reached at one to fifty-two (52) published research works, which were ... However, do promotion managers set the appropriate assumptions, in order to assess.
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Promotion Metrics‟ Assumptions For The Assessment And Evaluation Of Promotion Campaigns: A Framework Based On Mezirow‟s Critical Reflection George S.Spais, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT The paper examined the possibility of an extension of critical reflection model’s assumptions by Mezirow, as assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of promotion campaigns’ assessment and evaluation. A critical hermeneutics approach was adopted for the present study. Our organized literature review leaded us on an initial judgmental sample of sixty (60) published research works (selected at the first stage of the literature review), in order to be scanned and reached at one to fifty-two (52) published research works, which were processed for offering some valuable findings. Our research intention was to categorize the constructs of the following fundamental concept: “promotion metrics’ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection”. The literature review findings indeed revealed us very new constructs and established an initial understanding of the constructs and their relationship to other constructs regarding to Mezirow’s perspective of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) regarding to the application as a framework of promotion metrcs’ assumptions in terms of a promotion campaign assessment and evaluation. Practical implications of the extension of Mezirow’s perspective of TLT are introduced for promotion managers. Keywords: evaluation
promotion metrics, assumptions, critical reflection, promotion campaign, assessment and
INTRODUCTION
A
ccording to Farris et al. (2009), one of the significant research topics in the promotion management literature involves the assessment and evaluation of promotion effects and their importance to know the "lift" attributable to what would have happened without the promotion. Promotions have their own separate set of metrics to asses and evaluate a campaign including, such as: impression, awareness, reach and frequency (Farris et al., 2009). However, do promotion managers set the appropriate assumptions, in order to assess and evaluate such metrics? We believe that through the extension of Mezirow‟s „critical reflection‟, promotion managers can create a learning environment in order to motivate consumers to evaluate their experiences and provide them the opportunity to review their beliefs, opinions, and values. It involves observation, asking questions, putting facts, ideas, and consuming experiences together to derive new meaning. According to Mezirow (2000, p.4), critical reflection is a term stems from Transformative Learning Theory (TLT), which describes a learning process of "becoming critically aware of one's own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation". Therefore, reflection is a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is about the process of looking back on the implications of actions taken and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future actions. 23
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The theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory by Mezirow developed in 1978 and its introduction raised the research and theory building in the field of adult education, according to Taylor (2007). Based on our extended review of empirical works in the field of adult education, it seems that Mezirow [influenced by the adult education fathers Freire (1970) and Perry (1970)] is probably the major influencer of modern adult education, inspiring significant adult education scholars such as Brookfield, Cranton, Taylor, Ahteenmäki-Pelkonen, Newman, Tett, Merriam, Grabove, Moon, Richardson, Eyler, Giles, Marsick [see: Cranton (2006), Ng (2005), Cheetham & Chivers (1998), Taylor (1997), Williamson (1997), Ecclestone (1996), Brookfield (1995), Brookfield (1994), Brookfield (1993), Brookfield (1991)]. Research aim Based on the above, the paper will examine the possibility of an extension of critical reflection model‟s assumptions by Mezirow, as assumptions for promotion metrics (i.e. impression, awareness, reach and frequency), in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. TLT is of high value learning theory offering an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of human communication (Taylor, 1998). The importance of this try is arisen from the transfer of a learning theory applied in the adult education practice to promotion management and especially as a framework for promotion management metrics‟ assumptions, in terms of promotion campaigns assessment and evaluation. O'Sullivan (2003) have already underlined the significance of TLT, in order to monitor the changes and developments of market-driven values and creation of consumer-driven lifestyles and behavior. Learning theories seems that have gained the appropriate focus in the promotion management literature since the „60s [see relative theoretical and empirical works of Krugman (1962), Kangun (1968), Krugman & Hartley (1970), Rothschild, 1981, Rothschild & Gaidis, 1981, McKee et al., 1992, Chintagunta & Rao (1996), Ho & Chong (2003), McKay, (2005), McGregor, 2007)]. Quiet recently, McGregor (2009), in totally accordance with previous research works (in the promotion management and consumer behavior literature), argue that learning theories can provide assumptions also applied to consumer behavior analysis. Introducing Mezirow’s Critical Reflection as A Framework of Metrics’ Assumptions for the Assessment and Evaluation of Promotion Campaigns – Reasoning the Focus of the Paper Learning theories and models seems to have the potential to enhance efforts to improve the metrics‟ assumptions for the assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns. Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT can be proven an emerging multidisciplinary theory, with valuable implications in the promotion management literature, as it is a learning theory of high value, offering an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of human communication. It seems that Mezirow‟s critical reflection is well applicable as a framework of promotion metrics‟ assumptions, if we approach a promotion campaign, as a learning process. A learning process of becoming critically aware of consumers‟ own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation of their consuming choice. Therefore, Mezirow‟s reflection can be considered as a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of consumers‟ experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is about the process of looking back on the implications of consumers‟ actions taken and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future consumers‟ actions.
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Figure 1: Mezirow’s Critical Reflection Model (Mezirow, 1990)
The knowledge of the Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory and his critical reflection model, as a framework for promotion metrics‟ assumptions, will guide the collection and the analysis of the data. Based on the above, we will present the research themes that we aim to investigate in this paper. Research question 1.
Can critical reflection model’s assumptions by Mezirow be extended as assumptions for promotion metrics (i.e. impression, awareness, reach and frequency) in terms of promotion campaigns’ assessment and evaluation?
