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QUERIES | | 1| | > Sasser, 2000a or 2000b? | | 2| | > Cornelisson and Lock, 2001 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 3| | > Sasser, 1989a or 1989b? | | 4| | > Sasser, 1991 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 5| | > Please provide issue number. | | 6| | > Please provide issue number. | | 7| | > Reed and Ewing, 2004 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 8| | > Please provide issue number. | | 9| | > Sasser, 1996 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 10|| | > Sasser and Koslow, 2005 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 11|| | > Sasser and Muth, 2001 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 12|| | > Schultz and Kitchen, 1997 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 13|| | > Please provide issue number.
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Creative and Interactive Media Use by Agencies: Engaging an IMC Media Palette for Implementing Advertising Campaigns SHEILA L. SASSER
This study examines IMC media use by advertising agencies from a perspective of
Eastern Michigan
how creative and media implementation effects impact the scope of media selected
University
[email protected]
for campaigns. The study was based upon a quantitative analysis of 872 advertising campaigns from 309 respondents from the largest advertising agencies in New York
SCOTT KOSLOW University of Waikato
and Detroit. Overall, campaigns contain more integrated media when there is solid
(Te Whare Waananga
consumer research, formal advertising testing, diverse media experience, agency
o Waikato)
industry specialization, and high agency motivation. Creativity is positively correlated
[email protected]. ac.nz
with wider IMC media use, showing that integrated interactive media campaigns using a broader media palette can be highly creative. However, neither the presence of
EDWARD A. RIORDAN Wayne State University
[email protected]
strategy in the client’s brief nor the perception of the campaign being “on strategy” has any effect on the scope or number of media used.
the media component of
istics of specific media audiences. Fewer studies
advertising has metamorphosed. Beginning with
have examined execution and implementation con-
IMC and experiential initiatives, media have trans-
trol functions of integrated media campaigns, given
formed toward interactive and engagement mod-
the trends toward common outsourcing.
IN
THE LAST DECADE,
els (Swain, 2004). Such intense media change
However, it is increasing clear that using sev-
continues to challenge existing media measure-
eral media simultaneously is desirable because of
ment conventions. Emerging “three screen” con-
synergies among media (Naik, Mantrala, and Saw-
siderations driven by technology and multitasking
yer, 1998; Naik and Raman, 2003; Reid, 2003), but
behavioral changes are affecting creative develop-
only limited research has assessed why multiple
ment, planning, and implementation. Such changes
media are used in campaigns (Nowak, Cameron,
have already been evident at the media strategy,
and Krugman, 1993; Stammerjohan, Wood, Chang,
planning, and buying levels, as enormous media
and Thorson, 2005). If using multiple media is
buys are considered without appropriate metrics
desirable, then what exactly is holding agencies
normally used to drive such choices. Just as cli-
back from selecting and integrating media in or-
ents demanded IMC prior to valid measurement
der to identify and exploit those synergies?
frameworks, advertising execution variables are
The present authors suggest that implementa-
forcing contemplation of emerging media without
tion level constraints limit media choices. For ex-
reliable metrics.
ample, some advertising client situations are more
Unfortunately, in a world of rapidly changing
appropriate for campaign executions across a wide
media strategies, research perspectives have failed
range of media. Yet, in other situations, advertis-
to keep up. Much earlier research on media use
ing employees are still challenged and quite lim-
focused on identifying optimal decisions that in-
ited in extending creative executions from one
dividual media planners select in purchasing a
“safe” medium to another. Could there be a path
single medium (Rust, 1985, 1986) or the character-
of least resistance approach where some agencies
DOI: 10.2501/S0021849907070286
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
Emerging
“three
screen”
considerations
driven
So what exactly is a campaign? Several authors have attempted to clarify
by technology and multitasking behavioral changes
what constitutes an actual campaign. Parente, Vanden Bergh, Barban, and Marra
are affecting creative development, planning, and
(1996) define an advertising campaign as “a series of advertisements, and the activities that help produce them, which are
implementation.
designed to achieve interrelated goals” (p. 13). These advertisements have some routinely play it safe and limit media
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
physical continuity in terms of slogans,
selection to preserve creative integrity
CREATIVITY, STRATEGY, AND
taglines, characters, and sounds, but also
rather than risk an unfamiliar execution
IMPLEMENTATION
some psychological continuity in terms of
outcome?
