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To cite this article: Berndt MC, Karunakaran D, Gardiner EE, Andrews RK. Programmed autologous cleavage ..... 26 Leonard JD, Lin F, Milla ME. Chaperone-like ...
Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 5 (Suppl. 1): 212–219

INVITED REVIEW

Programmed autologous cleavage of platelet receptors M . C . B E R N D T , * D . K A R U N A K A R A N ,   E . E . G A R D I N E R * and R . K . A N D R E W S * *Department of Immunology; and  Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Alfred Medical Research and Education Precinct, Melbourne, Vic., Australia

To cite this article: Berndt MC, Karunakaran D, Gardiner EE, Andrews RK. Programmed autologous cleavage of platelet receptors. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5 (Suppl. 1): 212–9.

Summary. Platelet adhesion receptors play a critical role in vascular pathophysiology, and control platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation in hemostasis, thrombotic disease and atherogenesis. One of the key emerging mechanisms for regulating platelet function is the programmed autologous cleavage of platelet receptors. Induced by ligand binding or platelet activation, proteolysis at extracellular (ectodomain shedding) or intracellular (cytoplasmic domain deactivation) sites down-regulates the adheso-signaling function of receptors, thereby controlling not only platelet responsiveness, but in the case of ectodomain shedding, liberating soluble ectodomain fragments into plasma where they constitute potential modulators or markers. This review discusses the underlying mechanisms for dual proteolytic pathways of receptor regulation, and the impact of these pathways on thrombus formation and stability in vivo. Keywords: GPIb-IX-V, GPVI, metalloproteineses, platelets, thrombosis. Introduction One of the most fundamental homeostatic mechanisms is hemostasis, the ability to arrest blood loss after traumatic injury. In mammals, this is initiated by the adhesion of circulating blood platelets to the damaged vessel wall, culminating in platelet plug formation. Ironically, however, when triggered under pathological conditions, this normally protective cascade of events results in arterial thrombosis, responsible for major clinical sequelae such as heart attack and ischemic stroke. Two platelet receptors, the glycoprotein (GP) Ib-IX-V complex and the GPVI/FcRc-chain (a complex of GPVI and Fc receptor c-chain), are pivotal in initiating and propagating both hemostasis and thrombosis [1–8]. In the arterial circulation when an atherosclerotic plaque ruptures, these receptors Correspondence: Michael C. Berndt, Monash University Department of Immunology, Alfred Medical Research and Education Precinct (AMREP), Commercial Road, Melbourne, Australia. Tel.: + 61 3 9903 0713; fax: + 61 3 9903 0038 ; e-mail: [email protected] Received 1 February 2007; accepted 19 February 2007

initiate platelet adhesion in response to exposed thrombogenic materials by binding vessel wall von Willebrand factor (VWF) and collagen, respectively. The adherent platelets are activated, spread, release the contents of their storage organelles, and become cohesive toward circulating platelets by activating the platelet integrin, aIIbb3, resulting in occlusive thrombus [7,8]. While these adhesive processes and subsequent events in thrombus formation have been the subject of intense investigation, the mechanisms that negatively regulate the function of these and other receptors in activated platelets, and thus act to limit thrombus formation and stability, are poorly understood. One common mechanism for regulating receptor function upon cell activation is proteolysis, by which receptor function is modified by either metalloproteinase-induced removal of the ligand-binding domain or by cleavage within the receptor cytoplasmic tail by intracellular proteases such as calpain. There is now convincing evidence that both of these mechanisms play a significant role in regulating platelet function mediated by GPVI/FcRc [9–12], GPIb–IX–V [13–15] or other platelet receptors [16–19]. Ectodomain shedding as a mechanism of receptor down-regulation Cell receptors can be proteolytically cleaved at their juxtamembrane region, resulting in detachment of their extracellular region (the ectodomain). Shedding can release cytokines and growth factors from their membrane-bound precursors or, conversely, down-regulate receptor function [20–22]. Membrane protein receptor shedding is mediated almost exclusively by two ubiquitously expressed members of the ADAM family of metalloproteinases, ADAM10 and ADAM17 (also termed TACE). Knock-out of ADAM10 in mice is embryonic lethal, while that of ADAM17 is perinatal lethal, suggesting important roles for both in normal development. ADAM10 and ADAM17 consist of an N-terminal pro-domain, a zinc-binding metalloproteinase domain, a disintegrin domain, a Cys-rich domain, a transmembrane domain and a cytoplasmic tail (Fig. 1). Other surface-expressed ADAMs also include an epidermal growth factor-like domain (between the Cys-rich and transmembrane domains). ADAMs are expressed on the cell membrane in an inactive precursor form involving a Ôcysteine-switchÕ mechanism, in which the presence of the Ó 2007 International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Cleavage of platelet receptors 213