Previous research on learning theories in promotion management Following a chronological order of relative empirical works related to the application of learning theories in the promotion management context, we begin this short review with the first empirical works identified in the „60s such as Krugman‟s (1962a), Krugman‟s (1962b), Kangun‟s (1968) and Krugman‟s and Hartley‟s (1970), who argued about the usefulness of learning theories and their implications to promotion management. The authors discussed several facets of the basic cognitive and learning processes related to promotion management. In late „70s, [Smallwood & Conlisk (1979), Schmalensee (1978)], it seems that it was a concentration of the literature regarding to the simple forms of reinforcement learning. In accordance to the tendency of the late „70s related to reinforcement learning, in the beginning of the „80s we can find two of the influential empirical works of Rothschild (1981) and Rothshild & Gaidis (1981), who also argued strongly that marketing concept and behavioral learning theories both emphasize the need for positive reinforcement of consumer behavior. In both works, it was underlined that the learning process of the customer should result in the proposed positive interaction of relational strength with relationship quality on the one hand and with purchasing intentions on the other hand. Later, Knouse (1986) investigated sequential learning theory, as an alternative learning explanation of brand loyalty. He underlined that an integration of the theory in the consumer behavior literature, refinements should
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be proposed such as: a) measuring purchasing behavior, b) a better definition of reward, and c) the joining of sequential theory to the prevailing cognitive theories in consumer behavior. The empirical marketing works of Chintagunta & Rao (1996) and Ho & Chong (2003) offered the intriguing prospect of estimating consumer-learning models with actual consumer choices. O'Sullivan (2003) examined the development of market-driven values and the creation of consumer-driven lifestyles. He critically examined the effect of market globalization and its creation of negative quality of life indicators. According to the author, several resistance movements were given as examples as to how market values were challenged. He underlined that the movement away from market desires involved a deep change in perspective, which was identified as transformative learning. Recently, McGregor (2009) presented the growing interest in understanding consumer behavior through a Social Learning Theory (SLT). Research & Epistemological approach Promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory is a very new research field. The conceptual character of the critical reflection by Mezirow in promotion metrics assumptions for assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns is structural for the ontological approach (Ticehurst and Veal, 2000) that we will adopt in this paper. The critical-hermeneutic approach will allow discovering concepts and broader connections in this research framework. Originality of the paper – contribution to knowledge The extension of TLT seems to become one of the most promising learning theories in the promotion management literature, as it can offer an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of promotion (O'Sullivan, 2003). There is a significant literature regarding the TLT constructs in the promotion management literature, such as learning [McGregor (2009), McGregor (2007), McKay, (2005), O'Sullivan (2003), Ho & Chong (2003), Chintagunta & Rao (1996), Knouse (1986), Rothschild (1981), Rothshild & Gaidis (1981), Smallwood & Conlisk (1979), Schmalensee (1978), Krugman & Hartley (1970), Kangun (1968), Krugman (1962a), Krugman (1962b)], questioning consumers‟ experience („critical reflection‟) [Frambach, Roest & Krishnan (2007), Fitzsimons, Nunes & Williams (2007), Andreu, Bigne, Chumpitaz & Swaen (2006), Ofir & Simonson (2001), Wooten and Reed II (1998), Johnson & Mathews (1997), Park, Feick & Mothersbaugh, (1992), Thompson, Locander & Pollio (1989), Deighton & Schindler (1988), Ölander (1977)] and the difficulties subjected by the subjective nature of emotions involved in each of consumers‟ experience („difficulties of critical reflection‟) [Kwortnik & Ross (2007), Desmet & Hekkert (2007), Holbrook (2006), Petrova & Cialdini (2005), Andrews, Drennan & Bennett (2005), Hoch (2002), Richins (1997)]. In contrast, TLT constructs such as the: a) authentic expression of consumers‟ feelings („communicative learning‟), b)„looking back‟ on consumers‟ experience („reflection‟), c) revision of consumers‟ meaning structure, d. stage of verification of critical reflection and e. control of critical reflection, are relatively unexplored in the promotion management literature. Encouragingly, the literature reaffirms critical the role of learning theories in the promotion management context, [McGregor (2009), McGregor (2007), McKay, (2005), Krugman (1962a), Krugman (1962b), Kangun (1968), Krugman & Hartley (1970)] and TLT seems to be realized as a critical perspective in the marketing literature according to O'Sullivan (2003) and according to the leading La Londe Conferences in Marketing Communications and Consumer Behavior, which seems that warmly welcome research papers related to the better understanding of promotion and sales promotion through learning theories. No study, until now, has offered the perspective of Mezirow‟s critical reflection, as a framework of assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. We strongly believe that critical reflection should be considered as the most significant promotion management goal, aiming to influence consumers‟ future actions, fostering a “learning environment” by monitoring promotion metrics, in which it can occur, promotion managers should consider the following:
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The role of the promotion manager is to establish an environment that builds trust and care and facilitates the development of sensitive relationships with the consumers. The promotion goal (through the perspective of critical reflection) is to create a community of consumers who are united in a shared experience of trying to make meaning of their consuming experience. There are two (2) levels of transformative learning that at times seem to be in conflict: A) the cognitive, rational, and objective and B) the intuitive, imaginative, and subjective. However, both use rational processes and incorporate imagination as a part of a creative process. Rational and the affective play a crucial role in transformative learning. Promotion managers need to consider how they can help consumers understand and use feelings and emotions both in critical reflection and as a means of reflection.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this section, we will present the theoretical framework of the present study based on Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory and his model of critical reflection, introducing the fundamental definitions and assumptions [see Mezirow (1991), (1998), (2000), (2003) and Kitchener & King (1990)], in accordance to Figure 1: Definitions Learning is the process of producing a new or revised interpretation of an experience. Functional learning is one of the two domains of learning focusing on learners‟ control and manipulation or their environment (through task oriented problem-solving to improve performance). Communicative learning is the other domain of learning focusing on what learners mean when they communicate. This often involves feelings, intentions, values and moral issues. Reflection is a „looking back‟ on experiences. Critical reflection is the process of analysing, reconsidering and questioning experiences within a broad context of issues. The process can be broken down into four (4) dimensions, which address the different activities and levels of reflection (a. comprehensive observation, b. comprehensive description, c. making meaning and d. adding depth and breadth to the meanings). Meaning structure or meaning perspective is defined as a broad set of predispositions resulting from psycho-cultural assumptions that determine the individuals‟ expectations‟ horizons they are grouped into 3 sets of codes: sociolinguistic codes, psychological codes, and epistemic codes. A meaning scheme is the constellation of concept, belief, judgment, and feelings that shapes a particular interpretation. Difficulties are resulted by the subjective nature of emotions involved in each experience. Mezirow underlines the role of habits that are determined by sociocultural, mental and epistemological distortions. Stage of verification is about the individual‟s revised experience through action. Control is the basic aim of critical reflection, where the control of the learning subject in its environment is practiced. Assumptions 1. 2. 3.
Individuals have their own expectations about the world, framed within their own cultural backgrounds and presuppositions, which directly influence the meaning derived from personal experiences. Transformative learning theory addressed the revision of meaning structure (changing the perspective of an individual). Perspective transformation explains the process of how adults revise their meaning structures. According to Mezirow, experience, critical reflection on experience and rational discourse with others are the key features for changing an individual‟s meaning structure. 27
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Experience provides the grist for critical reflection. The individual and others then subject these meanings to scrutiny. Critical reflection involves questioning the integrity of an individual‟s assumptions and beliefs, which results in transformation or change in an individual‟s perspective. Transformative learning prerequisites experiences and beliefs into the time and is described by Mezirow as having ten (10) stages that progress from a characteristic “disorienting dilemma” that uses an experience of imbalance in an individual‟s life as an opportunity for considering new perspectives. From this new vantage point the individual may continue to examine unfamiliar views, critically reflect and evaluate them, test and explore new perspectives, make choices as to whether to adopt those positions and finally reintegrate these new perspectives.
LITERATURE REVIEW Process The literature review process is developed through the following three (3) stages: 1.
2. 3.