The messy reality of advertising imple-
coherent themes, images, tones, and atti-
This research provides empirical evi-
mentation is that after a great deal of
tudes alluding to Plummer’s (1984/1985,
dence that campaigns contain more me-
abstract strategizing and conceptual plan-
1985) earlier points about the brand.
dia when the following implementation
ning, one finally has to produce real ad-
Traditionally, an advertising campaign
conditions are present: good consumer
vertisements that incorporate strategy in
was historically regarded as a flight or
market research, formal advertising test-
persuasive and creative ways (Ogilvy,
series of spots placed to run over a given
ing, high levels of diverse media experi-
1983). Unfortunately, this creative process
period of time in a given media. Folgers’
ence, agency industry specialization, and
remains elusive, encompassing diverse per-
long-lasting campaign, “the best part of
high employee motivation levels. Using a
ceptions and definitions (Koslow, Sasser,
waking up is Folgers’ in your cup,” was
broader media palette, or IMC approach,
and Riordan, 2003, 2006). As part of this
originally created by D’Arcy Masius Ben-
with a wider number of media also re-
general ambiguity over advertising cre-
ton & Bowles (DMB&B) in the 1970s. Saat-
sults in greater creativity. However, it is
ative processes, there appears to be no set
chi & Saatchi has revived this classic
also important to note that other situa-
formula for determining even what me-
campaign airing it almost exclusively in
tions have no effect on increasing the
dia to include in an integrated advertis-
television. Although the Folgers’ cam-
number of media used in a campaign.
ing campaign. Most media use decisions
paign began in the 1970s, it continues
Surprisingly, the extent to which a cam-
appear to be considerations of factors re-
today with only slight changes to refresh
paign is based on strategy does not have
lating to audiences and media vehicle fac-
the basic script and no signs of wearing-
a significant effect on the number of me-
tors (Parente, Vanden Bergh, Barban, and
out. McCann Erickson Worldwide experi-
dia used in execution.
Marra, 1996). Deighton (2000) also sug-
enced similar success with the popular
First, a discussion is offered of how
gests a two-dimensional framework that
long-running Taster’s Choice Coffee Cam-
implementation and strategy affect the me-
contrasts broadcast versus interactive and
paign, which evolved into a global televi-
dia scope of a single campaign, termed
mass versus customized/addressable clas-
sion soap opera drama complete with a
the media palette. Second, several hy-
sifications. Other researchers examine ef-
fan club and cliff hangers, after airing for
potheses are tested using data on 872
fects of sponsorship, experience, and expert
nearly a decade (Sasser, 2000).
advertising campaigns from 309 industry
endorsements on campaigns (Sneath,
However, more recent campaigns are
respondents. It is found that implementa-
Finney, and Close, 2005; Wang, 2005).
viewed as an interrelated set of advertise-
tion issues explain over one-quarter of
Plummer indicates that a brand’s image
ments designed to run simultaneously in
the variance in the number of media cho-
encompasses all such associations, even
close proximity across several media. These
sen, but the extent to which a campaign
those linked somehow in memory or pos-
campaigns use the same theme or slogan
is on-strategy has no effect. Finally, this
sibly stimulated by an evoked cue in an
executed synergistically in print, televi-
research reviews implications and recom-
integrated campaign (Plummer, 1984/
sion, and alternative forms of media along
mendations for integrated marketing com-
1985, 1985). Thus, an exploration of the
with elaborate promotional variations
munications (IMC) concepts and suggests
implementation issues involved with de-
across channels to engage viewers expe-
possible directions for future media strat-
termining the media palette is appropri-
rientially (Woodard, 2005). This facilitates
egy research on emerging media.
