Profiling the jazz festival audience

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Profiling the jazz festival audience

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University of Liverpool Management School, Liverpool, UK

Steve Oakes Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to attempt to provide a detailed profile of the jazz festival audience in terms of age, gender, degree qualifications, home ownership levels, newspaper readership, frequency of attending live jazz performances, interest in attending other festivals and CD purchase behaviour. In addition, it seeks to examine the cultural diversity of improvisation. Design/methodology/approach – Survey data were collected from patrons at the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival in order to establish the demographic profile of the jazz audience and distinguish between two broad categories of jazz fan (modern and hybrid). Hybrid jazz fans are categorised as those purchasing traditional/mainstream jazz CDs who may also purchase modern jazz CDs, thus distinguishing them from exclusively modern jazz fans who do not purchase traditional/mainstream jazz CDs. Findings – Results identified a statistically significant difference between modern and hybrid jazz fans in terms of gender profile, newspaper readership, CD purchase behaviour, overall concert attendance and interest in attending a variety of other festivals. Practical implications – Differences in purchase behaviour and festival preferences suggest likely differences between segments in terms of the potential demand for cross-selling of other live entertainment services and related merchandise. Increased awareness of such differences creates the opportunity for more effectively targeted sponsorship. Originality/value – The paper focuses upon the audience for an art form that has been relatively neglected by the management literature. Keywords Arts, Music, Festivals, Demographics Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Event and Festival Management Vol. 1 No. 2, 2010 pp. 110-119 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1758-2954 DOI 10.1108/17852951011056892

Previous research has identified the value of festivals for cultural tourism (MacDonald and Jolliffe, 2003). For example, Festivals and Events Prince Edward Island in Canada is a non-profit organisation involving a federation of festivals, events, and suppliers that has successfully enhanced regional tourism through marketing an extensive range of festivals including the Jazz and Blues Society Festival. Prentice and Andersen (2003) highlighted the success of Edinburgh as a city that has enhanced its status as a tourist destination by staging a variety of festivals including an annual jazz festival. Likewise, Cheltenham Festivals is a destination-marketing organisation and registered charity that has achieved success in marketing festivals and events as part of the overall tourism product in order to increase the amount of visitors to the region. The current study focuses broadly upon Cheltenham as a leading UK festival destination, but focuses specifically upon profiling distinct segments of the audience attending the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival. In recent years, management literature has demonstrated an increased academic interest in jazz. For example, several studies have discussed the importance of jazz improvisation as a metaphor for organisational activity (Dennis and Macaulay, 2003, 2007; Oakes, 2009). Research has also examined the impact of background jazz upon

consumer behaviour within contexts such as restaurants (Wilson, 2003) and university registration queues (Oakes, 2003b), while various studies have examined jazz from the perspective of professional jazz musicians (Macdonald and Wilson, 2005; Kubacki, 2008). The current study addresses a gap in the literature by profiling the actual consumers of jazz goods (CDs) and services (live concerts) through collection of data from fans attending a major UK jazz festival in Cheltenham. Rather than considering the jazz audience as essentially homogenous, the current research focuses upon segments of the jazz festival audience involving preference for different sub-genres of jazz. Various studies have examined the audience for musical genres such as classical music (Kolb, 2001) and opera (Currie and Hobart, 1994). While Formica and Uysal (1996) examined motivation factors underlying attendance at the Umbria Jazz Festival in Italy, the relatively small quantity of studies that consider the jazz festival audience have typically carried out comparative research by contrasting it with the audience for other festivals and events. These include comparison of the jazz festival audience with that for a classical music festival (Oakes, 2003a) and a knitwear festival (Saleh and Ryan, 1993). Furthermore, the jazz audience has often been excluded from studies that have attempted to make meaningful comparisons between the audiences for different musical genres. For example, research revealing the interest in “lowbrow” and “middlebrow” musical genres by “highbrows” (fans who like classical music and opera) did not include jazz amongst its scales of measurement because it was a genre that appeared to straddle category boundaries: Jazz was not put in either of the scales because while its roots are clearly lowbrow, it is now taught in conservatories of music as highbrow, and largely consumed as middlebrow (Peterson and Kern, 1996, p. 901).

