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Journal of Educational Psychology 2003, Vol. 95, No. 2, 409 – 418

Copyright 2003 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-0663/03/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.409

Promoting Interpersonal Competence and Educational Success Through Extracurricular Activity Participation Joseph L. Mahoney

Beverley D. Cairns and Thomas W. Farmer

Yale University

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

This longitudinal study investigated consistent participation in extracurricular activities as a contributor to long-term educational success. Participants were 695 boys and girls who were interviewed annually to the end of high school and again at age 20. Family economic status, interpersonal competence, and educational aspirations during adolescence were used to assess educational status at young adulthood. Consistent extracurricular activity participation across adolescence on the educational attainment process was examined. Consistent extracurricular activity participation was associated with high educational status at young adulthood, including college attendance. Educational status was, in turn, linked to reciprocal positive changes between extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal competence, and to educational aspirations across adolescence. Findings were most apparent for students with below-average interpersonal competence.

earlier studies. Measuring the consistency of extracurricular activity involvement over time is important to understand the possible benefits of participation. Finally, the associated process by which extracurricular activity participation relates to long-term adjustment is not well understood. In this investigation we evaluated the associated impact of extracurricular activity participation on several aspects of the educational attainment process, including the development of interpersonal competence.

In this investigation we examined the role of adolescent extracurricular activity participation in the process of long-term educational attainment. Our thesis was that consistent participation in extracurricular activities would promote interpersonal competence and personal initiative, which lay the groundwork for achieving educational success beyond high school. Understanding this process is complex and requires that several aspects of the individual and his or her interaction with the environment over time be assessed. In prior reports of the Carolina Longitudinal Study (Cairns & Cairns, 1994), extracurricular activity participation was associated with low rates of early school dropout (Mahoney & Cairns, 1997) and low rates of criminal arrest in young adulthood (Mahoney, 2000b). The findings have been observed primarily for students who showed a multiple-problem profile at the beginning of the study. In this investigation we extended the earlier work in three ways. First, in the prior studies, extracurricular activity participation was evaluated according to the presence or absence of a negative outcome (i.e., school failure, criminality). This may account for the finding that high-risk youths appear to benefit most from such participation (i.e., a statistical floor effect may have been present for more competent youths). Positive indicators of educational status (i.e., college attendance) were included in this study and should permit a more balanced assessment of who may benefit from extracurricular participation. Second, a dichotomous coding of extracurricular activity participation was used in the

Influences on Educational Status at Young Adulthood A basic influence on the educational attainment process is individual interpersonal competence. Although interpersonal competence is defined differently across development (Aber & Jones, 1998; Waters & Sroufe, 1983), maintaining good relations with peers and avoiding aggressive conflicts are core indicators of this construct at adolescence (Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Luthar & Burack, 2000; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Positive peer relations and low aggressive behavior are indicators of successful graduation from high school (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989) and educational attainment in early adulthood (Magnusson, 1988). Students who develop high interpersonal competence appear to possess both the aptitude and the resources needed to excel in education and career settings as young adults (Csikszentmihalyi & Schneider, 2000). By contrast, a lack of interpersonal competence increases the likelihood for disengagement with the formal education system, followed by less ambitious educational aspirations or career choices. Although interpersonal skills are malleable during adolescence, little information is available concerning how changes in competence across adolescence may influence longterm educational attainment. The ability to formulate specific educational plans for the future is also an important component of the educational attainment process. In Clausen’s (1991, 1993) longitudinal investigation, adolescents who, at the end of high school, reported high aspirations and challenging goals for their future were more likely to seek

Joseph L. Mahoney, Department of Psychology, Yale University; Beverley D. Cairns and Thomas W. Farmer, Center for Developmental Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grants MH45532 and MH52429 to Robert B. Cairns. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joseph L. Mahoney, Department of Psychology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208205, New Haven, Connecticut 06520. E-mail: [email protected] 409

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postsecondary education and attain promising careers as young adults than adolescents who did not formulate such goals (see also Trice & McClellan, 1993). Setting high goals for one’s future is likely to be influenced by interpersonal competence in the school insofar as persons with a history of success in the educational system may be prone toward careers that require such competence. Thus, educational aspirations in late adolescence may represent a mediating link between adolescent interpersonal competence and postsecondary educational status. The educational attainment process may also be influenced by family economy. Low family economic status can directly impose limits on available resources, opportunities, and supports needed for attaining higher education and related careers (Csikszentmihalyi & Schneider, 2000; Hofferth, Boisjoly, & Duncan, 1998). Low economic status may indirectly influence educational attainment by constraining the development of interpersonal competence. Indeed, individuals with patterns of social behavior problems are overrepresented by low family economic status (e.g., Cairns et al., 1989; Miech et al., 1999). A low family economy may contribute to the development of such problem behaviors, in part, by increasing family stress and negative parenting practices (Conger, Conger, Elder, & Lorenz, 1992; Skinner, Elder, & Conger, 1992). Moreover, family economic status may influence adolescent aspirations about the future. Adolescents who lack regular exposure to family members with high-status careers may form less ambitious aspirations about their own future (Trice, 1991).