ate focusing on execution variables.
a multipronged effort achieving both
2
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breadth and depth of penetration of the
Diversification necessitated greater integration of IMC.
target audiences, while encouraging interaction via the addressable component
It is reasonable to assume that once they “saw the light”
(Deighton, 2000; Wang, 2005). These innovations become the “norm” and combine
on IMC’s demonstrated effectiveness for a multiple media
with other technologically advanced modes of content sponsorship, channel blocking,
campaign, they would continue to advocate using a wider
and other more extreme interactive “three screen” media variations, constantly in
media palette.
flux and moving. Kevin Brown, Senior Partner, JWT Ford Motor Media, comments “this is the kind of stuff that keeps me awake at night” (Brown, 2004).
campaigns with a broad media palette
media palette. In the face of emerging
because clients and agency CEO’s in-
measurement challenges, at least the ef-
Effect of research focus on media use
sisted upon a change, as budget dollars
fects of the measurable media provide an
Historically, advocates of using integrated
shifted to promotional budgets. Those
anchor for some type of assessment. For
multiple media campaigns focused on a
agency cultures stimulating a measurable
example, using a billboard component in
regular theme: using more media in-
effectiveness orientation thrived. Diversi-
a campaign may be perceived to enhance
creases the measurable effectiveness of
fication necessitated greater integration of
the effectiveness of television component,
campaigns. For example, case studies have
IMC. It is reasonable to assume that once
by promoting recall and extending fre-
been compiled by agencies and brands
they “saw the light” on IMC’s demon-
quency. Thus, it is proposed that:
analyzing measured media use results,
strated effectiveness for a multiple media
often employing client proprietary sales
campaign, they would continue to advo-
data, Nielsen, Simmons Marketing Re-
cate using a wider media palette. The measurable effectiveness orienta-
ket. Cases have also been derived from
tion manifests in agency organizational
internal IMC channel relational databases
culture. It affects the development of cam-
tracking performance for clients; informa-
paigns in two ways: usage of consumer
tion not usually shared with academics or
research and usage of formal advertising
1989a, 1989b, 1990, 2000). Recently, similar evidence has appeared in the aca-
䉳
The breadth or scope of the media palette will increase when:
search Bureau, and BDI/CDI data by mar-
especially other practitioners (Sasser, 1986,
H1:
effectiveness. Consumer research aids the 1 understanding of the type of media that
(a) target audience market research is used, and (b) formal testing of advertisements is used. Category and media experience effects on media use
could be used for a specific target audi-
McArthur and Griffin (1997) demonstrate
demic literature (e.g., Naik and Raman,
ence. Sometimes consumer research might
that the value of media combinations ap-
2003). Formal campaign testing and eval-
identify the target audience’s media expo-
pears to differ by product categories. Be-
uation have become standard features of
sure patterns directly, but other times it
cause there is not much theory behind
the emerging media strategy approach
may give a psychographic profile from
why these media combinations differ, it
(Franz, 2000).
which media exposure could be inferred.
follows that it must be time consuming to
Numerous valuable creative directions
Focusing on the formal testing of adver-
discern which media provide the optimal
arise when using a broad media palette.
tisements assumes that some of the peo-
synergies in various IMC situations.