Audience development strategists typically acknowledge the dual importance of nurturing and attracting non-attendees as well as encouraging increased attendance by existing patrons. However, in recent years, there has been an emphasis upon targeting non-attendees in order to enhance audience diversification and broaden community access to the arts (Tajta´kova´ and Arias-Aranda, 2008). Rather than targeting non-attendees, the current study focuses upon existing arts patrons (the jazz audience). One of its objectives is to identify alternative arts and entertainment outlets that are of interest to different segments of the jazz audience, thus providing opportunities for cross-selling and more diversified audience development in these areas. It also seeks to highlight the most effective print media to use when advertising to these discrete segments. Identification of demographic differences between jazz audience segments will be discussed in terms of the potential for more effectively targeted festival sponsorship. Survey data were collected from patrons at the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival with the intention of establishing the demographic profile of the jazz audience and identifying possible differences between two broad categories of jazz fan (modern and hybrid). Although clear-cut boundaries between sub-genres of jazz are often problematic to demarcate, it is clear that the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival caters mainly for the modern jazz audience through consistently scheduling more modern jazz than traditional/mainstream jazz concerts. Examination of the festival programmes in recent years reveals that 70-80 per cent of concerts would normally be categorised as modern jazz. The remaining traditional/mainstream concerts mainly take

Jazz festival audience

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place in a dedicated restaurant venue that bundles meal and concert ticket into a single price. For the purpose of this study, hybrid jazz fans are categorised as those buying traditional/mainstream jazz CDs who may also buy modern jazz CDs, thus distinguishing them from exclusively modern jazz fans that do not buy traditional/mainstream jazz CDs. It is suggested that such a distinction in CD purchase behaviour is likely to be indicative of a similar pattern of attendance at modern and traditional/mainstream jazz concerts. While Andreasen and Belk (1980) reported no significant gender difference in theatre and classical music concert attendance, Oakes (2003a) revealed significantly higher jazz concert attendance by males. It is suggested that purchase of hybrid or exclusively modern jazz CDs may also differ according to gender. Research (Oakes, 2003a) highlighting the newspaper readership of UK jazz and classical music fans revealed that jazz fans were more likely to read “liberal” broadsheets, while classical music fans favoured “conservative” broadsheets. Since modern jazz has been associated with more freedom in terms of liberation from various constraints (e.g. dress code and notated music), it is proposed that modern jazz fans will purchase more “liberal” newspapers while hybrid jazz fans will purchase more “conservative” ones. Hybrid jazz fans are more inclusive in their taste for different sub-genres of jazz. Consequently, it is proposed that they will be significantly more likely to purchase CDs that are representative of other musical genres. Furthermore, they are more likely to be interested in attending a wider variety of festivals and events, thus reflecting their more inclusive eclecticism. The Cheltenham Jazz Festival was started in 1996 and has successfully established itself as one of the most popular jazz festivals in the UK Cheltenham has a reputation as one of the most important festival capitals in Europe since it also stages annually the Cheltenham (classical) Music Festival, the Times Cheltenham Science Festival, and the Times Cheltenham Literature Festival. Since some Cheltenham festivals have received newspaper sponsorship, the Cheltenham Jazz Festival was considered an appropriate venue for the current study that gathers data on newspaper readership of the jazz festival audience. The Cheltenham International Jazz Festival is regularly funded by Arts Council England, but is in competition for funding with a range of art forms in an economic environment that is likely to be increasingly fraught in the wake of the recent credit crunch. Previous research (Oakes, 2003a) has revealed how jazz festival promoters have sought to resist classification of jazz by arts funding bodies as merely one of several subordinate musical genres within the broader arts product mix. In this competitive context, increased understanding of the jazz festival audience is critical. Traditional jazz pays homage to the origins of jazz in New Orleans where it developed through Negro blues and gospel singing. Mainstream jazz originates from around the 1940s involving tunes from the Great American Songbook. While traditional and modern jazz are nominally distinct from each other, the more subtle distinction between mainstream and modern jazz may be highlighted with reference to two guitarists who have recently performed at the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival. The music of modern jazz guitarist Adam Rogers involves original compositions with improvisation that is unpredictable, spontaneous and harmonically adventurous. In contrast, mainstream jazz guitarist Martin Taylor has a more harmonically conservative and predictable repertoire of meticulous arrangements of unaccompanied jazz standards that are relatively standardised from performance to performance.