Distinctive Features of School-Based Extracurricular Activities in the Educational Attainment Process A diversity of school-based extracurricular activities is typically available to American adolescents during secondary school (i.e., athletics, fine arts, political–student government, vocational, service clubs, and academic– curriculum-related activities). There are common features of these activities that permit a general assessment of extracurricular activity participation, rather than an activity-by-activity analysis (cf. Larson, 2000; Mahoney, 2000b; Mahoney & Stattin, 2000). First, participation in extracurricular activities is not a requirement of high school graduation. Participation typically occurs because the individual is intrinsically interested in the activity and enjoys it. Second, such activities are structured; one or more adults lead the activity, and the participants meet regularly in a context specific to the activity (e.g., gymnasium, auditorium, music room, classroom). Third, participation in extracurricular activities usually requires effort (i.e., it is challenging). Each of these aspects—voluntary participation, structure, and challenge—appears to be a critical quality by which extracurricular activities can promote interpersonal competence (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993). As long as these aspects generally define the activity, the potential for skill building and competence promotion exists. The specific activity pursued is less important than the characteristics that define it. Extracurricular activity participation provides opportunities for advancing adolescent interpersonal competence, inspiring challenging life goals, and promoting educational success. One such opportunity is the chance to form positive relationships with peers and adults outside of the classroom. For adolescents with low interpersonal competence, maintaining relationships with peers

who are engaged in conventional activities and are committed to school values may be particularly important. The peer affiliations surrounding extracurricular activity participation have been linked to increased social acceptance and popularity (Eder & Parker, 1997; Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1997; Sandstrom & Coie, 1999), decreased social alienation (Kinney, 1993; Youniss, McLellan, Su, & Yates, 1999), social identity development (Eccles & Barber, 1999), and long-term reductions in antisocial patterns (Mahoney, 2000b; see also Mahoney, Stattin, & Magnusson, 2001). Likewise, the social support received from adults who direct after-school activities is associated with low antisocial behavior (Mahoney & Stattin, 2000; Youniss, Yates, & Su, 1997), low depressed mood (Mahoney, Schweder, & Stattin, 2001), and high expectations for academic achievement (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). Participation in extracurricular activities can promote the development of what Larson (2000) has termed “initiative.” Initiative encapsulates skills such as setting personal goals, evaluating what is needed to attain goals, and then actively acquiring the abilities and resources to fulfill goals. The fact that extracurricular activities are structured, challenging, and voluntary makes them an ideal context for developing initiative. Persons participate in such activities because they enjoy doing so and consider the skills encouraged by the activity to be valuable. Intrinsic interest in challenging tasks is a model situation for learning and acquiring new skills (e.g., Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 2000). By and large, the skill acquisition process in extracurricular activities requires the participants to formulate challenging individual and group goals concerning the activity, develop and rehearse strategies to meet such goals, and then execute such strategies on a regular basis. The process can best be described as an iterative one—as skills increase, new and more challenging goals are set for the future (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Over time, this process may generalize beyond the activity setting. Accordingly, activity participants may be more apt to set ambitious goals for their future in general, including those pertaining to postsecondary school education. At the most general level, extracurricular activity participation reflects school engagement. On the one hand, this means that the individual routinely experiences a sense of meaning and purpose connected to the educational process that is qualitatively different from, but supportive of, school engagement in the classroom. The result may be greater adherence to the educational process in general, as reflected in rates of high school graduation and college attendance (e.g., Mahoney & Cairns, 1997; Marsh, 1992; Otto, 1975). On the other hand, this form of school engagement is visible to school personnel (i.e., teachers, principals), who may hold higher expectations for extracurricular activity participants compared with nonparticipants (Van Matre, Valentine, & Cooper, 2000). Taken together, these opportunities give rise to the primary hypothesis of this article—namely, that participation in extracurricular activities should lead to increased educational attainment, in part, through a positive influence on the development of adolescent interpersonal competence and educational aspirations for the future. There are two additional hypotheses that follow from the above discussion. First, it assumes that the year-to-year consistency of participation in extracurricular activities is important. Activity-related gains in interpersonal connectedness, initiative, and school engagement are formed over time and may require sustained, rather than transient, participation. Indeed, one recent