Bibliography collection and search strategy: For the needs of the search, we have adopted: a. “briefsearch” and “citation pearl growing” search strategies. The first strategy helped us to collect a series of research works (quiet fast). In order to achieve an adding value in the search process, a second search strategy is adopted, which helped us to identify some key research works in order to adopt the existed terminology and concepts, quite useful for the search of other research works. We believe that it was the most suitable approach in order to investigate a research topic almost unsearchable. Based on the first stage, an extension of the literature review will be achieved progressively. Abstractive synopsis and homogenization based on the key words, will allow us to categorize the research works. We believe that the G.I.S.T. principle will provide us a safe guide in order to identify broader groups arisen from the research question.
Conceptual Mapping Based on Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory and his critical reflection model and the research themes, the following conceptual mapping figure will help us to: a) deepen our understanding of the research themes, b) identify significant concepts and c) help us to recognize and identify the research activity for each conceptual category of the promotion metric‟s assumptions through the key features of critical reflection.
reflection
critical reflection
revision of meaning structure
communicative learning
difficulties
functional learning learning
Promotion metrics’ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection
Critical reflection by Mezirow Transformative learning theory
Figure 2: Conceptual Mapping
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The above conceptual mapping was introduced based on the key words of the research aim, the theoretical framework and on the findings of the first stage of the literature review. Based on the above, the literature review is structured as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Categorizing the concepts. Research activity for each conceptual category. Classifying empirical evidence according to chronological order Summary of the literature findings
Promotion metrics’ assumptions\through the key features of critical reflection 1.
Categorizing the concepts: In terms of the investigation of the research question, we will categorize the concepts linked to the basic concept of the “promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection”. Table 1: Categorization of the Concepts Linked to “Promotion Metrics’ Assumptions through the Key Features of Critical Reflection”
basic concept
category Α. Β. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.
2.
“Promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection” a. learning b. functional learning c. communicative learning d. reflection e. critical reflection f. revision of meaning structure g. difficulties h. stage of verification i. control
Research activity for each conceptual category: In this subsection, we will present the relative research activity for each conceptual category of the examined concept of “promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection”, according to the categorization of the above subsection. In the following table, (see Table 2) we will present the research works (presented in international academic journals and proceedings of international academic conferences), based on the key words of the conceptual mapping and the G.I.S.T. literature review principle.
Based on an initial judgmental sample of sixty (60) published research works, (selected at the first stage of the literature review, using the above conceptual categories as key words) we have scanned, and reached at one to the following fifty-two (52) research works (see Table 2), as an indicative research activity for the basic concept of this study. The search and process stage took place from July 1 – September 14, 2009. A short description of the fifty-two (52) published research works is presented at the following table (see Table 2).
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Table 2: Research Activity for Each of the Conceptual Categories of “Promotion Metrics’ Assumptions through the Key Features of Critical Reflection” Presented in A Chronological Order (Newest to Oldest) Categories of Concepts Linked to “Promotion Metrics’ Assumptions through the Key Features of Critical Reflection” learning Α.
Empirical Evidence
Short Description
Bitran, Ferrer & Rocha e Oliveira (2008)
This paper addressed a conceptual framework that linked the duration of a service encounter to behaviors that have been shown to affect profitability. Analysis of the framework revealed a wide gap between the behavioral assumptions typically made in operations research (OR) and operations management (OM) models and the state of the art in the marketing and psychology literature. This paper addressed the examination of the concept of customer experience and considered how an „outstanding‟ or „perfect‟ customer experience might be achieved at an affordable cost. Case studies from two (2) leading companies were used to illustrate their approaches to creating the „perfect‟ customer experience. This paper addressed the examination of a contrast, which was made between belief-based, and reinforcement learning. This paper addressed the possibility of a form of marketing that transcended the managerial technology of value delivery for the immediate satisfaction of consumer needs. The authors wanted to understand how consumers learn how and what to consume in the emerging “technologised” “marketspace” and how to realise sustainable consumption that avoids corrosive excess and provides sufficiency in meeting needs and responsible wants. This paper addressed the presentation of an evolutionary framework for the analysis of consumer behaviour that takes account of these features. For this purpose, Carl Menger's theory of goods was taken as a starting point. This paper addressed the discussion of the tools that were available to help organizations rethink the signals they were sending to customers through the presentation of two (2) case studies. The authors argued that customers always had an experience, and the quality of this experience lied in how effectively the company managed all its facets. This paper addressed the discussion of a new explanation of unregulated buying in which depression weakens effective self-regulation. Features that may have encouraged or discouraged unregulated buying were identified at popular electronic commerce sites. Many features may have disrupted accurate selfobservation and fostered advantageous social comparisons with other excessive shoppers. The potential for unregulated consumption to disrupt orderly electronic marketplaces was discussed. This paper addressed the exploration of the links between brand equity, consumer learning and consumer choice processes in general and considering two trends in the market place: store brands and the Internet. The authors reviewed the advances that have occurred in brand equity research in marketing in the first decade of „90s, with particular emphasis on integrating the separate streams of research emanating from cognitive psychology and information economics. This paper addressed the exploration of the relationships between individuals' learning styles and their consumer decision-making styles. Using two validated methods for measuring learning styles and consumer decision-making styles, the intercorrelations of learning and decision-making styles were examined. This paper addressed the presentation Capaldi's Sequential Theory, as an alternative learning explanation of brand loyalty. Several hypotheses were derived which predicted the effects of delay of reward, intertrial interval, and magnitude of reward upon strength of brand loyalty. This paper addressed an overview of instrumental learning and demonstrated its application in a marketing situation. According to the authors when modern-day students of marketing turned from the economic explanation of consumer behavior, learning theory was one of the first resources in which they sought more useful alternative concepts. This paper addressed the discussion of behavioral learning theory, which has been generally overlooked in the development of marketing thought. According to the authors, the central concept stated that behavior that was positively reinforced was more likely to recur than nonreinforced behavior.
Frow & Payne (2007)
Hopkins (2007) Kadirov & Varey (2005)
Ruprecht (2005) Berry, Carbone & Haeckel (2002)
LaRose (2001)
Erdem et al. (1999)
Sproles & Sproles (1990)
Knouse (1986)
Bergiel & Trosclair (1985)
Rothschild & Gaidis (1981)
N=52
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The Journal of Applied Business Research – March/April 2010 Lilien (1974)
Kangun (1968)
Krugman (1962a)
Krugman (1962b)
B.
functional learning
Chandran & Morwitz (2005)
Hui & Bateson (1991)
Krugman & Hartley (1970)
C.
communicative learning
Cherrier & Lego Munoz (2007)
Brown, Holmes & Pan (2005) D.
