and only achievable through personal experience and very hard to formalise or articulate (Polanyi 1973). Tacit knowledge form the organisations perspective, is that it is developed through organisational process, where procedure (Nelson and Winter, 1982), internal communication processes, in addition to external meeting places (Lei, 1997) constitute essential factors for the development and transfer of this part of the organisation’s knowledge base. Explicit knowledge is easy to articulate, capture and distribute in an organisation (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995) and this type of knowledge is already embedded in organisations. Job manual procedure, filing system, ISO 9002, desk file, work flow and databases have served for a number of years in government agencies. What need to be done here is to create, identify, capture and evaluate the knowledge that exists in the organisation which is very useful and critical to get work done efficiently and effectively. In order to leverage knowledge sharing between departments; organisations have to develop proper structure in their organisation (Teece, 1998). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) explained that four knowledge creation process. There are socialisation, externalisation, combination and internalisation. This model focuses on the issue of how knowledge may be created through organisational sharing and is useful for identifying and evaluating certain key activities in the management of knowledge. In Malaysian government agencies setting, knowledge may be fostered by seminars, mentoring and coaching, workshop and training. The ability to effectively share knowledge across organisations and employees has been found to contribute to organizational performance and of potential benefit to government agencies in carrying out their roles.

2.1 Dysfunctional bureaucracies The structure of an organisation is an important aspect of any organisation. Every organisation has rules, procedure or standard about how they manage their organisations. These direct the behaviour of their employees. As in any government agency, the main tasks of the Malaysian Government agencies are to implement successfully all of the ruling government's policies and projects. In addition, they ensure quality of services provided and that products produced are always consistent and satisfy customer's requirement. Government have tried improving the delivering system and output. There are still raised issues regarding the dysfunctional bureaucracies and problem with so-called red tape. Table 1.0 show some of the initiatives and strategies that are taken to further improve public administration.

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Table 1: Development Administration Circulars. Circular No.

Development Administration Circular Title

No. 4 of 1991

Guidelines On The Strategies For Quality Improvement In The Public Service

No. 1 of 1992

Guidelines On Total Quality Management in The Public Service

No. 2 of 1996

Guidelines For Implementing ISO 9000 In The Civil Service

Amendment : No. 1 of 2002 No. 1 of 1999

Guidelines For The Implementation of Benchmarking In The Civil Service.

No. 2 of 2005

Guideline To Create Key Performance Indicators (KPI) and Implement Performance Measurement In Government Agency

Source; Researcher Instead of these strategies, Malaysian government has recently reformed several agencies with the view to improving quality, productivity, accountability and integrity among public servants. Public Complain Bureau in Malaysia deals with minor complaints, such as delays in processing application, unfriendly counter service and lack of enforcement. The Public Accounts Committee, the Committee on Government Business, the Malaysia Anti Corruption Commission and the office of the AuditorGeneral serve to enforce accountability and integrity among public officials. The former Prime Minister, Tun Abdulah Badawi on his speech insists that “…..various parties set aside red tape to ensure that development is planned through the programme ……” (Utusan Malaysia, 2007). The above transformation efforts undertaken by the government to improve Malaysian government agencies can only achieve their goals with a parallel effort to equip public service personnel with the necessary knowledge, attitudes, skills and capacity building. According to Hawkins (1980), capacity building is a concept that encompasses a broad range of activities that are aimed at increasing the ability of citizen and government to produce more responsive and efficient public goods and services.

2.2 Training In order to ensure government servants are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skill, Malaysian government agencies have given particular attention to workplace training to improve employees’ job performance and develop capacity building among their employees. Training is one of the most significant vehicles for transformation and change. It is an essential element of the development process for organisation. Salleh and Goh (2002) insisted that if a company wants to become a truly knowledge-based organisation, it must start with quality training. This is true because in virtually every market, customers are demanding high quality, lower costs and faster cycle times. To meet these requirements, organisations must continually improve their overall organisational performance. Rapid advances and technology and improved processes have been important factors helping management meet their