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND COMPETENCE

review of after-school programs for high-risk youth emphasized that effective programs are both intensive and long term (Roth, Brooks-Gunn, Murray, & Foster, 1998). This is consistent with the finding that successful intervention programs require continued participation to markedly improve social and cognitive adjustment in young persons (Durlak, 1997). The final expectation requires attention to individual differences in interpersonal competence. The associated benefits of extracurricular activity participation are sometimes greatest for high-risk youth (e.g., Mahoney, 2000b; Smith & Smoll, 1997). This is true, in part, because the focal outcome assessed has typically been negative (e.g., antisocial behavior, low self-esteem). In this circumstance, it is difficult to show benefits for competent students because negative outcomes are rare for such individuals (i.e., a statistical floor effect). Evaluating postsecondary educational attainment, however, permits positive status to be assessed (i.e., through college attendance) with respect to earlier activity-related changes in interpersonal competence and educational aspirations. Accordingly, the consistency of extracurricular activity participation is expected to show a positive association with education status at young adulthood for all students. However, the magnitude of gains in interpersonal competence may be constrained by the individual’s initial levels of competence. Accordingly, activity participation may play a more apparent role in the educational attainment process for students that are deficient in interpersonal competence at the beginning of the investigation.

Method Participants The participants are members of the ongoing Carolina Longitudinal Study (Cairns & Cairns, 1994). They include 695 persons (364 girls and 331 boys) living in the southeastern United States who were recruited in 1981–1983. Participants were initially interviewed in the 4th (Cohort 1) or 7th (Cohort 2) grade and were tracked annually to 12th grade. Participants were interviewed again when they were approximately 20 years old. The retention rate was between 88% and 98% for all test waves and cohorts. Approximately 25% of the sample is African American. The proportion of African American participants in the study is nearly identical to the proportion of the African American population in the counties originally selected. The mean socioeconomic status (SES) of the sample was near the national average. The sample was originally drawn from eight public schools (four elementary and four middle schools) across five communities. All children in the designated classrooms were invited to participate. Over the course of the investigation, the majority of participants attended one of seven middle schools and nine high schools located in or near the communities in which they originally resided. The size of the middle schools ranged from approximately 400 to 650 students, and the high schools ranged from approximately 550 to 750 students (cf. Mahoney, 1994). At the outset of the longitudinal investigation, the participants’ families represented the full range of SES in these communities, ranging from the chronically unemployed to business owners and professionals. According to the 1980 census, three of the sample communities were located in suburban metropolitan areas and two were designated as rural. The economy in the suburban metropolitan communities was based on manufacturing (e.g., textile mills, furniture, food processing, agriculture), small businesses, or service. In the two rural communities, agriculture has historically dominated the economy; however, manufacturing has recently become more prominent, and one of the rural communities was reclassified as suburban metropolitan during the course of the investigation (see Cairns & Cairns, 1994, for additional details concerning sample characteristics).

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Measures Interpersonal competence. As part of each annual assessment, the participants’ teachers completed the Interpersonal Competence Scale (ICS; Cairns, Leung, Gest, & Cairns, 1995). Different teachers rated the participants in consecutive years, so that the annual administrations represent independent assessments. The full ICS includes 18 items relating to social behavior and academic competence. Each item on the ICS was rated on a 7-point scale on which either end represents a polar opposite. Positive and negative endpoints of the scale were randomized by item. Items pertaining to aggression (gets into trouble, gets into fights, argues) and popularity (popular with boys, popular with girls, lots of friends) were used in the current study. The items were averaged for early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8) and middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) separately to create a measure of interpersonal competence at each age period (items pertaining to aggression were reverse-coded).1 This information was available for 97% (674/695) and 95% (657/693) of the participants during early adolescence and middle adolescence, respectively (2 participants had died by middle adolescence). Alpha reliabilities for the interpersonal competence scale were .84 for early adolescence and .80 for middle adolescence. For additional details on the psychometric properties of the ICS, the reader is directed to Cairns et al. (1995). Family economic status. Participants reported the occupations of their parent(s). Parent occupation information was averaged during Grades 7 and 8 (early adolescence) and classified using the revised version of Duncan’s Socioeconomic Index (Stevens & Cho, 1985). Consistent with the investigation’s initial data collection (1981–1982), occupational classification was based on the 1980 Census. In cases where both parents were employed, the higher of the two status scores was used in the analyses. Mean SES on the revised Duncan scale was 34.6 (SD ⫽ 17.8) and the median was 31.0, with a range of 12 (e.g., unemployed) to 91 (e.g., medical doctor, dentist, lawyer). The median value corresponds to occupations such as clerical and service workers, industrial equipment operators–repairers, and agricultural workers. Extracurricular activity participation. A total of 15 middle-school yearbooks and 29 high school yearbooks were used to assess extracurricular activity participation. All school-sponsored extracurricular activities reported in the yearbooks were included (see Mahoney & Cairns, 1997, for a comprehensive list of the extracurricular activities considered). Information on extracurricular activity participants was supplied by the individual activity adviser(s) in the form of name rosters and, often, pictures. This information was given to the school yearbook staff on an annual basis. Each year, extracurricular information was coded dichotomously, with 1 ⫽ participation in any extracurricular activity and 0 ⫽ no participation. Kappa estimates of reliability averaged .99 across all activities and grades. Consistency of extracurricular activity participation was determined by summing year-to-year participation during early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8) and middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10).2 For both age periods, this provided a range of participation on a 3-point scale (1 ⫽ no participation, 2 ⫽ one year of participation, and 3 ⫽ two years of participation). Information on the consistency of extracurricular activity participation was available for 96% (663/693) of the sample. Educational aspirations. At the age-18 interview, participants were asked whether they had made plans for the future. Specifically, they were