Musical taste is capable of reinforcing the self-image of fans by serving as a “badge of identity” (North and Hargreaves, 1999). For example, modern jazz has many different forms, the most radical of which is spontaneous “free-jazz” that is likely to be associated with a more “liberal” self-image for its audience in comparison to more “conservative” traditional/mainstream jazz. When considering the jazz audience, it may be argued that modern jazz caters for a niche market of devoted fans seeking higher levels of surprise and unpredictability compared to traditional/mainstream jazz fans. Since modern jazz permits greater freedom (e.g. in terms of harmonic expression) than earlier forms of jazz, the concepts of freedom and constraint are discussed in this study in order to highlight some of the potential differences between hybrid and modern jazz fans as evidenced through their differing musical tastes and consumption patterns. The current study examines the level of interest demonstrated by jazz fans in attending future scheduled events and festivals (including festivals devoted to comedy, literature, drama, light entertainment, rock/pop, contemporary classical, folk and brass band music). It is particularly relevant to identify the interest levels of the jazz festival audience for those festivals that share a common interest in some form of improvisation. Consequently, it is important to acknowledge that improvisation is not a musical concept that is exclusive to jazz. It was a vital component in baroque music with its emphasis on embellishments, and is frequently incorporated into contemporary classical compositions. Improvisation is also an important element in other genres of contemporary music. For example, classical guitarist Ralph Towner (who has also performed at the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival) improvises in a style that dissolves the boundaries between contemporary jazz, classical and folk music. Furthermore, Bailey (1992) has identified some of the improvisatory elements present in folk, rock and pop music. Therefore, the current study examines the interest jazz fans demonstrate in attending contemporary classical, folk and rock/pop music festivals. The appetite of audiences for live improvisation is not restricted to musical art forms. Various film directors (e.g. Woody Allen) have frequently veered away from defined scripts to allow the actors to improvise. The success of comedy clubs in the UK also demonstrates a distinctive market for quick-witted, improvisatory comedy containing extensive (“ad-lib”) material. Comic role-play and improvisatory theatrical productions engage audiences and encourage their participation by frequently abandoning scripted material. Dialogue and plot are subsequently developed in response to audience prompts. The Hay Festival in Hay-on-Wye is an annual literature festival that often includes elements of verbal improvisation (including improvisatory comedy) in its schedule. The improvisatory link between jazz, comedy, drama and literature encourages examination of the interest jazz fans demonstrate in attending such festivals. This study also examines the extent to which the jazz festival audience segments may be interested in attending festivals with minimal improvisation including light entertainment and military themed brass band festivals. In addition to providing a clearer picture of the overall consumer segment that is attracted to live jazz, evaluation of the demographics of the modern and hybrid jazz audience is likely to be of value to a variety of arts organisations if there is evidence to suggest that either segment of fans is likely to be particularly interested in attending other types of festivals. Indeed, research by DiMaggio et al. (1978) has indicated that heavy attenders of one performing art form frequently display co-patronage of other performing arts.