reflection
Cowley (2008)
Childers & Houston (1984)
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This paper addressed a stochastic model of individual buyer behavior was developed from a set of postulates about the buying process. The postulates were shown to imply a linear learning model modified by a term to explain response to pricing stimuli. Thus, a customer's purchasing probability was modelled as a combination of the effect of his past purchasing behavior plus the effect of pricevariation in the market. This paper addressed the discussion of learning theories and their implication in advertising, which has has been an area of great interest and study for many years. The author began the discussion by presenting several facets of the basic cognitive and learning processes. This paper addressed the discussion of principles of human learning and their evaluation in terms of their implications for consumer research. According to the author, no field of psychology had so ancient and honorable a tradition of research as that concerned with the process of human learning. This paper addressed an example from the field of advertising regarding to practical tests and empirical studies, which frequently fall far short of accomplishing their purposes because they did not adequately make use of wellestablished theoretical knowledge. This paper addressed the examination of how goal‐related mind‐sets influenced consumers‟ reactions to participative pricing mechanisms relative to economically equivalent, fixed price offers. The authors showed that the congruence between individuals‟ notions of high‐perceived control over shopping situations and participative price environments produced an implementation‐oriented mind‐set that influences cognitions and intentions. This paper addressed the proposition of perceived control as a crucial variable in mediating the consumer's emotional and behavioral responses to the physical environment and the contact personnel that constituted the service encounter. Results of an experimental test of this proposition confirmed the importance of perceived control in mediating the effects of two situational features of the encounter-consumer density and consumer choice on the pleasantness of the service experience and the consumer's approach-avoidance responses to the service encounter. This paper addressed the discussion of "passive" learning, on what was "caught" rather than "taught," and on the processes by which such learning could took place. According to the authors, passive learning was typically effortless, responsive to animated stimuli, amenable to artificial aid to relaxation, and characterized by an absence of resistance to what was learned, thus opening up possibilities that, depending on one's point of view, one could welcome or deplore.
This paper addressed the examination of the concept of consumers‟ happiness and its direct relationship with financial detachment. Specifically, this research proposed a conceptual model with three supported concepts hypothesized to directly and indirectly contribute to happiness: spiritual reflection, care for others, and financial detachment. Findings revealed that the concepts of spiritual reflection, care for others, and financial detachment were directly or indirectly significantly related to happiness. This paper addressed the analysis of customers‟ negative experiences of marketing, to understand the perception of being a victim. Authors recommended that marketers created a way for consumers to seek redress therefore reducing incidents of undesirable behaviors. This paper addressed the examination of the proposition of when people needed to justify repeating an activity, they would try to reconstruct the past as more positive. A plausible alternative explanation for the results, distorting the salient moments of the experience, was tested and rejected. This paper addressed the exploration of the hypotheses regarding the conditions under which pictorial ads were or were not remembered better than verbal-only ads were generated and tested, based on three explanations of imagery effects on memory. The results indicated that picture superiority occured in both immediate and delayed recall tasks when processing was directed at appearance features.
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3
2
2
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critical reflection
Yoon, Cole & Lee (2009)
Bertilsson (2007)
Frambach, Roest & Krishnan (2007)
Fitzsimons, Nunes & Williams (2007)
Andreu, Bigne, Chumpitaz & Swaen (2006)
Ahuvia (2005)
Novemsky & Ratner (2003)
Mooy& Robben (2002)
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This paper addressed the review of existing knowledge about older consumers and decision making, through the development of a conceptual framework that incorporated the notion of fit between individual characteristics, task demands and the contextual environment. This paper addressed the examination of how young consumers learn the logic and workings of brands and branding by analyzing textual accounts of conversations between young people between 13-20 years old collected on an online forum situated on a Swedish website. The findings indicated that people learn about these consumer cultural phenomenons through an enculturation process involving conformity to norms of brand and consumer authenticity formed in peer interaction, and the reflexive evasion of punishments for breaking those norms. This paper addressed the investigation of consumer preference for online versus offline purchasing of a complex service (home mortgage), across the three stages of purchasing, namely, pre-purchase, purchase, and postpurchase. The authors analysed data from 300 consumers, which showed that (1) the offline channel was generally preferred over the online channel across all the stages, and (2) the channel usage intention in a particular stage was moderated by the consumer‟s internet experience. This paper addressed the examination of the impact of asking intention questions about “vice behaviors,” or behaviors about which respondents simultaneously holded both negative explicit and positive implicit attitudes. Asking consumers questions about the likelihood of engaging in behaviors for which respondents maintain conflicting attitude structures appeared to give respondents a “license to sin,” resulting in increased rates of behavior versus those of a control group not asked intention questions. This paper addressed the examination of the existed relationships between consumers' perceptions of a retail environment and their emotions, satisfaction and behavioural intentions with respect to shopping setting. A model of these relationships was developed by the authors and then tested in two distinct retail settings-shopping centres and traditional retailing areas. The results showed that, in general, positive perceptions of a retail environment had a positive influence on positive emotions, on repatronage intentions and on the desire to remain longer in the shopping area in both retail settings. This paper addressed the investigation of the possessions and activities that consumers loved and their role in the construction of a coherent identity narrative. In the face of social forces pushing toward identity fragmentation, interviews revealed three different strategies, labeled “demarcating,” “compromising,” and “synthesizing” solutions, for creating a coherent self‐narrative. Findings were compared to Belk‟s “Possessions and the Extended Self.” This paper addressed the exploration of people expectations to enjoy an experience more when it will follow a worse experience, through the analysis of four (4) experiments. The authors found that consumers expected hedonic contrast effects even when they did not experience such effects. Whereas individuals remembered the absence of contrast effects after a short delay (study 1), individuals reporting retrospective judgments after a long delay (study 2) recalled that they had experienced contrast effects. This paper addressed the investigation of the effects of direct product experience on information processing and product evaluation in a sample of 127 adult consumers. The results showed that direct experience enhanced consumers‟ opportunity and ability to process product-related information, but not their motivation to process the information.
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The Journal of Applied Business Research – March/April 2010 Ofir & Simonson (2001)
Johnson & Mathews (1997)
Park, Feick & Mothersbaugh (1992)
Thompson, Locander & Pollio (1989)
Deighton & Schindler (1988)
Ölander (1977)
F.