1 The assessment of interpersonal competence involved teacher ratings. These assessments were not available for students who dropped out of school early. This attrition may have biased the assessment of interpersonal competence in late adolescence and was therefore not included in this study. 2 Participation in extracurricular activities during late adolescence (Grades 11 and 12) was not included to avoid confounding extracurricular participation with early school dropout (cf. Mahoney & Cairns, 1997).


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asked whether they planned to pursue additional education or training or to embark on a specific line of work in the coming years. Responses were coded on a 5-point scale as follows: 1 ⫽ no plans for the future, 2 ⫽ pursue a job or career without further education or training, 3 ⫽ gain additional technical or military training, 4 ⫽ attend a 2-year college or university, and 5 ⫽ attend a 4-year college or university. This information was available for 88% (611/691) of the sample (note that 4 participants had died by the age-18 interview). Educational status. As part of the interview at age 20, participants were asked to report the highest level of education they had completed or were currently pursuing. This included current enrollment in a college or university or completion of a high school equivalency degree (e.g., a GED). Respondent information was coded on a 4-point scale as follows: 1 ⫽ dropped out during secondary school, 2 ⫽ received a high school equivalency degree, 3 ⫽ received a high school diploma, and 4 ⫽ enrolled in a postsecondary institution. Because all participants—including school dropouts—were followed to young adulthood, this information was available for the entire living sample. Reported educational status was confirmed by consulting multiple information sources, including annual inspection of school enrollment rosters, interviews with school personnel (including both teachers and school counselors), examination of official high school commencement lists, and annual interviews with the participants across secondary school and young adulthood (cf. Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Cairns et al., 1989; Xie, Mahoney, & Cairns, 1999).

Statistical Analyses Path analyses for structural modeling were performed using LISREL 8.3 (Jo¨ reskog & So¨ rbom, 1993). Pearson product–moment correlations and maximum-likelihood estimates were used to estimate the path models. To retain maximum information, pairwise deletion was used to construct the correlation matrix for the path analyses. Sample sizes were based on the median n of all pairwise correlations in the matrix. Although we regarded each of the variables involved in the path analysis as continuous, some aspects might be viewed as ordinal. Accordingly, path analyses were also performed using polychoric correlations and weighted-least-squares estimations, appropriate for such data (Bollen, 1989). Results were substantially similar regardless of the correlation matrix or estimation method used. For some analyses, ICS teacher ratings during early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8) were used to split the full sample into two subgroups— namely, those whose interpersonal competence was below the mean and those whose interpersonal competence was at or above the mean. The subgroups were created to evaluate the hypothesis that adolescents with lower interpersonal competence would show greater gains in social functioning as a result of consistent participation in extracurricular activities. A split at the sample mean was chosen to ensure that an adequate number of participants would be available to obtain reliable estimates for the path analyses (i.e., n ⬎ 200; cf. Bollen, 1989).

Results Sample-Level Analyses Descriptive information. Girls and boys were compared on educational status at the age of 20. Sixteen percent (101/692) of the sample had dropped out of secondary school, 5% (35/692) had earned an equivalency degree, 38% (263/692) were high school graduates, and 41% (386/692) were attending a postsecondary school. Girls were more likely than boys to be enrolled in a postsecondary school at the age of 20, ␹2(3, N ⫽ 692) ⫽ 13.51, p ⬍ .01.