Surprisingly, the data and research exec-
ple involved in the campaign may have
However, once these complex patterns are
utives were early champions who were
learned about the measured effectiveness
learned or built into a framework, it frees
among the first to advocate using multi-
of using a broad media palette in a prior
up time for further media exploration to
ple media. Generally, agency creative de-
campaign. They therefore become cham-
find new effective permutations and ulti-
partments were slower to adopt an IMC
pions and advocate it in the current cam-
mately use more media.
media approach, concerned about the “in-
paign. A formal testing orientation also
For example, if an advertising execu-
tegrity” and “dilution” of the creative mes-
provides an ability to measure the effec-
tive primarily deals with retail clients,
sage. They finally were forced to develop
tiveness of campaigns using a broad
his or her learning would focus on
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
understanding print media vehicles com-
The evolution of media management
least six major roles involved in the pro-
monly used in that category. Likewise, an
structures in agencies (Gronstedt and
duction of advertising, including account
executive with automotive experience may
Thorson, 1996; Shearson Lehman Hutton,
executive, copywriter, and art director. In-
focus on television and magazine media.
1989) has spawned two types of agency
dustry reports (Shearson Lehman Hutton,
Once an executive gains such relevant
media experience: new and traditional me-
1989) offer more pointed descriptions of
media experience, there is a fairly steep
dia. Traditional media would be televi-
the high degree of specialization of vari-
learning curve. Thus, executives with nar-
sion, radio, magazine, newspaper, and
ous creative areas, further breaking down
row category experience will have an ex-
other options that existed within agen-
creative specializations by the media level.
tensive body of tacit knowledge about
cies’ domain of expertise prior to the me-
The implication of creative skill special-
which media vehicles work well together
dia revolution of the 1980s and 1990s.
ization is that to develop a campaign in
for the category’s typical consumers.
New media would be the variety of other
multiple media, it must be coordinated in
Enhanced by proactive media represen-
media like interactive, buzz “street” mar-
organizational settings. For example, sales
tatives presenting new ideas to agencies
keting, direct response, electronic, data-
promotion, direct marketing, and public
and their clients, this knowledge fuels the
base 1:1, and other areas that agencies
relations specialists all work in separate
“cause.” For example, a Time Warner re-
acquired in the 1980s and 1990s for com-
domains with little crossover skills be-
gional manager insisted “the responsibil-
petitive reasons. Therefore, these skills may
tween them (Woodard, 2005). A campaign
ity role of media representatives is to create
rest within two different strata of agency
using television, print, and direct mail
fresh and innovative forms of integrated
employees.
could easily necessitate a dozen different
media use and sponsorships to inspire
The media experience agency employ-
target audience response” (Kogler, 2004).
ees bring to bear on a particular cam-
Knowledgeable specialists in product cat-
paign should also have an effect. For
How to coordinate teams of creative
egories understand the value of such offers.
example, if an agency executive has only
specialists is a difficult problem, causing
Moreover, it may be frustrating for a
worked with television advertising, there
both human resource and organizational
category generalist to re-learn specific me-
may be an experience bias toward that
problems for advertising agencies (Shear-
dia interactions with each successive cli-
medium. Another executive who has ex-
son Lehman Hutton, 1989). To fill critical
ent. The level of knowledge necessary to
clusively planned and executed print, may
skill gaps, sales promotion, direct market-
explore category specific media synergies
tend to see only problems that can be
ing, or other specialists are often hired or
may be an elusive hurdle, especially as
solved by print advertising, given those
brought in as consultants from outside
media technology accelerates. Many me-
are the tools of familiarity. However, ex-
agencies to join internal agency teams.
dia executives are already stretched thin
posure to other media like buzz market-
Although this is intended to provide
trying to understand new audiences. Be-
ing, interactive, outdoor, or radio opens
needed media skills, such an approach
cause product category generalists have
the executive’s mind to other approaches.
does not always work. Some media spe-
even more consumer groups to under-
Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
cialists are not as strategically oriented,
stand, they are the most overextended.
specialists working together on an integrated agency client team.
and some agency strategists do not unNew and traditional media
derstand the media specialists, creating
might limit themselves to the most fre-
experience:
difficulties in conceiving and implement-
quently used media with broad exposure
(a) are independent factors and
ing strategies.
like television or print, e.g., the path of
(b) increase the breadth of the
The organizational challenge of coordi-
least resistance. Those with narrow cat-
media palette within its media
nating these specialists explains the re-
egory experience will have more knowl-
factor.