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challenges. Training provides employees and managers the skills and information to fulfil their responsibilities. According to Wiig (1999), one of the benefits of adopting KM in an organisation is to enhance employee capability and organisation learning. Benninger (1987) divided into four types of training such as on-the job learning training there are introductory, adaptation, promotion and project training. The success of training program initiatives depends partly on the extent to which trainees use their training on the job and the transfer of training to an individual’s job performance. Over the years, researchers have acknowledged the important of training in order to improve job performance (Noe, 2006; Goldstein, 1992). The transfer of training will occur when trainees have the desire or motivation to use the knowledge and skill learned in their training. Organisations are realising that their competitive edge is mostly the brainpower or intellectual capital of their employees and management. The Malaysian government's efforts to develop successful employees have so far followed the prevailing trend in management development endeavours, in providing training and educational opportunities through formal learning approaches. Report on Eight Malaysia Plan period, 2001-2005 indicates that the government have allocated RM 40.2 billion in expenditure to education and training program (Government of Malaysia, 2001). Besides that, it was also aimed at developing the adaptive skills of government agencies employees (Siddiquee, 2002). Table 2 show lists of agencies that conduct training for government employees and table 3 show Development Administration Circulars regarding the training programs

Table: 2 Agencies conduct training for government employees Agencies

Task

Malaysian Public Service Department

Central agencies in charge of civil servants. In charge of the overall human resource management for the public service

Malaysian Administrative Modernisation and Management Planning Unit (MAMPU)

Vision for an improvement in Government education and Training programmes at all levels.

National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN)

Training arm of the Public Service Department. Training and Courses that Fulfil the Needs of Public Sector

Source; Researcher

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Table 3: Development Administration Circulars regarding on training programs

Circular Service No.

Development Administration Circular Title

Type of Training

Objective

Method

No 1 of 1991

Induction Course

Introductory

To expose relating history, civil service rules, procedure and circular on excellent work ethical values

Seminar, Visiting, Outdoor activity, mentoring and coaching;

No 2 of 2005

Implementation of training plan for public sector (Human Resource)

Introductory

To expose with administration principles and departmental management.

Seminar, Visiting, Outdoor activity, mentoring and coaching;

Intermediate

To prepare skill, to do something task quickly and keep common standard.

Seminar, Visiting, Outdoor activity, mentoring and coaching, On-the-job training;

Advance

to stabilise and strengthen the capacity of

Seminar, Visiting, Outdoor activity, mentoring and coaching, On-the-job training;

public services continuously according to necessity and challenges

2.2.1 No 6 of 2005

Human Resource Training Policy for Public Sector

To develop attitude, skill, knowledge, competency and life long learning

Short term and long term training program( local or abroad)

Source; Researcher

2.3 Utilisations of information technology Many organisations, especially in government agencies are striving to increase knowledge sharing among their employees by creating or developing knowledge repositories where they can contribute their expertise electronically to the organisation in a way that can be accessed by other employees. Technology is a key enabler in implementing a successful knowledge management program and strategy. In addition, Bhatt (2001) stated that information technology can provide an edge in harvesting knowledge. Kankanhalli et al., (2003) added that the main role of information technology here is to help people locate each other, communicate, facilitate and to achieve complex knowledge transfer and economic reuse of knowledge. Some organisations are adopting and implementing technologies in their daily

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operations as a part of their organisational strategy. In additional, information technology have made it easier to acquire, store or disseminate knowledge between organisation or inter-organisations , therefore many organizations are employing information technology to facilitate sharing and integration of knowledge. Storck & Hill, (2000) added that information technology has helped organizations to manage and leverage its knowledge systematically and actively. Hence, the complexity of knowledge management initiative and then variety or information technology solutions available on market, have challenged the management to decide what type of information technology solution to deploy in support of their knowledge management initiative. Khandelwal and Gottschalk (2003) pointed out that the application of information technology to the support of knowledge management apparently influences the results of knowledge collaboration within the organisation. Similarly, Kululanga and Mc Caffer (2001) identified the important of organisation should support knowledge management process by appropriate technology for their employees. Conversely, if technologies are not managed properly in organisations, they may cause information overload. Successful information technology also requires employee’s competence and personal capabilities to use the system. In fact, knowledge workers are the core intellectual competence of many organisation, they are expertise and know how to optimise the system that related to information system. Carneiro (2001) identify employee has become one of the most important fields in understanding organisation’s performance.

Since we know information technology as assistance to organisation to organise works, allow people to share knowledge, connect people-to-people and information but Carneiro (2001) identified that most of the organisation do not know how to manage and use effectively intelligent system, technology resources and intelligent agent. He added that managers have to understand and accept the growing field in knowledge management with particular emphasis on knowledge- base system. Another seems that management done that they need a complete information technology infrastructure before they can expect their employees to share knowledge As a matter of fact, Davenport et al. (1998) points out two most critical factors for the successful knowledge management project, one is the establishment of a broad information systems infrastructure based on desktop computing and communications.. By understanding organisation infrastructure, it will help the managers in picking the appropriate technology. And the management should not simply focus on how to use information technology, but how to help develop an organisational environment and culture.