Consistency of participation in extracurricular activities during early adolescence (Grades 7 and 8) was as follows: no participation (38% of the sample), 1 year of participation (24%), and 2 years of participation (29%). Girls were more likely to be involved in extracurricular activities during early adolescence than were boys, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 663) ⫽ 22.60, p ⬍ .001. Consistency of participation during middle adolescence (Grades 9 and 10) was as follows: no participation (29% of the sample), 1 year of participation (24%), and 2 years of participation (47%). The gender difference in participation was not significant at middle adolescence, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 663) ⫽ 0.10, ns. Regression analysis. A hierarchical regression analysis was performed to assess the proposed model of educational status. This analysis assessed whether the consistency of extracurricular activity participation during early and/or middle adolescence was significantly associated with educational status at age 20 above and beyond other features of the educational attainment process. The regression included all of the main study variables (i.e., family economic status, early and middle adolescent interpersonal competence, educational aspirations, and consistency of extracurricular activity participation in early and middle adolescence). Given the above results, gender was also included (coded as male ⫽ 1, female ⫽ 2). The regression model involved four steps. In Step 1, educational status at age 20 was regressed on gender, family economic status, and interpersonal competence during early adolescence. In Step 2, interpersonal competence during middle adolescence was added to the model. In Step 3, educational aspirations at late adolescence were included. Finally, consistency of participation in extracurricular activities during early and middle adolescence was added to the model in Step 4. A correlation matrix of variables involved in this analysis is shown in Table 1. The final regression model is shown in Tables 2 and 3. Overall, this model explained 53% of the variance in educational status at age 20. The addition of each step contributed significantly to the model. In the final step, the consistency of extracurricular activity participation accounted for an additional 6% of the variance beyond the contributions of gender, family economic status, early and middle adolescence interpersonal competence, and late adolescence educational aspirations. In terms of individual variables, the final model showed that gender and family economic status were not significant indicators of educational status given other variables in the model. Extracurricular activity participation in both early and middle adolescence was significant. Path analyses. The regression analyses provided initial evidence that the consistency of extracurricular participation was an important indicator of educational status at age 20. However, these results did not suggest whether extracurricular participation contributed to educational status, in part, by influencing interpersonal competence and educational aspirations during adolescence. To evaluate this possibility, we performed a path analysis. The model specifies paths such that educational status at age 20 reflects a long-term process involving four time points: early adolescence (family economic status, interpersonal competence, extracurricular activity participation), middle adolescence (interpersonal competence, extracurricular activity participation), late adolescence (educational aspirations), and young adulthood (educational status at age 20). Earlier time points are allowed to influence later ones, and


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Table 1 Correlation Matrix, Means, and Standard Deviations of Variables Assessed in the Educational Attainment Process Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Extracurricular activity participation (Grades 7–8) — Extracurricular activity participation (Grades 9–10) .33 — Family economic status (Grades 7–8) .19 .22 — Interpersonal competence at early adolescence (Grades 7–8) .29 .17 .23 — Interpersonal competence at middle adolescence (Grades 9–10) .23 .21 .19 .55 — Educational aspirations at late adolescence (Grade 12) .28 .35 .25 .29 .32 — Educational status (age 20) .36 .44 .28 .37 .44 .61 — M 0.91 1.18 34.58 4.92 5.11 3.38 3.05 SD 0.83 0.85 17.83 0.99 0.87 1.63 1.04

Note.

All correlations are statistically significant ( p ⬍ .01).

each of the three adolescent assessments is permitted to influence educational status at age 20. Note also that this model specifies a reciprocal process between interpersonal competence and extracurricular activity participation from early to middle adolescence. Two questions were of primary interest: (a) Is there an association between the consistency of extracurricular participation and education status at age 20 once other aspects are modeled? and (b) Is the association linked to significant changes in interpersonal competence during middle adolescence and to educational aspirations at late adolescence? Standardized path coefficients and model fit indices are shown in Figure 1. The path coefficients represent total effects (i.e., direct and indirect effects are combined). All path coefficients are statistically significant ( p ⬍ .05). The model fit the data well. Interpersonal competence during early and middle adolescence, and educational aspirations at late adolescence, each had significant, positive associations with educational status at age 20. Interpersonal competence during early and middle adolescence was also significantly linked to educational aspirations at late adolescence in a positive direction. Family economic status was significantly associated with interpersonal competence, aspirations, and educational status at age 20. The consistency of extracurricular activity participation in both early and middle adolescence showed positive, significant links to interpersonal competence in middle adolescence, educational aspirations in late adolescence, and educational status at age 20. Additionally, reciprocal associations between interpersonal com-