revision of meaning structure
Vida (2007)
Penz (2006)
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This paper addressed the examination of three possible explanations for systematic negative bias of expected evaluations was observed, which were referred to as negativity enhancement, role expectation, and vigilant processing. The findings were most consistent with the negativity enhancement account, indicating that unless buyers began the evaluation task with low expectations, they tended to focus during consumption primarily on negative aspects of product/service quality. This paper addressed the investigation of the influence of the experience of the service on the expectations, based on the results of a study at the fast-food industry with a reliable measuring instrument to measure these two different expectations and the effect of consumers' experience of the service on them. According to the authors, there was no clear consensus of what expectations actually were or what they did. This paper addressed the investigation in order to deepen the understanding of the knowledge assessment process indicated that information ranging from specific knowledge about the product, to memory for experience events, to statements about involvement with the product category were used in making knowledge assessment judgements, based on the results of a study. Tentative results suggested that attribute and brand information could not be used as a cue to infer actual knowledge even when this information was available in memory. This paper addressed the presentation of the existential-phenomenology, as an alternative paradigm for conceptualizing and studying consumer experience. Basic theoretical tenets of existential-phenomenology were contrasted with more traditional assumptions and methods used in consumer research. An epistemological analysis revealed that existential-phenomenology could provide an empirically based and methodologically rigorous understanding of consumer phenomena. This paper addressed the exploration of a model of advertising as an influence on the interpretation of experience. A study was reported in which exposure to advertising has no immediate effect on subjects' beliefs, but subsequently influences the beliefs of those subjects who have had experience with the topic of the advertised claim. This paper addressed the report of some subjective indicators of consumer satisfaction with the quality of products and other aspects of purchasing and consumption. The indicators discussed were “problems“,”complaints“ and “reported satisfaction“.The author's conclusion was that measures of satisfaction and dissatisfaction were almost unusable as a basis for setting priorities in public consumer policy, albeit concrete descriptions of consumer problems could give some guidance. This paper addressed the exploration of insights into non-deceptive counterfeiting by focusing on consumers in a new EU member country. More specifically, consumers‟ inclination to purchase counterfeits at various price levels relative to retail prices of genuine branded products was examined and the effects of various socio-economic and sociopsychological characteristics were explored. Using path analyses, inconsistent patterns of results were found across three classes of counterfeit products. This paper addressed the examination of the theory of social representations, which was utilized to study what the representatives of a certain culture think of objects and products, in order to contribute to the conceptual and methodological advancement of international marketing research. Six (6) focus group discussions were conducted combined with a free association instrument answered by a sample of 250 respondents. Findings showed that several conceptual and functional aspects of a technological innovation were idiosyncratic to particular groups, reflecting the group's societal affiliation and position.
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G.
difficulties
Kwortnik & Ross (2007)
Desmet & Hekkert (2007)
Holbrook (2006)
Andrews, Drennan & Bennett (2005)
Petrova & Cialdini (2005)
Hoch (2002)
McLarney & Chung (1999)
Volume 26, Number 2
This paper addressed the exploration of the use of semiotics as a means of examining the symbolic meaning of pre-modern, modern and postmodern pub formats. The authors appraised the symbolic meaning of the “pub” and derivative managerialist concepts from the perspective of the consumers‟ experience through extensive interviews with a stratified purposive sample of customers of pub formats in the north-west of England to undertake a semiotic appraisal of the reason why consumers “think the thoughts they do” about managerial developments of this distinctly social phenomenon. This paper addressed the exploration of when and why consumers‟ experience positive emotions during the decision-making process and in what way these emotions influenced their choices, based on data from 32 depth interviews, online discussion boards and chat rooms and a vacation-planning task involving 57 students. The findings showed that consumers experience imagery and emotion within the experiential decision process and some consumers perceived others to be hedonist fun-seekers while they perceived themselves to seek experiences of substance. This paper addressed the introduction of a general framework for product experience that applied to all affective responses that could be experienced in human-product interaction. Three distinct components or levels of product experiences were discussed: aesthetic experience, experience of meaning, and emotional experience. All three components were distinguished in having their own lawful underlying process. This paper addressed the presentation of the applicability of subjective personal introspection via a photographic essay that draws on written memoirs as a path to insights concerning the role of customer value in the consumption experience. Extending earlier work in this direction, the author explored a set of sixty-year-old Kodachrome slides taken by the author's grandfather to develop interpretations bolstered and corroborated by the narrative accounts in this late gentleman's logbook. This paper addressed the exploration of the the emotions that individuals experience during their interactions with and through their mobile phones and what situations or events elicit these emotions, through the consuction of an experience sampling method study. The authors introduced the appraisal theory, which specified the way individuals appraise situations or events that elicit emotions. The preliminary findings showed a number of significant relationships between emotions and specfic clusters of situations and events. This paper addressed the examination of the the mediating role of imagery accessibility and demonstrated that the difficulty of imagery generation could reverse the generally observed positive effects of imagery appeals, through the analysis of three (3) studies. Providing evidence this imagery fluency effect was more likely for individuals attuned to their internal experiences. This paper addressed the discussion about product experience, which seduces consumers into believing that they learn more than is actually so. According to the author, there were several reasons for this. First, experience was more engaging than most attempts at education, both more vivid and intentional, and consequently more memorable. Second, experience was viewed as nonpartisan, devoid of the didacticism of formal education and the self-serving interests of advertisers. Third, much of experience was ambiguous, but not recognized as such. This paper addressed an interdisciplinary exploration of the cultural phenomenon of post-materialism. The Protestant work ethic, with its emphasis on ever-increasing levels of production, contributed to the rise of the consumption culture and the legitimation of the market society. It appeared that the very premise, which facilitates the market society – specialization and the production of consumption – also, paves the way for a post-materialist revolution.
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The Journal of Applied Business Research – March/April 2010 Richins (1997)
H.
stage of verification
Menon & Bansal (2007)
Tam (2005)
Wooten and Reed II (1998)
I.
3.
control
McGregor (2009)
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This paper addressed the review of emotion measures currently used in consumer research and the theories on which they were based; it concluded that the existing measures were unsuited for measuring consumption‐related emotions. The paper described six (6) empirical studies that assessed the domain of consumption‐related emotions, that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the usefulness of other measures in assessing consumption‐related emotions. This paper addressed the investigation of consumer consumer experiences of social power during service consumption, using a selfadministered survey with a mix of qualitative and quantitative measures in a sample of 195 adult consumers of a range of services examining the causes and consequences of consumer experiences of high and low power; and, given the key role of emotions in the experience and outcome of services, examined how emotions and emotion expression impacted satisfaction for high and low power consumers. This paper addressed the exploration of the role of consumer experience in shaping future expectations. Two types of expectations were investigated, namely, “normative expectations” and “predictive expectations.” A longitudinal study consisting of two phases was conducted. It was found that consumers' predictive expectations were higher following a positive experience and remained relatively stable following a negative experience. Moreover, the shift in consumers' normative expectations was found to be similar to that in predictive expectations. This paper addressed the examination of how others' opinions could influence a consumer's evaluation of a product. Two (2) experiments were conducted to test this explanation. Findings from the two experiments suggest that when others offer their opinions about the quality of a product, the opinions have the most potential to influence a consumer who had tried the product when the opinions were considered before the consumer considers the evaluative implications of his or her own product experience. Findings from a third experiment suggested that others' opinions about product quality had limited potential to influence a consumer who had an unambiguous experience with the product, even when conditions are most favorable for an influence to occur. This paper addressed the discussion of the growing interest in understanding consumer behaviour through a Social Learning Theory (SLT) lened, and explained the recently launched United Nations Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Then, the discussion turned to an overview of a recently developed ESD/SLT integrated theoretical framework, which was then applied to consumer education via an authentic pedagogy. The paper highlighted the rich potential of authentic intellectual work in the form of observational learning by augmenting education for sustainable development within an authentic consumer education curriculum.