search finding that larger media palettes
When these generalists choose media, they
H3:
edge to move outside the set of frequently
are associated with cooperative cross-
used media. Based on this analysis, the
Campaign implementation and skill
functional teams with diverse, specialized
following hypothesis is offered:
specialization
group members (Gronstedt and Thorson,
Implementing campaigns with a wide
1996; Lloyd, 2001). For example, case stud-
Narrow product category ex-
media palette is complicated by the spe-
ies by Sasser (1989a, 1989b, 1991) provide 4
perience leads to broader media
cialization of advertising skill sets. For
more details and suggest that in the most
palettes.
example, Hirschman (1989) explored at
successful breakthrough cases, strategic and
H2:
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creative development occurred spontane-
A key element of this framework is that individual level
ously when individual media creative strategies were synchronized in cross-functional
processing is only important when the individual has a
group settings. When specialists from creative, media, and account management
direct impact on the strategy development and implemen-
brainstormed in war rooms, the campaign media palette design expanded.
tation process. Conversely, those campaigns lacking
When one group sets the creative theme or strategy and then delivers or “hands
strategic insight may not be coherently executed across
off” the preconceived strategy concept to the other executives, with no room for
several media simultaneously.
innovation or knowledge sharing, the media palette narrowed. To create a broad media palette, industry task forces were established between agencies, such as the Interpublic Coca-Cola task force comprised of agency executives from various disciplines and offices who met in secret off-site locations to redefine the cola business. When there is an extensive mix of interdisciplinary executives represented in these groups, the media palette expands significantly. Although there can be benefits to the coordinated group approach Sasser (1989a, 1989b) advocates, the advertising development norm holds that most creatives still work in relative isolation (El-Murad
that there will be a radio version. Cre-
(Gronstedt, 1996; Phelps, Johnson, and Har-
atives may routinely work inside their
ris, 1996) than the top management teams
own discipline, unaware of the variety of
that Corner, Kinicki, and Keats (1994) con-
media employed and to some this is a
sider, organizational rank still seems to be
good thing to maintain the “creative in-
correlated with an increased campaign
tegrity” or “purity” of the idea. Yet, ac-
overview (Gronstedt and Thorson, 1996).
count and media executives are not as
Thus, awareness of all the media used
specialized, nor are they as isolated, due
should be higher for higher ranked agency
to the very nature of their positions. So
employees. The lack of a media usage
they often have broader knowledge of the
overview is particularly the case with low
media used in a campaign, and this dif-
ranking individuals in the creative depart-
ference may be measurable. Therefore, it
ment. For example, Rothenberg (1994)
is hypothesized that:
stresses how creatives rarely have a full understanding of the ways media are sup-
H4:
Awareness of the scope of the
and West, 2003, 2004; Moriarty and Vanden
posed to integrate and may be unaware
media palette in campaigns will
Bergh, 1984; West, 1994) and focus on
of them entirely. Thus, it is proposed that:
be:
their own part of the puzzle rather than
(a) higher for agency media and
H5:
Awareness of the scope of the
consider how their work fits it in with the
account executives and
media palette in campaigns will:
whole strategy (Rothenberg, 1994). Some-
(b) lower for agency creatives.
(a) increase with progressively
times creatives know the content of other
higher levels of agency rank
advertising and promotions with which
Another area in which awareness of the
to remain consistent, but have no input
media palette may differ is in the rank of
(b) decrease with lower levels of
into the planning process. However, many
the employee. Corner, Kinicki, and Keats
agency rank, especially in cre-
creatives may not even be aware that other
(1994) detail a framework of both individ-
ative, being the least aware
media are being used, and therefore a
ual and organizational processing and how
of a broad media palette.
shared strategy brief and common ac-
they interact to form and execute strat-
count and media executives provide the
egies. A key element of this framework is
Creativity, internal motivation,
structure for the multiple media campaign.