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Method Having discussed the different sub-genres of jazz and examined improvisation in a variety of contexts, it is important to evaluate the musical tastes and consumption habits of the jazz audience along with basic demographic data. Consequently, survey data was collected from patrons of the Cheltenham International jazz festival regarding the characteristics of age, gender, degree qualifications, home ownership levels, newspaper readership, frequency of attending live jazz performances, interest in attending other festivals and CD purchase behaviour. The questionnaire segmented the audience depending upon whether their preference was exclusively for modern jazz or inclusively for traditional/mainstream and modern jazz (hybrid jazz fans) as evidenced by their CD purchase patterns. Data were obtained from a convenience sample of people who had bought tickets to attend jazz concerts at the Cheltenham International Jazz Festival. The number of concert tickets sold was approximately 12,000 for this jazz festival. Questionnaires were left on tables within the venues or were personally offered to members of the festival audience who were waiting in the bars and dining areas of venues prior to the start or during the interval of concerts. The questionnaires were distributed and collected by Cheltenham International Jazz Festival staff. Participants were encouraged to return completed questionnaires to the venue’s festival information point with the incentive of being entered into a free prize draw to win £75 worth of CDs (244 completed questionnaires were returned). It is suggested that research focusing upon the jazz festival audience is likely to be enhanced when data is collected within the venues where live jazz performances are taking place. Dichotomous questions measured gender, degree qualifications and home ownership levels, while open-ended questions identified newspaper readership and frequency of attending live jazz performances. Multiple-choice questions measured age band and interest in attending the future scheduled events and festivals identified earlier in the paper. A further multiple-choice question measured regular purchase of CDs in a variety of genres including modern jazz, traditional/mainstream jazz, easy-listening, blues, rock/pop and classical music. Instructions encouraged participants to tick as many musical categories as applicable. Results Responses to the CD purchase behaviour question allowed categorisation of 177 exclusively modern jazz fans compared to 67 hybrid jazz fans. Responses to the age band question revealed a similar pattern of age ranges for modern and hybrid jazz fans with 78 per cent of hybrid jazz fans aged 35 or over compared to 86 per cent of modern jazz fans. The largest cohort of fans was in the 45-54 age bracket for both modern (64/175 ¼ 37 per cent) and hybrid (17/67 ¼ 25 per cent) jazz fans. Results revealed high levels of home ownership amongst fans. However, x 2 results revealed no significant difference between the two segments (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.02, ns) as 84 per cent (56/67) of hybrid jazz and 83 per cent (145/175) of modern jazz fans owned their own homes. High levels of educational qualifications were also evident. Amongst fans of hybrid jazz, 49 per cent (33/67) had first degrees compared to 59 per cent (105/177) from the modern jazz segment, although x 2 results revealed no significant difference between the two segments (x 2 (1) ¼ 2.01, ns). x 2 results also revealed no significant difference between the two segments regarding postgraduate qualifications (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.01, ns). A total of

40 per cent (70/177) of modern jazz fans had a postgraduate qualification compared to a similar ratio of 40 per cent (27/67) of hybrid jazz fans. These results confirm the findings of previous demographic research identifying the high educational levels of jazz festival patrons (Saleh and Ryan, 1993), and are consistent with research by Oakes and North (2008) that revealed how the “elite” nature of jazz has typically appealed to educated people who are higher up the social class structure. However, results identified a statistically significant association between gender profile and purchase of hybrid or exclusively modern jazz CDs (x 2 (1) ¼ 4.42, p , 0.05). The nature of this association confirms considerably higher purchases of exclusively modern jazz CDs by males compared to females. The ratio of male fans was significantly greater for modern jazz (128/173 ¼ 74 per cent) than hybrid jazz (39/65 ¼ 60 per cent). In categorising these participants as discrete sub-genre fans according to their CD purchases, it is also clear that male fans outnumbered female fans in both modern and hybrid jazz contexts. Although generally neglected in tabloid newspapers, all of the UK broadsheets provide reviews of the Cheltenham Jazz Festival, and their positive remarks are typically highlighted on the Cheltenham Jazz Festival web site. Results revealed a statistically significant association between newspaper readership and purchase of hybrid or exclusively modern jazz CDs (x 2 (1) ¼ 4.93, p , 0.05). Inspection of Table I indicates that the nature of this association confirms higher readership by exclusively modern jazz fans of “liberal” broadsheets (including the Guardian and the Independent that historically support the Labour and Liberal Democrat Parties), while “conservative” broadsheets (including the Daily Telegraph and the Times that historically support the Conservative Party) were more likely to be read by hybrid fans.The data on newspaper readership relates to participants who indicated that they exclusively bought one or more newspapers categorised as either “liberal” or “conservative”. Participants who bought newspapers from both categories were excluded from the data set. The preference of modern jazz fans for the Independent newspaper may be partially attributable to the extent to which the concept of independence suggests autonomy and freedom from external control. In the same way that modern jazz frequently demonstrates more freedom and less constraint than traditional/mainstream jazz, it would appear that the self-image of jazz fans could well reflect this dichotomy through their purchase behaviour. In this way, preference for particular sub-genres of jazz may