A (a)

SH

ADAM10/17 Sheddases

Catalytic

Pro

TM

(b) Signals ?

Disintegrin Cys-rich

Cytoplasmic tail

B

compete for the same binding site on calmodulin as the amphipathic peptide sequence, and thus cause calmodulin dissociation from the receptor. Similarly, mutagenic disruption of the L-selectin calmodulin-binding site leads to enhanced ectodomain shedding of the receptor (in the absence of inhibitors) [28]. There are now multiple examples of shed receptors where shedding is regulated by a membrane-proximal cytoplasmic calmodulin-binding sequence [10,12,29,31]. The GPIb–IX–V complex

Catalytic

Pro

Disintegrin Cys-rich

dc

Snake venom metalloproteinase family Fig. 1. Metalloproteinase-disintegrin structure and regulation. (A) Mammalian members of the ADAM family, ADAM10 and ADAM 17, consist of a pro-peptide domain, catalytic domain, disintegrin domain, regulatory Cys-rich domain, transmembrane region, and cytoplasmic tail, and may be regulated by (a) cysteine-switch, where a free sulfhydryl in the pro-peptide domain interacts with the active-site metal ion inhibiting the enzyme (removal of the pro-peptide or thiol-modification of the cysteine activates the ADAM), or (b) intracellular signals, required for ADAMmediated ectodomain shedding. (B) Snake venom metalloproteinase-disintegrins are structurally related to mammalian ADAM family metalloproteinases, and exist as multiple processed forms, including distintegrin/ Cys-rich (dc) forms.

unpaired cysteine residue and pro-domain maintain the metalloproteinase in a catalytically inactive form [22–26]. Blockade of the pro-domain cysteine with thiol-modifying reagents such as p-chloromercuribenzoate or N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) results in activation of the ADAM and induction of receptor shedding [22–26]. Mammalian ADAMs are structurally related to snake venom metalloproteinase-disintegrins (Fig. 1). The crystal structure of the rattlesnake metalloproteinase, VAP-1, showing physical proximity of the catalytic and Cys-rich domains, suggests the latter may act as a regulatory domain [27]. In this regard, ADAM10-mediated proteolysis of the ephrin receptor complex, occurring in trans [28], is regulated by the isolated disintegrin/Cys-rich (dc) domain (Fig. 1). In a cellular context, ADAMs are normally activated by ligation of the potentially shed receptor, or by cell activation, although the precise mechanism by which this occurs is poorly understood. One of the earliest examples of receptor shedding is the ADAM17-mediated cleavage of L-selectin, one of the selectin adhesion receptors mediating leukocyte rolling on endothelium. Kahn et al. [29,30] demonstrated that the positively-charged, amphipathic, juxtamembrane cytoplasmic sequence of L-selectin bound calmodulin, and that activationdependent dissociation of calmodulin triggered ADAM17dependent shedding of the L-selectin ectodomain. Treatment of neutrophils with calmodulin antagonists, such as trifluoperazine or W7, also triggers shedding, as these antagonists Ó 2007 International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