3
1
Classifying empirical evidence according to chronological order: Based on the above table (see Table 2) we will present the chronological order of the fifty-two (52) research works. Given that the promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection based on Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT is a totally new research field and the concept of critical reflection as a framework of assumptions for assessment and evaluation of promotion metrics is presented for the first time in the promotion management and the marketing literature, the chronological order of the above conceptual categories will allow us to identify: i) the level of research activity; ii) the research priorities for each time period; iii) the research gaps as also iv) valuable research directions and suggestions for further research.
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The above research works were classified in to nine (9) categories according to the conceptual categories of the “promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection”. We have decided to present the chronological order according to the following five (5) periods: a) 1960-1969, b) 1970-1979. c) 1980-1989, d) 19901999 and e) 2000-2009. In the below diagram (see Diagram 1) the fifty-two (52) publications are presented, with some interesting remarks.
10
9 9 8
7 7 1960-1969
6 6
1970-1979 1980-1989
5
1990-1999 4
2000-2009
3
3
3
2
2
22
2
2
2
2
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0 00 0
0 0
0
0
0 00
0 00
00 0
0 00 0
0 a. learning
b. functional learning
c. communicative learning
d. reflection
e. critical reflection
f. revision of meaning structure
g. difficulties
h. stage of verification
i. control
Diagram 1: Research Activity for Each of the Conceptual Categories of “Promotion Metrics’ Assumptions through the Key Features of Critical Reflection” Presented in a Chronological Order
Remarks Based on the Above Diagram
There is an explosion of the research activity of all TLT constructs in the marketing literature the last decade (2000-2009). The research activity regarding to the application of learning theories in consumer behavior analysis or learning as a process producing a new or revised interpretation of a consumer‟s experience is over-trippled the last decade in comparison with the previous 4 decades. Critical reflection, as a process analyzing, reconsidering and questioning consumer‟s experiences and difficulties of critical reflection referred to the emotions involved in each experience of the consumer determined by sociocultural, mental and epistemological distortions have gained a significant research interest the last decade in comparison with the other TLT constructs. TLT constructs such as: “control”, “reflection”, “stage of verification”, “revision of the meaning structure”, “functional learning” and “communicative learning” gain the research interest the last decade but still the research activity is relatively in a very low level.
4.
Summary of Literature Review Findings: The findings of the literature review are summarized as follows:
Regarding “learning” - It seems that learning theories is of great interest of research and study for many years in the marketing literature discussing several facets of basic cognitive and learning processes applied in the areas of promotion with practical implications for promotion managers. It is also evidenced that the learning as a process producing a new or revised interpretation of a consumer‟s experience presented in the marketing literature as “customer experience management” aims to build consumer loyalty through satisfaction and consumer‟s expectations management. 36
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Regarding “functional learning”- It seems that passive learning is typically effortless responsive to animated stimuli, amenable to artificial aid to relaxation, and characterized by an absence of resistance to what is learned, thus opening up possibilities that, depending on one's point of view, one may welcome or deplore. Learning should be conceived as active and purposive behavior, involving motivation, practice and achievement. It is evidenced thst the degree of consumer‟s-learner‟s perceived control influences cognitions and intentions, a variable in mediating the consumer's emotional and behavioral responses to the physical environment and the contact personnel of an organisation. Regarding “communicative learning” - It seems that there is a need for marketers to understand consumers‟ authentic feelings, in prder to create a way for consumers to seek redress therefore reducing incidents of undesirable behaviors. Some of the significant intense emotions of consumers that result negative consumer behavior directed at the marketer are: powerlessness, betrayal, suffering and feeling cheated. Regarding “reflection” - It seems that when consumers need to justify repeating an activity, they will try to reconstruct the past as more positive, as the positive memory provides them with ammunition to rationalize a desired activity. Based on the available explanations of imagery effects on memory, there is evidence regarding to the conditions under which pictorial ads are or are not remembered better than verbal-only ads. It is evidenced that picture superiority occurs in both immediate and delayed recall tasks when processing is directed at appearance features. Verbal-only stimuli are recalled as well as pictures in immediate recall but become inferior once again in delayed recall, when processing is directed at the semantic content of the ads. Regarding “critical reflection” - It seems that consumer experiences can be effectively analysed through existential-phenomenology, using metaphors and asking intention questions about engaging new behaviors. It is strongly evidenced that consumer experiences are adapted based on context issues such as individual characteristics, task demands, emotions, retail environment and satisfaction, which are related to consumers‟ decision-making processes, are strongly infleuenced by products‟/services‟ communication messages. Regarding to the “revision of meaning structure” - It seems that the meaning structure of consumers determined by a broad set of predispositions from socio-economic and socio-psychological assumptions, shape consumers‟ expectations. Regarding “difficulties” - It seems that consumers‟ emotions involved in consumption experiences and in all levels of product experiences (aesthetic, meaning and emotional) have a strong impact on consumers‟ choices and product preferences but product experience or consumption experience seems to seduce consumers into believing that they learn more than is actually so. Many promotion managers approach such experiences because of a formal education process and consequently it seems that experience supports a pseudodiagnosticity that draws the consumer in as a willing partner in the seduction, which is not true. Regarding “stage of verification” - It seems that consumer‟s experiences is an important construct in understanding consumers‟ revised experiences through consumption, examining causes and consequences such as: cognition, expectations, and emotion expressions of consumers‟ experiences with impact to consumer‟s decision process and to consumers‟ satisfaction. It is evidenced how consumers‟ expecations significantly influenced by others‟ opinions- shape future expectations, (through the examination of “normative” and “predictive” expectations) and future actions. Regarding “control” - It seems that controlling the consumer as a learner in his/her environment can be achieved through observational learning, in terms of the recent growing interest in understanding consumer behavior through Social Learning Theory. Based on the theoretical framework of the present study, we can interpret the above findings as follows:
Perspective transformation approach, which can be adopted by a promotion manager, can explain the process of how consumers revise their meaning structures. Critical reflection on consumption and product experience and rational discourse with other consumers is the key features for changing consumers‟ meaning structure. Consumption and product experience, which are related to consumers‟ decision-making processes and strongly infleuenced by products‟/services‟ communication messages, provides the grist for critical reflection. 37
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Consumers have their own expectations about the soulutions offered by an organisation framed within their own cultural backgrounds and presuppositions, which directly influence the meaning derived from personal consumption and product experiences. Critical reflection involves questioning the integrity of a consumer‟s assumptions and beliefs, which results in transformation or changes in a consumer‟s perspective or engagement of a new behavior. The adoption of a TLT approach in a learning campaign prerequisites consumers‟ experiences and beliefs into the time as having a process that progress from a characteristic “disorienting dilemma” (as Mezirow introduced) that uses consumers‟ experience of imbalance in an consumer‟s life as an opportunity for considering new meaning perspectives in consuming experiences. From this new vantage point the consumers may continue to examine unfamiliar views, critically reflect and evaluate them, test and explore new perspectives, make choices as to whether to adopt those positions and finally reintegrate these new perspectives.