2.4 Importance of culture to knowledge sharing McDermott and O’Dell (2001) stated that organisational culture is a key component of managing organisational change and renewal. Inappropriate culture is generally regarded as the key inhibitor of effective knowledge sharing. It is very difficult to change the culture of an organisation. However organisations have to move towards a knowledge-oriented culture and all members in the organisation

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have to know clear organisational vision and goals. With clear vision and goals, these allow employees know their way to challenge and share knowledge throughout the organisation. Obviously, confidence, motivation and trust are needed to encourage knowledge sharing practice in the organisation. In order to develop trust within organisation, management have to form an organisation’s social interaction culture. Its permits an opportunity for individual to interact and be closely familiarised with each other and hence develop the degree of trust among team members. According to Cohen and Prusak (2001), high level of employees trust can lead to better knowledge sharing. Schein (1985) defined culture as a “pattern of basic assumptions” that is developed by a group as they grapple with and develop solutions to everyday problems. When these assumptions work well enough to be considered valid, they are taught to new members as the appropriate way to approach these problems. Schein further added that a key part of every culture is a set of assumptions about how to determine or discover what is real and “how members of a group take an action, how they determine what is relevant information, and when they have enough of it, to determine whether to act and what to do” . Culture is therefore reflected in the values, norms, and practices of the organization, where values are manifested in norms that in turn shape specific practices (De Long & Fahey, 2000).

Organisational values that influence knowledge sharing include the creation of a sense of involvement and contribution among employees (O’Dell & Grayson, 1998), the types of knowledge that are valued (Leonard-Barton, 1995), and knowledge-related values such as trust and openness (Eisenberg & Riley, 2001).Companies that successfully implement knowledge management do not try to change their culture to fit their knowledge management approach but they build their knowledge management approach to fit their culture (McDermott and O’Dell 2001). As a result, there is not one right way to get people to share, but many different ways depending on the values and style of the organisation. De Long and Fahey (2000), pointed out that the impact of culture on the context for social interaction can be assessed along three dimensions—vertical interactions (interactions with senior management), horizontal interactions (interactions with individuals at the same level in the organization), and special behaviors that promote knowledge sharing and use, for example sharing, teaching, and dealing with mistakes. Furthermore De Long & Fahey, (2000) mentioned that organisation’s culture also shapes the perceptions and behaviours of its employees. Cultures are not homogenous across an organization (McDermott &O’Dell, 2001). Within organisations, there are also subcultures that are characterised by a distinct set of values, norms and practices, often resulting in their members valuing knowledge differently from other groups within the same organisation (Pentland, 1995). Subcultures and their influence on knowledge sharing add even more complexity to determining those practices and norms that create the right environment to facilitate the sharing of knowledge. In addition, leadership value is also associated with knowledge sharing initiatives in government agencies in Malaysia

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2.5 Leadership value Leadership has been identified as one of the critical success factor in implementing knowledge sharing initiatives in organisations (Kalling, 2003; Moffett et al., 2003; Pemberton et al., 2002). According to Rodsutti and Swierczek, (2002) leaders are needed to challenge the status quo, to create visions of the future, and to inspire organizational members to achieve the visions. Leaders are important in acting as role models to show the desired behaviours for KM. For example they should show a willingness to share and offer their knowledge freely with others in the organisation, to continuously learn, and to search for new knowledge and ideas (Wong, 2005). Therefore, establishing the good role model of leadership, the organisation is developing a model to help accelerate organisation growth and development. In knowledge sharing, the role of leaders changes from that of control to facilitation and mentoring. The most effective ways for leaders to mobilise energise of employees to be creative is through empowering employees. In addition, through the actions of top management, an effective leader and adequate training and skills (Bass, 1998), a successful culture could be developed and valued by the employees (Farid, 2000; Shelton et al., 2002) and empowerrment gives employees freedom to take responsibility for innovation. This not only deliver knowledge for the organisation building, but also spread a sharing-friendly culture. In essence leaders establish the necessary conditions for effective knowledge management (Holsaple and Joshi,2000).

3. Methodology This paper is based on an on-going PhD research project which is at a relatively early stage. This paper explores and extends our understanding of the issue associated with knowledge sharing initiatives in government agencies, employed in delivering effective policies, particularly in their role and influence in the construction industry in Malaysia. This paper however is based on two main elements of the preliminary research. Firstly, consultation with appropriate documentation, reports and government circulation in order to gauge the views of organisations on how they see issue with knowledge sharing and how it relates to changing business processes. Secondly a wide ranging literature survey has also been undertaken, the results of which are interspersed throughout this paper.