The GPIb–IX–V complex is a pivotal mucin adhesion receptor at the interface between thrombosis and inflammation [1–3]. At high arterial flow rates, GPIb–IX–V facilitates initial platelet adhesion, as well as platelet deposition on the developing thrombus, which involves an interaction with VWF and/or other ligands [1–4,8,32–35]. In addition to this, it is a key receptor mediating the interaction of platelets with activated endothelium and with leukocytes, through binding P-selectin and Mac-1 (aMb2), respectively [36,37]. Recent evidence indicates that the interaction of GPIb with endothelial P-selectin is critical for early development of atherosclerosis, and that the interaction of GPIb with Mac-1 is essential for the transmigration of monocyte/macrophages through mural thrombus [36– 40]. The GPIb–IX–V complex also is intimately involved with coagulation, through binding of kininogen, factors (F) XI and XII, and a-thrombin [41–51]. GPIb–IX–V is a complex of glycoproteins of the leucine-rich repeat family: GPIba (130 kDa) and GPIbb (25 kDa) are disulfide-linked and non-covalently associated with GPIX (22 kDa) and GPV (82 kDa) as a 2:2:2:1 (or higher order) complex [1–3,52]. The N-terminal globular domain of GPIba (residues 1–282) is the major ligand-binding region of GPIb–IX–V and contains nonidentical but partially overlapping binding sites for VWF, athrombin, FXI and XII, Mac-1, and P-selectin [1–4,36,37,41– 51]. Immediately C-terminal to the N-terminal globular domain, is a mucin domain, rich in O-linked carbohydrate, followed by a short peptide linker sequence containing a membrane-proximal disulfide link(s) to GPIbb, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail (Fig. 2) [1–3,52]. The GPVI/FcRc-chain complex

GPVI is a collagen receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily [4,5,53,54]. There are two extracellular immunoglobulinlike domains, a mucin-like core, a short peptide linker sequence, a transmembrane domain, and a short cytoplasmic tail of 51 amino acids. It forms a non-covalent complex with the Fc receptor c-chain (FcRc) dimer (Fig. 3) [55,56], and is the major collagen signaling receptor on platelets, leading to activation of platelet aggregation, through the fibrinogen- and VWF-binding integrin, aIIbb3, and to activation of the collagen-binding integrin, a2b1, which stabilizes the interaction of platelets with fibrillar collagen [5,6]. Platelet levels of GPVI not only reflect platelet responsiveness to collagen [57–59], but may also act as a marker of thrombotic risk [60]. We have previously

214 M. C. Berndt et al VMF

Mac-1

Ectodomain shedding of GPIba, GPV and GPVI

P-selectin GPIbα (Glycocalicin)

GPIb-IX-V GPIbα GPV

Glu282

GPIbβ

GPIbβ GPIX

Metalloproteinase -S-S-

CaM

-S-S-

-S-S-

CaM

Calmodulin inhibitor W7

CaM

CaM

SIGNALLING PATHWAYS

Fig. 2. Structure of the glycoprotein Ib–IX–V complex, illustrating ectodomain shedding. GPIb–IX–V complex consists of GPIba (the major ligand-binding subunit) disulfide-linked to GPIbb and non-covalently associated with GPIX and GPV. GPIba binds von Willebrand factor, the leukocyte integrin Mac-1 (aMb2), P-selectin and other ligands. The cytoplasmic domains of GPIbb and GPV bind calmodulin. Metalloproteinasemediated ectodomain shedding generates a soluble ectodomain fragment of GPIba (glycocalicin) and GPV (not shown).

Collagen CRP

Mabs

CVX

GPVI Ig

Alborhagin

GPVI

~55 kDa soluble fragment

Ig Ig Ig

FcRγ

Metalloproteinase

R CaM

Fyn Lyn

R

ITAM

ITAM

Syk

Calmodulin inhibitor W7

~10 kDa remnant

CaM

SIGNALLING PATHWAYS Fig. 3. Structure of the GPVI/FcRc complex, illustrating ectodomain shedding. Binding of collagen, collagen-related peptide or the snake toxin convulxin to GPVI/FcRc leads to activation of ITAM-dependent signaling pathways, dissociation of calmodulin from the cytoplasmic domain of GPVI, and metalloproteinase-mediated ectodomain shedding generating an 55-kDa soluble ectodomain fragment and an 10-kDa remnant that remains membrane-associated. GPVI shedding is also induced by the calmodulin inhibitor, W7.

shown that the cytoplasmic tail of GPVI has constitutively bound Src kinases, Fyn and Lyn [61]. When the GPVI receptor is cross-linked by binding collagen, or a GPVI-specific activating collagen-related peptide (CRP), or the snake venom GPVI agonists, such as convulxin (CVX) or alborhagin, the constitutively-bound Src kinases phosphorylate the ITAM (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif) sequence in FcRc, allowing the assemblage of Syk and default activation of a downstream signaling pathway [5,6,61–63].