As a conclusion to this section, the findings arisen from: a) the study of international empirical evidence and b) their interpretation (based on the theoretical framework) leaded us to an understanding of critical reflection‟s constructs and their relationship to other constructs regarding to Mezirow‟s perspective of TLT, as a framework of assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of a promotion campaign assessment and evaluation. DISCUSSION The research aim of the paper was to examine the possibility of an extension of critical reflection model‟s assumptions by Mezirow, as assumptions for promotion metrics (i.e. impression, awareness, reach and frequency), in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. Degree of answering the research question and the support of the initial assumptions Our organized literature review leaded us on an initial judgmental sample of sixty (60) published research works (selected at the first stage of the literature review), in order to be scanned and reached at one to fifty-two (52) published research works, the findings showed us that:
Perspective transformation approach, which can be adopted by a promotion manager, can explain the process of how consumers revise their meaning structures. Critical reflection on consumption and product experience and rational discourse with other consumers is the key features for changing consumers‟ meaning structure. Consumption and product experience, which are related to consumers‟ decision-making processes and strongly infleuenced by products‟/services‟ communication messages, provides the grist for critical reflection. Consumers have their own expectations about the soulutions offered by an organisation framed within their own cultural backgrounds and presuppositions, which directly influence the meaning derived from personal consumption and product experiences. Critical reflection involves questioning the integrity of a consumer‟s assumptions and beliefs, which results in transformation or changes in a consumer‟s perspective or engagement of a new behavior. The adoption of a TLT approach in a learning campaign prerequisites consumers‟ experiences and beliefs into the time as having a process that progress from a characteristic “disorienting dilemma” (as Mezirow introduced) that uses consumers‟ experience of imbalance in an consumer‟s life as an opportunity for considering new meaning perspectives in consuming experiences. From this new vantage point the consumers may continue to examine unfamiliar views, critically reflect and evaluate them, test and explore new perspectives, make choices as to whether to adopt those positions and finally reintegrate these new perspectives.
As a conclusion, the findings arisen from: a) the study of international empirical evidence and b) their interpretation (based on the theoretical framework) revealed us very new constructs and established an initial understanding of the constructs and their relationship to other constructs regarding to Mezirow‟s perspective of 38
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Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) regarding to the application as a framework of promotion metrcs‟ assumptions in terms of a promotion campaign assessment and evaluation. Based on the above, we can accept the initial assumptions that: a) learning theories and models have the potential to enhance efforts to improve the metrics‟ assumptions for the assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns, b) Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT is an emerging multidisciplinary theory, with valuable implications in the promotion management literature, as it is a learning theory of high value, offering an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of human communication, c) Mezirow‟s critical reflection is well applicable as a framework of promotion metrics‟ assumptions, if we approach a promotion campaign, as a learning process. A learning process of becoming critically aware of consumers‟ own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation of their consuming choice. Therefore, Mezirow‟s reflection can be considered as a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of consumers‟ experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is about the process of looking back on the implications of consumers‟ actions taken and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future consumers‟ actions. Relating the findings to earlier work The extension of TLT seems to become one of the most promising learning theories in the promotion management literature, as it can offer an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of promotion (O'Sullivan, 2003). There is a significant literature regarding the TLT constructs in the promotion management literature, such as learning [McGregor (2009), McGregor (2007), McKay, (2005), O'Sullivan (2003), Ho & Chong (2003), Chintagunta & Rao (1996), Knouse (1986), Rothschild (1981), Rothshild & Gaidis (1981), Smallwood & Conlisk (1979), Schmalensee (1978), Krugman & Hartley (1970), Kangun (1968), Krugman (1962a), Krugman (1962b)], questioning consumers‟ experience („critical reflection‟) [Frambach, Roest & Krishnan (2007), Fitzsimons, Nunes & Williams (2007), Andreu, Bigne, Chumpitaz & Swaen (2006), Ofir & Simonson (2001), Wooten and Reed II (1998), Johnson & Mathews (1997), Park, Feick & Mothersbaugh, (1992), Thompson, Locander & Pollio (1989), Deighton & Schindler (1988), Ölander (1977)] and the difficulties subjected by the subjective nature of emotions involved in each of consumers‟ experience („difficulties of critical reflection‟) [Kwortnik & Ross (2007), Desmet & Hekkert (2007), Holbrook (2006), Petrova & Cialdini (2005), Andrews, Drennan & Bennett (2005), Hoch (2002), Richins (1997)]. In contrast, TLT constructs such as the: a) authentic expression of consumers‟ feelings („communicative learning‟), b)„looking back‟ on consumers‟ experience („reflection‟), c) revision of consumers‟ meaning structure, d. stage of verification of critical reflection and e. control of critical reflection, are relatively unexplored in the promotion management literature. Encouragingly, the literature reaffirms critical the role of learning theories in the promotion management context, [McGregor (2009), McGregor (2007), McKay, (2005), Krugman (1962a), Krugman (1962b), Kangun (1968), Krugman & Hartley (1970)] and TLT seems to be realized as a critical perspective in the marketing literature according to O'Sullivan (2003) and according to the leading La Londe Conferences in Marketing Communications and Consumer Behavior, which seems that warmly welcome research papers related to the better understanding of promotion and sales promotion through learning theories. No study, until now, has offered the perspective of Mezirow‟s critical reflection, as a framework of assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. We strongly believe that critical reflection should be considered as the most significant promotion management goal, aiming to influence consumers‟ future actions, fostering a “learning environment” by monitoring, assessing and evaluating the promotion metrics. Theoretical Implications Based on the assumptions of Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT we could summarize some implications of the underlined theory to our new theoretical extension:
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Learning theories and models seems to have the potential to enhance efforts to improve the metrics‟ assumptions for the assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns. The importance of this try is arisen from the transfer of a learning theory applied in the adult education practice to promotion management and especially as a framework for promotion management metrics‟ assumptions, in terms of promotion campaigns assessment and evaluation. TLT is of high value learning theory offering an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of human communication. It seems that Mezirow‟s critical reflection is well applicable as a framework of promotion metrics‟ assumptions, if we approach a promotion campaign, as a learning process. A learning process of becoming critically aware of consumers‟ own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation of their consuming choice. Therefore, Mezirow‟s reflection can be considered as a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of consumers‟ experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is about the process of looking back on the implications of consumers‟ actions taken and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future consumers‟ actions.