4. Conclusion Knowledge is a critical factor affecting an organisation’s ability to remain competitive. Knowledge sharing is the corner-stone of many organisations’ knowledge management strategy. This paper has shown that there are key issues to be considered in order to achieve a successful knowledge sharing practice. From the literature, this paper has shown the impact of the key issues associated with implementing knowledge sharing in government agencies. It is hoped that the literature in this study would help Malaysian Government Agencies to plan better their knowledge sharing phenomenon. Effective knowledge sharing can help organisations to leverage core knowledge as means of building corporate intelligence, achieving innovation in process and products/services, effective decision-

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making, and organisational adaptation to the market for creating business value and gaining competitive edge.

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International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction CIB’s mission is to serve its members through encouraging and facilitating international cooperation and information exchange in building and construction research and innovation. CIB is engaged in the scientific, technical, economic and social domains related to building and construction, supporting improvements in the building process and the performance of the built environment. CIB Membership offers: • international networking between academia, R&D organisations and industry • participation in local and international CIB conferences, symposia and seminars • CIB special publications and conference proceedings • R&D collaboration Membership: CIB currently numbers over 400 members originating in some 70 countries, with very different backgrounds: major public or semi-public organisations, research institutes, universities and technical schools, documentation centres, firms, contractors, etc. CIB members include most of the major national laboratories and leading universities around the world in building and construction. Working Commissions and Task Groups: CIB Members participate in over 50 Working Commissions and Task Groups, undertaking collaborative R&D activities organised around: • construction materials and technologies • indoor environment • design of buildings and of the built environment • organisation, management and economics • legal and procurement practices Networking: The CIB provides a platform for academia, R&D organisations and industry to network together, as well as a network to decision makers, government institution and other building and construction institutions and organisations. The CIB network is respected for its thought-leadership, information and knowledge. CIB has formal and informal relationships with, amongst others: the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP); the European Commission; the European Network of Building Research Institutes (ENBRI); the International Initiative for Sustainable Built Environment (iiSBE), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO); the International Labour Organization (ILO), International Energy Agency (IEA); International Associations of Civil Engineering, including ECCS, fib, IABSE, IASS and RILEM. Conferences, Symposia and Seminars: CIB conferences and co-sponsored conferences cover a wide range of areas of interest to its Members, and attract more than 5000 participants worldwide per year. Leading conference series include: • International Symposium on Water Supply and Drainage for Buildings (W062) • Organisation and Management of Construction (W065) • Durability of Building Materials and Components (W080, RILEM & ISO) • Quality and Safety on Construction Sites (W099) • Construction in Developing Countries (W107) • Sustainable Buildings regional and global triennial conference series (CIB, iiSBE & UNEP) • Revaluing Construction • International Construction Client’s Forum

CIB Commissions (August 2010) TG58 Clients and Construction Innovation TG59 People in Construction TG62 Built Environment Complexity TG63 Disasters and the Built Environment TG64 Leadership in Construction TG65 Small Firms in Construction TG66 Energy and the Built Environment TG67 Statutory Adjudication in Construction TG68 Construction Mediation TG69 Green Buildings and the Law TG71 Research and Innovation Transfer TG72 Public Private Partnership TG73 R&D Programs in Construction TG74 New Production and Business Models in Construction TG75 Engineering Studies on Traditional Constructions TG76 Recognising Innovation in Construction TG77 Health and the Built Environment TG78 Informality and Emergence in Construction TG79 Building Regulations and Control in the Face of Climate Change TG80 Legal and Regulatory Aspects of BIM TG81 Global Construction Data W014 Fire W018 Timber Structures W023 Wall Structures W040 Heat and Moisture Transfer in Buildings W051 Acoustics W055 Construction Industry Economics W056 Sandwich Panels W062 Water Supply and Drainage W065 Organisation and Management of Construction W069 Housing Sociology W070 Facilities Management and Maintenance W077 Indoor Climate W078 Information Technology for Construction W080 Prediction of Service Life of Building Materials and Components W083 Roofing Materials and Systems W084 Building Comfortable Environments for All W086 Building Pathology W089 Building Research and Education W092 Procurement Systems W096 Architectural Management W098 Intelligent & Responsive Buildings W099 Safety and Health on Construction Sites W101 Spatial Planning and infrastructure Development W102 Information and Knowledge Management in Building W104 Open Building Implementation W107 Construction in Developing Countries W108 Climate Change and the Built Environment W110 Informal Settlements and Affordable Housing W111 Usability of Workplaces W112 Culture in Construction W113 Law and Dispute Resolution W114 Earthquake Engineering and Buildings W115 Construction Materials Stewardship W116 Smart and Sustainable Built Environments W117 Performance Measurement in Construction

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International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction Publications: The CIB produces a wide range of special publications, conference proceedings, etc., most of which are available to CIB Members via the CIB home pages. The CIB network also provides access to the publications of its more than 400 Members.