petence and extracurricular activity participation from early to middle adolescence were significant. To verify the importance of consistent participation in extracurricular activities, we evaluated three comparison models against the model shown in Figure 1. First, the paths from participation in extracurricular activities during early and middle adolescence to education status at young adulthood were fixed to zero (i.e., no association). The exclusion of these paths markedly decreased the model fit, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 63.07, p ⬍ .001. Second, the paths from extracurricular activity participation to educational aspirations were fixed to zero. This also decreased the model fit, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 60.54, p ⬍ .001. Finally, the intermediate links between extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal competence were fixed to zero. The exclusion of the intermediate paths significantly diminished the model fit, ␹ 2 (3, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 15.24, p ⬍ .01. Gender differences. To evaluate possible gender differences, we performed the three model comparisons described above for boys and girls. The direct links between extracurricular activities and educational attainment, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 329) ⫽ 5.26, and the intermediate links between interpersonal competence and extracurricular activities, ␹2(3, N ⫽ 329) ⫽ 0.89, did not differ significantly for boys and girls. However, the magnitude of links between extracurricular activity participation and educational aspirations did differ by gender, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 329) ⫽ 9.88, p ⬍ .05. Specifically, participation in extracurricular activities during early

Table 2 Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Educational Status at Age 20

Table 3 Final Model Coefficients for Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Educational Status at Age 20

R2 ⌬R2

Model step

⌬F

p Variable

1. Early adolescence Gender Family economic status Interpersonal competence 2. Middle adolescence: Interpersonal competence 3. Late adolescence: Educational aspirations 4. Extracurricular activity participation Early adolescence Middle adolescence dfs ⫽ 3 and 508. 504.

a

b

dfs ⫽ 1 and 507.

c

.21 .21

a

43.71 .000

.28 .07 49.51b .000 .47 .19 183.13c .000 .53 .06 31.75d .000

dfs ⫽ 1 and 506.

d

dfs ⫽ 2 and

Gender Family economic status Interpersonal competence (early adolescence) Interpersonal competence (middle adolescence) Educational aspirations Extracurricular activity participation Early adolescence Middle adolescence

Standardized ␤

t

p

⫺.04 .06 .10 .21 .40

⫺1.16 1.69 2.60 5.18 11.44

.25 .09 .01 .00 .00

.08 .23

2.29 .02 6.85 .00

Note. Degrees of freedom for each model step in the hierarchical regression analysis are shown in Table 2.


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Figure 1. Path analysis of the educational attainment process. Model fit: ␹2(2, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 3.00, p ⫽ .23; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽ .03; adjusted goodness-of-fit index ⫽ .98. SES ⫽ socioeconomic status.

adolescence was more strongly associated to educational aspirations for boys. Aspects of interpersonal competence. Although no differences between the aspects constituting the interpersonal competence construct (i.e., aggression and popularity) were expected, this possibility was evaluated. Models involving only the aggression items or only the popularity items were compared with the model shown in Figure 1 that involved the full interpersonal competence measure. The links between extracurricular activities and educational attainment, ␹2(4, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 2.17, and educational aspirations, ␹2(4, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 0.96, did not differ significantly. However, the intermediate links between extracurricular activity participation and competence were significantly different, ␹2(6, N ⫽ 657) ⫽ 21.17, p ⬍ .01. The association with educational aspirations and educational status was similar whether aggression or popularity was assessed. However, the intermediate links involving extracurricular activity participation were significantly associated only with popularity. This finding is clarified below.

Subgroup-Level Analyses Description of the subgroups. The association between the consistency of extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal competence was expected to be more evident for students whose interpersonal competence was low at early adolescence. To evaluate this, we divided the sample into students whose interpersonal competence was below average (low competence) or at or above average (high competence) at early adolescence. A comparison of the groups showed that relative to the high-competence subgroup, the low-competence subgroup had inferior interpersonal competence at middle adolescence, t(638) ⫽ ⫺14.97, p ⬍ .001; less extracurricular activity participation in early adolescence, t(663) ⫽ ⫺5.05, p ⬍ .001, and middle adolescence, t(663) ⫽ ⫺2.63, p ⬍ .001; lower educational aspirations at late adolescence, t(590) ⫽ ⫺9.98, p ⬍ .001; and lower educational status at young adulthood, t(669) ⫽ ⫺11.81, p ⬍ .001.