Based on the assumptions of Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT we could identify some limitations of the above theory regarding to our new theoretical extension:
Limitations rose from the difficulty in defining transformative learning is that it bleeds into the boundaries of concepts such as "meaning making" or “critical thinking”. The term "meaning making" is found most frequently in constructivist approaches of learning. According to a constructivistic view, meaning is constructed from consumers‟ knowledge. In Mezirow‟s original theoretical perspective, it seems that all learning is change but not all change is transformation, especially in a community of consumers. There is a significant difference between transmissional, transactional and transformational learning in a promotion management context. In the first, knowledge is transmitted from the promotion manager/the organisation to consumer. In transactional learning approach of a promotion campaign, it is recognized that the consumer has valuable experiences, and learns best through consumption and product experience, inquiry, critical thinking and interaction with other consumers-learners. It could be argued that some of the research regarding transformative learning has been in the realm of transactional learning and that what is seen as transformative in this new theoretical approach is in fact still within the realm of transactional learning.
Practical Implications Learning theories and models seems to have the potential to enhance efforts to improve the metrics‟ assumptions for the assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns. Through the extension of Mezirow‟s „critical reflection‟, promotion managers can create a learning environment in order to motivate consumers to evaluate their experiences and provide them the opportunity to review their beliefs, opinions, and values. It involves observation, asking questions, putting facts, ideas, and consuming experiences together to derive new meaning. We strongly believe that critical reflection should be considered as the most significant promotion management goal, aiming to influence consumers‟ future actions, fostering a “learning environment” by monitoring promotion metrics, in which it can occur, promotion managers should consider the following:
The role of the promotion manager is to establish an environment that builds trust and care and facilitates the development of sensitive relationships with the consumers. The promotion goal (through the perspective of critical reflection) is to create a community of consumers who are united in a shared experience of trying to make meaning of their consuming experience. There are two (2) levels of transformative learning that at times seem to be in conflict: A) the cognitive, rational, and objective and B) the intuitive, imaginative, and subjective. However, both use rational processes and incorporate imagination as a part of a creative process. Rational and the affective play a crucial role in transformative learning. Promotion managers need to consider how they can help consumers understand and use feelings and emotions both in critical reflection and as a means of reflection.
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Further Research In accordance to: a) the interpretation of the literature review findings and b) the discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of this paper, we will present our thoughts for further research for the research themes (see the conceptual categories). The research activity regarding to the application of all TLT constructs in the marketing literature the last is significantly increased the last years. The research activity regarding to the application of learning theories in consumer behavior analysis or learning as a process producing a new or revised interpretation of a consumer‟s experience is over-trippled the last decade in comparison with the previous decades. Critical reflection, as a process analyzing, reconsidering and questioning consumer‟s experiences and difficulties of critical reflection referred to the emotions involved in each experience of the consumer determined by sociocultural, mental and epistemological distortions have gained a significant research interest the last decade in comparison with the other TLT constructs. TLT constructs such as: “control”, “reflection”, “stage of verification”, “revision of the meaning structure”, “functional learning” and “communicative learning” gain the research interest the last decade but still the research activity is relatively in a very low level. We would strongly recommend the following, in order to deepen our understanding of promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection:
further theoretical examination of our new theoretical extension under the parameters influencing the transformation of consumers through short-term and long-term promotion campaigns further theoretical examination of our new theoretical extension under the prism of organization‟s overall marketing planning further investigation of our new theoretical extension, examining real-life application of TLT case studies from the promotion management context, are warmly welcome.
CONCLUSION The research aim of the paper was to examine the possibility of an extension of critical reflection model‟s assumptions by Mezirow, as assumptions for promotion metrics (i.e. impression, awareness, reach and frequency), in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. This conceptualization was approached as a framework of assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of a promotion campaign assessment and evaluation. The above discussion allowed us to confirm the: a) degree of answering the research question and the support of the initial assumptions, b) relation of the findings to earlier work, c) theoretical implications, d) practical implications and e) further research. Based on the answer of the research question, we can accept the initial assumptions that: a) learning theories and models have the potential to enhance efforts to improve the metrics‟ assumptions for the assessment and evaluation of promotion campaigns, b) Mezirow‟s theoretical perspective of TLT is an emerging multidisciplinary theory, with valuable implications in the promotion management literature, as it is a learning theory of high value, offering an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of human communication, c) Mezirow‟s critical reflection is well applicable as a framework of promotion metrics‟ assumptions, if we approach a promotion campaign, as a learning process. A learning process of becoming critically aware of consumers‟ own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation of their consuming choice. Therefore, Mezirow‟s reflection can be considered as a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of consumers‟ experience and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is about the process of looking back on the implications of consumers‟ actions taken and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and connecting these conclusions to future consumers‟ actions. The extension of TLT seems to become one of the most promising learning theories in the promotion management literature, as it can offer an interpretation that is uniquely adult, abstract, idealized, and grounded in the nature of promotion. There was a significant literature regarding the TLT constructs in the promotion management literature, such as learning, questioning consumers‟ experience („critical reflection‟) and the difficulties subjected by 41
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the subjective nature of emotions involved in each of consumers‟ experience („critical reflection difficulties‟). In contrast, TLT constructs such as the: a) authentic expression of consumers‟ feelings („communicative learning‟), b) „looking back‟ on consumers‟ experience („reflection‟), c) revision of consumers‟ meaning structure, d. stage of verification of critical reflection and e. control of critical reflection, are relatively unexplored in the promotion management literature. No study, until now, has offered the perspective of Mezirow‟s critical reflection, as a framework of assumptions for promotion metrics, in terms of promotion campaigns‟ assessment and evaluation. Our organized literature review leaded us on an initial judgmental sample of sixty (60) published research works (selected at the first stage of the literature review), in order to be scanned and reached at one to fifty-two (52) published research works, which were processed for offering some valuable findings. Our research intention was to categorize the constructs of the following fundamental concept: “promotion metrics‟ assumptions through the key features of critical reflection”. Regarding to the epistemological approach, we adopted a critical hermeneutics approach. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to offer my warm thanks to the editor Professor Dean Manna and to the reviewers for their contributory and motivating comments. AUTHOR INFORMATION George S. Spais (Ph.D., Panteion University of Social & Political Sciences, Greece) is an Adjunct Lecturer of Marketing at Agricultural University of Athens. His research interests are focused on promotion management and marketing education. He is highly interested in promotion management research topics, mostly, related to effectiveness and efficiency of sport sponsorship programs, educational techniques and objectives in marketing education and marketing ideology in the time. He serves as a regional editor (Continental Europe) of the International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning and as a member on the editorial boards of (in alphabetical order) Asian Journal of Marketing, Innovative Marketing, International Review of Management, Journal of Business Case Studies and Journal of Promotion Management. He is the marketing coeditor of the Journal of Applied Business Research and he is acting as an ad hoc reviewer for several international academic journals and academic conferences. He is a member of the Academy of Marketing Science (USA), the European Marketing Academy of the European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (Belgium), the Marketing Academy (UK), the EuroMed Academy of Business of the EuroMed Research Business Institute (Cyprus), the Greek Marketing Academy (Greece) and the Hellenic Institute of Marketing (Greece). REFERENCES 1. 2.
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The Journal of Applied Business Research – March/April 2010 NOTES
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