In recent years we, and others, have demonstrated that calmodulin is associated with membrane-proximal, positivelycharged, amphipathic sequences in GPIbb, GPV and GPVI in resting human platelets (Figs 2 and 3) [56,64,65]. Activation of platelets through GPIb–IX–V by thrombin or by ristocetin/ VWF leads to the rapid dissociation of calmodulin from GPIbb and GPV [64]. Similarly, activation of platelets with the GPVIspecific agonist, CRP, led to the rapid dissociation of calmodulin from GPVI [65]. We therefore investigated whether calmodulin dissociation acted as a trigger for ectodomain shedding in these receptors [10]. In this regard, it has long been recognized that an ectodomain fragment of GPIba (termed glycocalicin) is continuously and constitutively shed from platelets, and that glycocalicin circulates at high concentrations in plasma (3 lM) [2,34,66]. GPV has also been demonstrated to be shed from activated platelets, by a metalloproteinase-dependent mechanism [13]. Calmodulin inhibitors such as W7 induce shedding of GPIba and GPV, as well as GPVI [10, 67; unpublished observations]. Analysis with a rabbit polyclonal antibody directed against the GPVI cytoplasmic tail indicated that loss of intact GPVI correlated with the formation of a membrane-bound GPVI stump of 10 kDa molecular weight. The loss of intact receptor was blocked by EDTA, and by the generic metalloproteinase inhibitor, GM6001 [10]. Shedding was also induced by treating intact platelets with the thiolmodifying reagent, NEM, suggesting shedding was ADAM dependent [67]. Indeed, in mouse platelets, Nieswandt, Wagner et al. [13–15] have demonstrated using mice where ADAM17 is expressed in an inactive form in the hematopoietic compartment (the ADAM17-knockout mouse is perinatal lethal), that shedding of GPIba and GPV are mediated almost exclusively by ADAM17, although it is unclear whether this also applies to human platelets. Treating platelets with the mitochondrialtargeting reagent, CCCP, mimicking platelet aging also induces ADAM17-mediated GPIba shedding, and there is decreased GPIba expression on aged platelets [14]. Aspirin also promoted ADAM17-mediated shedding of GPIba and GPV from human or mouse platelets, with increased levels of the respective ectodomain fragments occurring in plasma [15]. The mechanism for this metalloproteinase-mediated shedding may involve acylation of ADAM17 and/or substrate(s), rather than the classical antithrombotic target for aspirin, cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), as shedding was normal in COX-1-deficient mice [15]. Consistent with the GPVI agonist-dependent loss of GPVIassociated calmodulin [65], GPVI agonists such as collagen, CRP and CVX induce a rapid loss of GPVI from intact platelets, and the appearance of a 55-kDa soluble fragment in the supernatant, relative to intact GPVI in platelets (62 kDa) [9–11]. Shedding was blocked by treatment of platelets with EDTA, or with GM6001. In contrast, other membrane receptors, such as PECAM-1, were not shed from the platelet surface under the same conditions [10]. Nor were GPIba and GPV shed under these conditions, suggesting a shedding mechanism specific to GPVI. In contrast, GPIba and GPV are Ó 2007 International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Cleavage of platelet receptors 215

shed in response to platelet activation by low-dose thrombin, whereas GPVI is shed to a lesser extent by this agonist (unpubl. obs.). This and other evidence suggests that GPVI is shed by a different ADAM than ADAM17, possibly ADAM10 [15]. GPVI agonist-induced shedding was dependent at least on early GPVI dependent signaling and was blocked by inhibitors of Src family kinases (PP2), Syk (piceatannol) and PI 3-kinase (wortmannin) [10]. Calmodulin dissociation from GPVI on CRP-dependent platelet activation was also blocked by PP2 [65]. In contrast, W7- and NEM-induced shedding of GPVI is activation independent, as W7 causes calmodulin/receptor dissociation and NEM directly activates surface ADAM activity [22,23]. GPVI shedding can also be artificially induced in vivo using the antimouse GPVI monoclonal antibody, JAQ1, which selectively depletes GPVI expression on mouse platelets [68]. Alternately, human platelets injected into a NOD/SCID mouse can be depleted of GPVI in an activation-independent manner by antihuman GPVI antibodies [69]. Semaphorin 4D