Path analyses. The model shown in Figure 1 was developed separately for the two subgroups. Resulting models and fit indices for the subgroups are shown in Figure 2. For the high-competence subgroup, the overall model fit was adequate, whereas the model fit was exceptional for the low-competence subgroup. The invariance in model fit between the subgroups was assessed for paths involving extracurricular activity participation. Paths between extracurricular activity participation and educational status, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 326) ⫽ 7.00, p ⬍ .05, and the intermediate paths between interpersonal competence and extracurricular activities, ␹2(3, N ⫽ 326) ⫽ 6.17, p ⬍ .05, were significantly different across subgroups. In both cases, this reflected stronger path coefficients for the low-competence subgroup. The paths between extracurricular activity participation and educational aspirations were not significantly different across the subgroups, ␹2(2, N ⫽ 326) ⫽ 0.49. Aspects of interpersonal competence. The invariance of models for the low- and high-competence subgroups shown in Figure 2 was compared with models involving only the aggression items or only the popularity items. For the high-competence subgroup, there was one significant difference. Paths between the consistency of extracurricular activity participation and interpersonal competence differed according to whether popularity or aggression items were involved, ␹2(12, N ⫽ 326) ⫽ 24.83, p ⬍ .05. Whereas the paths between extracurricular activity participation and popularity were positive and significant, those involving aggression were not. This indicated that for the high-competence subgroup, popularity was the only aspect of interpersonal competence assessed that showed a reciprocal relation over time with consistent participation in extracurricular activities. By contrast, for the low-competence subgroup, there were no significant differences in model fit regardless of whether only aggression items, only popularity items, or the full measure of interpersonal competence was involved. Post hoc assessment of college attendance. In this analysis, activity participation was assessed with respect to a dichotomous


indicator of college attendance (0 ⫽ not attending college; 1 ⫽ attending college). The EXACON program (Bergman & ElKhouri, 1987) for single-cell contingency table analysis was used to assess whether the observed number of participants attending college differed significantly from expected values according to the consistency of their extracurricular activity participation from early to middle adolescence and their initial interpersonal competence. Instances occurring significantly more often than expected are referred to as types, whereas those less likely than expected are termed antitypes (Bergman, 1996; von Eye, Spiel, & Wood, 1996). Table 4 shows that for the low-competence subgroup, college attendance was unlikely if fewer than 2 years of extracurricular

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activity participation occurred but was significantly likely for 4 years of participation. For the high-competence subgroup, a lack of extracurricular activity participation was not associated with college attendance. However, participation for 3 or 4 years was significantly linked to high rates of college attendance.

Discussion In this 8-year longitudinal study, we investigated the role of consistent participation in school extracurricular activities as a contributor to long-term educational success. Educational status at young adulthood was assessed in terms of adolescent processes

Figure 2. Path analysis of the educational attainment process for students whose interpersonal competence was (Panel A) at or above average or (Panel B) below average at early adolescence. Panel A: Model fit: ␹2(2, N ⫽ 362) ⫽ 5.47, p ⫽ .07; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽ .06; adjusted goodness-of-fit index ⫽ .94. Panel B: Model fit: ␹2(2, N ⫽ 289) ⫽ 0.78, p ⫽ .68; root-mean-square error of approximation ⫽ .00; adjusted goodness-of-fit index ⫽ .99. Unless labeled n/s (not significant), all path coefficients are statistically significant ( p ⬍ .05). SES ⫽ socioeconomic status.


416

Table 4 College Attendance as a Function of Interpersonal Competence and Years of Extracurricular Activity Participation From Grades 7 to 10 College attendees Years of extracurricular participation None One Two Three Four Note.

Interpersonal competence Lower Higher Lower Higher Lower Higher Lower Higher Lower Higher

(n (n (n (n (n (n (n (n (n (n

⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽

83) 58) 68) 72) 55) 90) 43) 67) 29) 84)

Observed

Expected

Observed/expected ratio

Hypergeometric probability

6 19 12 29 22 43 17 39 18 65

34.5 24.1 28.3 29.9 22.9 37.4 17.9 27.9 12.1 34.9

0.17 0.79 0.42 0.99 0.96 1.15 0.95 1.40 1.49 1.86

.000 (A) .097 .000 (A) .456 .459 .122 .435 .002 (T) .018 (T) .000 (T)

A ⫽ significant antitype; T ⫽ significant type.

involving family economic status, the development of interpersonal competence, and educational aspirations. Within this framework, we examined the associated influence of consistent participation in extracurricular activities across early and middle adolescence. The main finding was that consistent participation in extracurricular activities across adolescence was positively linked to educational status at young adulthood. This held for boys and girls with high or low interpersonal competence at the beginning of the investigation. The proposed developmental model of educational attainment from early adolescence through young adulthood fit the data well and is plausible. All aspects considered were significantly associated with educational status at age 20. Consistent extracurricular activity participation at both early and middle adolescence was an important contributor to understanding the educational attainment process. This held after considering multiple factors linked to educational attainment at young adulthood and when focusing on college attendance as the outcome of interest. Accordingly, the association to young adult educational status cannot be reduced to an absence of school failure. There was a significant reciprocal association between consistent extracurricular activity participation and the development of interpersonal competence. Whereas early adolescence competence was concurrently associated with consistent activity participation, activity participation was also associated with increased interpersonal competence over time. Consistent activity participation was also linked to high educational aspirations at late adolescence. Accordingly, participation in extracurricular activities may afford opportunities to build interpersonal skills and construct positive plans for the future. These skills are, in turn, associated with high educational status at young adulthood. There were few gender differences. Girls showed more consistent extracurricular activity participation in early adolescence than did boys, but boys’ early participation in extracurricular activities was more strongly associated with their educational aspirations at late adolescence compared with girls. However, these differences were small, and gender was not significantly associated with educational status at young adulthood once other features of the educational attainment process were modeled. There were differences in the educational attainment process for students with high or low interpersonal competence at the begin-