Items purchased Modern jazz CDs Traditional/mainstream jazz CDs Easy-listening CDs Blues CDs Rock/pop CDs Classical music CDs “Liberal” newspapers “Conservative” newspapers

Modern jazz fans 177/177 0/177 24/177 83/177 72/177 108/177 76/124 48/124

(100) (0) (13) (47) (41) (61) (61) (39)

Note: The values in parentheses are calculated in percentage

Hybrid jazz fans 44/67 67/67 19/67 41/67 29/67 42/67 17/41 24/41

(65) (100) (28) (61) (43) (63) (41) (59)


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p , 0.001 , 0.001 , 0.01 , 0.05 ns ns , 0.05

Table I. Purchase behaviour of modern and hybrid jazz fans

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act as a “badge of identity” (North and Hargreaves, 1999) linking music with self-image for both musicians and their fans. There was no significant difference in purchase of rock/pop (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.14, ns) or classical music CDs (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.06, ns). However, there was a statistically significant association between category of jazz fan and CD purchase behaviour (Table I) indicating that the hybrid fans purchased significantly more traditional/mainstream jazz (x 2 (1) ¼ 244.00, p , 0.001), easy listening (x 2 (1) ¼ 7.33, p , 0.01), and blues CDs (x 2 (1) ¼ 3.98, p , 0.05). Unsurprisingly, the hybrid fans purchased significantly fewer modern jazz CDs (x 2 (1) ¼ 67.09, p , 0.001). Interest in attending rock/pop music, comedy, literature, drama, folk music and contemporary classical music festivals was relatively high (19-42 per cent) for hybrid jazz and modern jazz fans (Table II). There was a statistically significant association between category of jazz fan and likelihood of attending some of these festivals. Hybrid jazz fans indicated that they were more likely to attend future scheduled events (Table II) focusing upon comedy (x 2 (1) ¼ 5.61, p , 0.05), light entertainment (x 2 (1) ¼ 8.30, p , 0.005), rock/pop music (x 2 (1) ¼ 5.74, p , 0.05) and military themed brass bands (x 2 (1) ¼ 9.39, p , 0.005). Although there was interest from both segments in attending such festivals (Table II), there was no significant difference between the two segments regarding desire to attend contemporary classical music (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.07, ns), literature (x 2 (1) ¼ 1.11, ns), drama (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.31, ns), or folk music events (x 2 (1) ¼ 0.09, ns). However, despite their more restricted range of jazz concert options, an independent-samples t-test (t(236) ¼ 2 3.68, p , 0.005) indicated that exclusively modern jazz fans (M ¼ 5.17, SD ¼ 1.83) go to more live jazz performances per year than hybrid jazz fans (M ¼ 4.19, SD ¼ 1.79). Discussion The empirical data highlighted in Tables I and II reveal the extent of the binary divide between hybrid and modern jazz fans. Differences in purchase behaviour and festival preferences suggest likely differences between segments in terms of the potential demand for cross-selling of other live entertainment services and related merchandise. Although both modern and hybrid jazz fans demonstrate substantial interest in many of the festivals highlighted, hybrid jazz fans would appear to be the most receptive segment overall. Differences in newspaper preference underline the importance of choosing the most appropriate print media when advertising to these discrete segments.