CIB Annual Membership Fee 2010 – 2013 Membership will be automatically renewed each calendar year in January, unless cancelled in writing 3 months before the year end Fee Category FM1 Fee level FM2 Fee level FM3 Fee level AM1 Fee level AM2 Fee level IM Fee level All amounts in EURO

2010

2011

2012

2013

11837 12015 12195 12378 7892 8010 8131 8252 2715 2756 2797 2839 1364 1384 1405 1426 1133 1246 1371 1426 271 275 279 283

The lowest Fee Category an organisation can be in depends on the organisation’s profile: Recent CIB publications include: • Guide and Bibliography to Service Life and Durability Research for Buildings and Components (CIB 295) • Performance Based Methods for Service Life Prediction (CIB 294) • Performance Criteria of Buildings for Health and Comfort (CIB 292) • Performance Based Building 1st International State-of-the Art Report (CIB 291) • Proceedings of the CIB-CTBUH Conference on Tall Buildings: Strategies for Performance in the Aftermath of the World Trade Centre (CIB 290) • Condition Assessment of Roofs (CIB 289) • Proceedings from the 3rd International Postgraduate Research Conference in the Built and Human Environment • Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods • Proceedings of the 29th International Symposium on Water Supply and Drainage for Buildings • Agenda 21 for Sustainable Development in Developing Countries R&D Collaboration: The CIB provides an active platform for international collaborative R&D between academia, R&D organisations and industry. Publications arising from recent collaborative R&D activities include: • Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction • Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries • The Construction Sector System Approach: An International Framework (CIB 293) • Red Man, Green Man: A Review of the Use of Performance Indicators for Urban Sustainability (CIB 286a) • Benchmarking of Labour-Intensive Construction Activities: Lean Construction and Fundamental Principles of Working Management (CIB 276) • Guide and Bibliography to Service Life and Durability Research for Buildings and Components (CIB 295) • Performance-Based Building Regulatory Systems (CIB 299) • Design for Deconstruction and Materials Reuse (CIB 272) • Value Through Design (CIB 280)

FM1 FM2 FM3 AM1 AM2 IM

Full Member Fee Category 1 | Multi disciplinary building research institutes of national standing having a broad field of research Full Member Fee Category 2 | Medium size research Institutes; Public agencies with major research inter- est; Companies with major research interest Full Member Fee Category 3 | Information centres of national standing; Organisations normally in Category 4 or 5 which prefer to be a Full Member Associate Member Fee Category 4 | Sectoral research & documentation institutes; Institutes for standardisation; Companies, consultants, contractors etc.; Professional associations Associate Member Fee Category 5 | Departments, fac- ulties, schools or colleges of universities or technical Institutes of higher education (Universities as a whole can not be Member) Individual Member Fee Category 6 | Individuals having an interest in the activities of CIB (not representing an organisation)

Fee Reduction: A reduction is offered to all fee levels in the magnitude of 50% for Members in countries with a GNIpc less than USD 1000 and a reduction to all fee levels in the magnitude of 25% for Members in countries with a GNIpc between USD 1000 – 7000, as defined by the Worldbank. (see http://siteresources.worldbank. org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf) Reward for Prompt Payment: All above indicated fee amounts will be increased by 10%. Members will subsequently be rewarded a 10% reduction in case of actual payment received within 3 months after the invoice date. For more information contact CIB General Secretariat: e-mail: [email protected] PO Box 1837, 3000 BV Rotterdam, The Netherlands Phone +31-10-4110240; Fax +31-10-4334372 Http://www.cibworld.nl

Themes: The main thrust of CIB activities takes place through a network of around 50 Working Commissions and Task Groups, organised around four CIB Priority Themes: • Sustainable Construction • Clients and Users • Revaluing Construction • Integrated Design and Delivery Solutions PAGE 2

DISCLAIMER

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability in whole or in part for any errors or omissions that may be made. The reader should verify the applicability of the information to particular situations and check the references prior to any reliance thereupon. Since the information contained in the book is multidisciplinary, international and professional in nature, the reader is urged to consult with an appropriate licensed professional prior to taking any action or making any interpretation that is within the realm of a licensed professional practice.

CIB General Secretariat post box 1837 3000 BV Rotterdam The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] www.cibworld.nl

CIB Publication 349