ning of the study. Indeed, the overall model fit was better for the low-competence subgroup. This appears to be the result of two path-specific differences. One differences was that the consistency of extracurricular participation in early and middle adolescence was more strongly associated to educational status for the lowcompetence subgroup. This may reflect a ceiling effect for the high-competence group, who had significantly higher educational status than did the low-competence group. If so, then a more detailed assessment of postsecondary education would be required for competent youth (assessing the quality of the college or university attended, the degree sought, the course of study pursued, grade point average, honors and scholarships received, etc.). A second difference involves the reciprocal associations between interpersonal competence and consistent participation in extracurricular activities that were significant only for the lowcompetence subgroup. Assessment of the different aspects of interpersonal competence (aggression and popularity) clarified this difference. Whereas the reciprocal association between popularity and extracurricular participation was positive and significant for both subgroups, aggression was significantly related to extracurricular activity participation only for the low-competence subgroup. This difference is important. If extracurricular activity participation diminishes aggressive behavior primarily for highrisk youth, then the connection between extracurricular participation and outcomes related to aggression (e.g., crime) should be observed mainly for aggressive youth (cf. Mahoney, 2000a, 2000b).

Measurement Considerations In prior investigations from this longitudinal study, a dichotomous measure of extracurricular activity participation was used (Mahoney, 2000b; Mahoney & Cairns, 1997). Because competent students are likely to participate in at least one extracurricular activity during adolescence, dichotomous markers of participation may not inform long-term educational status for these individuals (i.e., a ceiling effect of participation exists). However, students varied in their consistency of extracurricular participation over time, and this was indicative of their long-term educational success. A second difference from our prior work involved a positive measure of educational status (i.e., college attendance). This de-


creased the potential for a statistical floor effect occurring when only the absence of low educational status (e.g., school dropout) is assessed for competent students. In combination, these methodological changes showed that college attendance was unusually common for students who were consistently involved in extracurricular activities. For students with low interpersonal competence at the beginning of the study, college attendance was unlikely unless they participated in an extracurricular activity for more than 1 year. Different extracurricular activities were aggregated together into a single measure. The drawbacks to combining different forms of extracurricular activities have been noted (e.g., Brown, 1988; Eccles & Barber, 1999), and the potential to identify real differences according to the activity type pursued are lost when an aggregate measure is used. As such, understanding the process of selection into different activities cannot be assessed and the association between participation in different activities and the development of interpersonal competence is an unknown in this study. The assessment of specific activities holds promise, particularly if the following conditions are satisfied: (a) There are a priori theoretical reasons to expect activity-based differences (i.e., a “small theory” of activity-based differences exists), (b) the characteristics of persons who select different types of activities are known prior to participation, (c) the reasons different individuals select different activities are considered, (d) sufficient statistical power is available to detect differences between specific activities, and (e) the strong likelihood for persons to participate in several different activities is taken into account when making conclusions about a given activity (Mahoney, 1995).

Design and Sampling Considerations These findings are correlational. Students chose whether to participate in extracurricular activities, and as such, selection effects not considered in this study may influence the findings. For example, support from parents appears to influence the decision to participate and to stay involved in after-school activities (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Fletcher, Elder, & Mekos, 2000). The peer group also plays a role in acceptance to some high-status extracurricular activities (e.g., Coleman, 1961; Eder et al., 1995; Hultzman, 1995). Peer relations within the activity context have also been associated with long-term adjustment (Mahoney, 2000b). Finally, to the extent that supportive relationships with extracurricular activity leaders promote psychological contentment (Mahoney, Schweder, & Stattin, 2001), subjective feelings of well-being may reinforce sustained participation over time. The sample ecology may also impact the extent to which these findings can be generalized. Interpersonal competence was based on a combined measure of aggressive behavior and popularity with peers in a sample diverse in SES. High popularity and low aggression were assumed to be indicative of positive interpersonal competence in this sample. However, both the availability of extracurricular activities and the definition of interpersonal competence differ according to regional economy (e.g., Luthar, 1999; Mahoney & Bergman, 2002; Rodkin, Farmer, Pearl, & Van Acker, 2000). As such, it would be of considerable interest to know whether the present findings hold for young persons in homogeneously disadvantaged and affluent contexts.

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Received April 8, 2002 Accepted May 3, 2002 䡲