Festival interest

Table II. Differences in festival interest level between modern and hybrid jazz fans

Light entertainment Military themed brass bands Rock/pop music Comedy Literature Drama Folk music Contemporary classical

Modern jazz fans 9/177 2/177 46/177 33/177 60/177 44/177 52/177 37/177

(5) (1) (26) (19) (34) (25) (29) (21)

Note: The values in parentheses are calculated in percentage

Hybrid jazz fans 11/67 6/67 28/67 22/67 18/67 19/67 21/67 13/67

(17) (9) (42) (33) (27) (28) (31) (19)

p , 0.005 , 0.005 , 0.05 , 0.05 ns ns ns ns

The increased purchase of “liberal” newspapers by modern jazz fans is consistent with the more liberated image of modern jazz. Likewise, modern jazz fans’ dislike of military brass bands (Table II) is consistent with their rejection of the authoritarianism of a dominant leader and the tradition of uniforms and standardised dress codes. The less negative response of hybrid jazz fans towards brass band festivals may be due to the influence of New Orleans brass bands upon the development of traditional jazz. While the purchase patterns for rock/pop and classical music CDs are almost identical in percentage terms, Table II also demonstrates how hybrid jazz fans have much more eclectic interests in easy-listening and blues CDs. Since hybrid jazz fans also demonstrate greater interest in festivals (e.g. light entertainment and comedy), this suggests that modern jazz fans may paradoxically reveal a more constrained impulse in terms of the narrow exclusivity of their tastes. Future qualitative research could usefully explore the factors that encourage or inhibit wider festival attendance by modern and hybrid jazz fans. Furthermore, since it appears that there is a marketing opportunity to encourage jazz festival fans to attend different festivals, future research is required in order to examine the potential interest in attending jazz festivals by fans attending festivals of other genres. When evaluating the interest of jazz fans in attending other music festivals, it is important to consider festivals that have a jazz component, but are not exclusively jazz festivals. For example, the Glastonbury Festival typically attracts over 150,000 people to its rural site during the last weekend of June, and has a Jazz World stage that showcases an eclectic mix of jazz and world music bands. Encouraging the inclusion of a jazz component in other major festivals would potentially increase the appeal of jazz to a younger audience, particularly when using bands that merge jazz with other genres (e.g. rock, pop, folk, etc.). Research has established how psychographic segmentation of arts patrons can identify underlying motivations to attend, thereby enhancing repositioning opportunities for arts organisations (Thyne, 2001). While the concepts of freedom and constraint have been previously discussed in highlighting a key distinction between hybrid and modern jazz fans, there is a need for further research examining the consumer psychographics of these segments (e.g. regarding self-concept, personality, consumption patterns and lifestyle). Such research would enable jazz festival marketers to communicate more effectively with target segments in future promotional literature, thus potentially increasing audience numbers and enhancing sponsorship effectiveness. Since male fans outnumbered female fans, particularly regarding modern jazz, attendance motivation research is required to highlight possible reasons for this gender discrepancy. Previous research has provided evidence suggesting that sponsorship of music festivals impacts upon brand recall, awareness and attitude to the brand (Rowley and Williams, 2008). Within this context, increased awareness of differences between modern and hybrid jazz fans in terms of demographics and purchase behaviour creates the potential for more effectively targeted sponsorship of individual festival concerts according to sub-genre of jazz. For example, while “liberal” broadsheet newspapers may be particularly interested in sponsoring modern jazz concerts on the basis of the data collected, these findings suggest that organisations advertising regularly in “liberal” broadsheets may also be more receptive to sponsoring modern jazz concerts due to the demographic match with their target audience. Likewise, “conservative” broadsheets