The immune cell receptor, semaphorin 4D (Sema4D), and its binding partners, CD72 and plexin-B1, are expressed on human platelets, and Sema4D is also shed from the platelet surface [18]. Sema4D, CD72 (associated with the tyrosine phosphatase, SHP-1) and plexin-B1 contribute to the regulation of thrombus formation, and in particular, the soluble ectodomain fragment of Sema4D is functional as a competitive blocker of Sema4D-mediated aggregation. Sema4D-deficient mice exhibit decreased occlusive thrombi in arterial thrombosis models [18]. Surface expression of these proteins increases on activated platelets, and metalloproteinase-mediated shedding of Sema4D releases a soluble ectodomain fragment that may regulate angiogenesis or other vascular processes. Shedding of Sema4D is also inhibited in ADAM17-defective mice [18]. CD40L

Platelet CD40 ligand (CD40L) regulates stability of aIIbb3dependent thrombi [19,70], and is shed from activated platelets by a mechanism that involves signaling through aIIbb3 [70]. This is in contrast to GPVI shedding, which is independent of aIIbb3 [10]. The physiological relationship between shedding of CD40L and other adhesion receptors, and the effects of shedding on thrombus formation in vivo, is not yet resolved. However, there is evidence that less than the full complement of these receptors impairs occlusive thrombus formation in animal models [71]. Intracellular proteolysis as a mechanism of receptor down-regulation A number of recent studies indicate that the intracellular proteinase, calpain, is involved in regulating platelet receptors, and that calpain may be activated under the same conditions that activate ectodomain sheddases in platelets, for example, Ó 2007 International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis

following platelet activation or treatment with calmodulin inhibitors. Calpain is a ubiquitous intracellular cysteinyl proteinase, regulated, in part, by intracellular Ca2+ levels, and acting on >100 intracellular substrates [72–74]. Calpain, principally the l isoform in platelets, plays a role in regulating cytoskeletal re-arrangements associated with cell motility and adhesion, and in other cell types, division. Like receptors subject to ectodomain shedding, the ability of a protein to bind calmodulin confers a strong likelihood that this protein is a substrate for calpain [75]. Therefore, mechanisms for activating extracellular shedding pathways of proteolysis also have the potential to activate intracellular calpain-dependent proteolytic pathways via changes in cellular calmodulin. EDTA inhibits both metalloproteinase-mediated receptor shedding and calpain activity [76], presumably by interfering with Ca2+ flux. In platelets, l-calpain isoform is found at focal adhesions, where it regulates shape change, motility and adhesion, mainly through modulation of integrin clustering and function [77–81]. There is thus the possibility of dual extracellular (sheddase) and intracellular (calpain) proteolytic pathways operating in tandem in platelets. PECAM-1

Like GPVI, PECAM-1 is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, with six extracellular immunoglobulin domains, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail. In contrast to GPVI, the cytoplasmic domain of PECAM-1 contains an ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif) sequence, involved in recruiting phosphatases and attenuating thrombus formation involving GPVI/FcRc or other receptors [82–85]. Like GPVI, PECAM-1 contains a calmodulin-binding sequence in the juxtamembrane region of the cytoplasmic tail, and calmodulin inhibitors induce proteolysis of PECAM-1 [16]. However, proteolysis of PECAM-1 appears to involve cleavage of the cytoplasmic domain by calpain in activated platelets, at a site upstream of the ITIM, and consequently deactivating the receptor [17]. aIIbb3

Proteolytic regulation of the platelet-specific integrin, aIIbb3 (GPIIb-IIIa), involves intracellular and, potentially, extracellular pathways. Platelets express aIIbb3, which binds VWF or fibrinogen to mediate platelet aggregation, in addition to the vitronectin receptor, avb3, and b1 integrins a1b1, a2b1, a5b1 and a6b1, which bind adhesive ligands including collagen, laminin and/or fibronectin [86]. The leukocyte integrin, aMb2 (Mac-1), is involved in platelet-leukocyte adhesion, and is activated following initial contact of leukocyte P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 with P-selectin expressed on activated endothelial cells or activated mural platelets. This enables aMb2-mediated adhesion to the endothelial receptor, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, or platelet GPIb–IX–V [37,40]. One mechanism for the proteolytic regulation of aIIbb3 on platelets involves intracellular calpain-dependent cleavage of the b3 cytoplasmic tail, resulting in the removal of two NXXY