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(The Times already sponsors two festivals at Cheltenham) and their advertisers may be encouraged to sponsor traditional/mainstream concerts. When considering the demographics of the generally well-educated, predominantly male jazz festival audience, it is clear that there is a heavy dependence upon middle-aged attendees, thus suggesting the need to increase attendance by younger people. While demographic trends suggest that the baby boomer cohort comprising the core middle-aged fan base for jazz festivals is likely to grow over the next few decades, attracting a younger generation of fans is important for the long-term success and continuity of the festival. Furthermore, a younger average age of patron is likely to invigorate the festival atmosphere and encourage increased sponsorship. Although a wider audience is clearly required, it is vital to ensure that the artistic integrity of jazz is not sacrificed in the process. Jazz promoters are aware of the commercial pressures from funding bodies that may encourage increasing accessibility to jazz by diluting its cognitive complexity in order to reach a larger, younger and less discriminating audience segment. However, such marketing objectives may frequently conflict with and constrain the aesthetic objectives of the music. When positioning the festival to a younger audience, the problem is compounded by confusion regarding whether to classify jazz as highbrow, middlebrow or lowbrow (Peterson and Kern, 1996). Classification is important because lowbrow and middlebrow music tend to be heavily promoted through the media, while the sophistication of highbrow music is communicated through the educational system. Future research is required to identify the perception of jazz in the minds of younger consumers who have had relatively little exposure to the music. Such research would be a valuable starting point in attempts to establish an unambiguous and coherent repositioning strategy capable of increasing the audience for the music without aesthetic compromise. The current study acknowledges the limitations of using a convenience sample and stresses the benefits of a more representative sample in future jazz festival audience research. References Andreasen, A.R. and Belk, R.W. (1980), “Predictors of attendance at the performing arts”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 7, pp. 112-20. Bailey, D. (1992), Improvisation: Its Nature and Practice in Music, Da Capo Press, Dearborn, MI. Currie, G. and Hobart, C. (1994), “Can opera be brought to the masses? A case study of Carmen the opera”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 13-18. Dennis, N. and Macaulay, M. (2003), “Jazz and marketing planning”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol. 11, pp. 177-85. Dennis, N. and Macaulay, M. (2007), “Miles ahead – using jazz to investigate improvisation and market orientation”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 41 Nos 5/6, pp. 608-23. DiMaggio, P., Useem, M. and Brown, P. (1978), Audience Studies of the Performing Arts and Museums: A Critical Review, National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, DC. Formica, S. and Uysal, M. (1996), “A market segmentation of festival visitors: Umbria jazz festival in Italy”, Festival Management and Event Tourism, Vol. 3, pp. 175-82. Kolb, B.M. (2001), “The effect of generational change on classical music concert attendance and orchestras’ responses in the UK and US”, Cultural Trends, Vol. 41, pp. 1-35. Kubacki, K. (2008), “Jazz musicians: creating service experience in live performance”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 303-13.

MacDonald, R. and Jolliffe, L. (2003), “Cultural rural tourism: evidence from Canada”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 307-22. MacDonald, R. and Wilson, G. (2005), “Musical identities of professional jazz musicians: a focus group investigation”, Psychology of Music, Vol. 33 No. 4, pp. 395-417. North, A.C. and Hargreaves, D.J. (1999), “Music and adolescent identity”, Music Education Research, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 75-92. Oakes, S. (2003a), “Demographic and sponsorship considerations for jazz and classical music festivals”, The Service Industries Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 165-78. Oakes, S. (2003b), “Musical tempo and waiting perceptions”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 8, pp. 685-705. Oakes, S. (2009), “Freedom and constraint in the empowerment as jazz metaphor”, Marketing Theory, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 463-85. Oakes, S. and North, A.C. (2008), “Reviewing congruity effects in the service environment musicscape”, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 63-82. Peterson, R.A. and Kern, R.M. (1996), “Changing highbrow taste: from snob to omnivore”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 61, pp. 900-7. Prentice, R. and Andersen, V. (2003), “Festival as creative destination”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 7-30. Rowley, J. and Williams, C. (2008), “The impact of brand sponsorship of music festivals”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 26 No. 7, pp. 781-92. Saleh, F. and Ryan, C. (1993), “Jazz and knitwear: factors that attract tourists to festivals”, Tourism Management, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 289-97. Tajta´kova´, M. and Arias-Aranda, D. (2008), “Targeting university students in audience development strategies for opera and ballet”, The Service Industries Journal, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 179-91. Thyne, M. (2001), “The importance of values research for nonprofit organisations: the motivation-based values of museum visitors”, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 116-30. Wilson, S. (2003), “The effect of music on perceived atmosphere and purchase intentions in a restaurant”, Psychology of Music, Vol. 31, pp. 93-112. Corresponding author Steve Oakes can be contacted at: [email protected]

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