216 M. C. Berndt et al

motifs, and disrupting aIIbb3-dependent signaling; four calpain-dependent cleavage sites flanking the NXXY motifs have been identified in platelets [87–89]. One of the critical functions of the cytoplasmic domain of aIIbb3 is the regulation of clot contraction, involving association of the receptor with contractile actin filaments of the cytoskeleton in activated platelets, and aIIbb3-dependent clot contraction is abolished by calpain-mediated proteolysis of the b3 cytoplasmic tail [87]. Recent studies involving another leukocyte b2 integrin, aLb2, show that an unidentified sheddase(s) cleaves both a membraneproximal region of b2 and a more upstream site of aL, releasing a soluble ectodomain fragment of aL (containing the ligandbinding ÔinsertÕ domain) in complex with the ectodomain of b2, from the surface of blister-fluid neutrophils [90,91]. Cell surfaceexpressed ADAM family receptors are known to interact via their distintegrin domains with integrins; for example, ADAM15, principally via its RGD-containing disintegrin domain, acts as a counter-receptor for aIIbb3 [92]. Together, these results raise the possibility of a broader role for ADAM family metalloproteinases in platelet integrin shedding, as suggested for shedding of platelet GPIb–IX–V, GPVI and other receptors.

It is interesting to speculate that the ability of the platelet to shed GPIba and GPVI postplatelet activation is fundamental in regulating and limiting thrombus formation. First, the capacity of platelets to form filopodia and lamellipodia and spread on a VWF and/or collagen matrix requires the dynamic breaking of existing receptor/matrix ligand bonds and formation of new receptor matrix/ligand interactions at the tips of filopodia or the spreading lamellipodial edge. One mechanism for how this could occur is through receptor ectodomain shedding. Secondly, shedding of GPIba and associated VWF at the developing thrombus surface would regulate the number of translocating platelets and hence the rate of platelet accumulation. Ultimately, this would lead to the passification of the thrombus surface. Thirdly, as both GPIb- and GPVIdependent signaling involve receptor cross-linking, shedding of GPIba and GPVI could limit the time course of platelet signaling, and hence the degree of platelet activation and platelet secretion. Finally, shedding GPIba and GPVI would destabilize thrombus strength, and thus facilitate embolization. Disclosure of Conflict of Interests The authors state that they have no conflict of interest.

Mechanisms of thrombus formation and stability in vivo In response to atherosclerotic plaque rupture or vascular injury, platelets initially translocate and then rapidly adhere to exposed VWF and collagen through the platelet mucin adhesion receptors, GPIb–IX–V and GPVI/FcRc, respectively [1– 8,32,33]. Contact adhesion through these receptor/matrix protein interactions generates signals leading to platelet activation, with resultant platelet spreading providing a cohesive platelet surface for further platelet accumulation by activation of the integrin aIIbb3 [93,94]. Platelet accumulation on the developing thrombus also involves platelet translocation and subsequent firm platelet adhesion. Here, translocation is dependent on GPIb–IX–V in the interacting platelet and VWF on the surface of the developing thrombus bound through GPIb–IX–V and/or aIIbb3, with firm adhesion mediated through aIIbb3 binding of platelet associated VWF, fibronectin and/or fibrinogen [94–96]. Studies of thrombus formation in vivo using intravital microscopy indicate that the temporal development of the thrombus is a dynamic process, with large fragments of thrombus breaking off from the thrombus mass or from the thrombus/matrix interface as it develops and embolizing downstream, with subsequent replacement by fresh thrombus [95,97–99]. As activated platelets release ADP and other agonists, which facilitate platelet recruitment, and growth factors such as PDGF, which initiate vessel wound repair, it is probable that this process of thrombus formation and partial embolization acts to prolong the localized release of growth factors and chemokines that act in leukocyte recruitment and ultimately vessel repair. At a later stage, the thrombus can entirely occlude the vessel or the thrombus can cease to grow in size with no further platelet accumulation because of passification of the thrombus surface [99].

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