that individual level processing is only
and media use
and
It is possible that an executive develop-
important when the individual has a di-
Many advertising industry experts be-
ing direct response materials may be com-
rect impact on the strategy development
lieve that creativity and innovation is cru-
pletely unaware that there will be a
and implementation process. Although ad-
cial to media planning, especially at
television element of the campaign. Tele-
vertising strategy planning can be more
creative agencies like BBDO, where the
vision art directors may also be unaware
consensual and more widely distributed
client expects the highest possible level of
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
breakthrough thinking (Martin, 2003). A
If broad media use is a component of
for keeping campaigns focused as agen-
focus on group work among skilled ad-
the creative idea, then the same predic-
cies move through the implementation pro-
vertising specialists suggests that devis-
tors that affect creativity should be appar-
cess. It should also enable agencies to
ing an outstanding multiple media IMC
ent. Amabile’s (1996) seminal work makes
push the limits of their planning abilities,
campaign is more than just translating
it clear that the best predictor of creativity
broadening the media palette. This broad-
from one medium to another. At its pin-
is internal motivation. That is, people are
ening may occur up to the point of the
nacle, it should be the joint production of
creative because they want to be creative.
strategy basis limitation, taking advan-
a creative idea across several media spe-
In contrast, external motivation reduces
tage of available media synergies per Naik
cialities and an integral part of the cre-
creativity because people try to game the
and Raman (2003).
ative concept itself (Lloyd, 2001).
reward system and provide what they
Conversely, those campaigns lacking
In a number of campaigns, a wide
believe will get the rewards rather than
strategic insight may not be coherently
media palette has been part and parcel
truly be creative. The irony is that at-
executed across several media simulta-
of the creative idea for the campaign.
tempts to provide “incentives” for agen-
neously. Despite starting out with the in-
Multidisciplinary task forces inspired some
cies to be creative usually backfire and
tention to use several media, agency teams
of the longest-running, award-winning,
reduce creativity. But when creatives take
may ultimately drop the use of various
integrated campaigns. When CAA and
it upon themselves to be internally moti-
media during the campaign development
Hollywood threatened to usurp IPG
vated, only then does creativity increase
process and in the end produce a cam-
Coca-Cola advertising agencies, a multi-
greatly. The relationship between internal
paign in only a single medium (Zambar-
agency, multidisciplinary group of ex-
motivation and increased creativity is pos-
dino and Goodfellow, 2003).
perts across every media specialization
sibly the most reliable one in the whole of
Because strategy development is a multi-
was assembled by IPG CEO Phil Geier
the creativity literature. Therefore, if broad
step process, it can go astray at various
to brainstorm in an off-site integrated
media use can be a component of a cre-
stages both externally with clients and
think-tank setting in New York. Like-
ative idea, then internal motivation should
internally with the agency planning pro-
wise, when General Motors Buick Divi-
predict broad media use.
cesses. Ideally, strategy should originate
sion and McCann-Erickson sought to
with advertising clients, but Helgesen
redefine the brand, a radical creative
H7: The more internally motivated the
(1992) notes they rarely have strategies
“thinkubation” session was held off-site
agency employees, the broader
and may emphasize short-term tactics. If
in Chicago for several days to think “out-
the media palette.
clients do not have strategies when they
side of the box” (Sasser, 2006). This ap-
come to agencies, they could later de-
proach initiated multiple media solutions,
Strategic focus’ effect on multiple
velop one or the agency could provide
irrespective of any specific media ap-
media use
one during the agency planning process.
proach, using IPG agencies as well as
Although the use of strategy in an adver-
In either case, the appropriate strategy
specialized outside consultants to re-
tising campaign is obviously helpful in
basis for the campaign is determined.
invent the brand. IBM and 3M also dra-
many ways, it should be especially help-
However, a cautionary note to this
matically reframed how they defined
ful in determining whether campaigns can
line of reasoning is provided by Shearson
campaigns, offering integrated multi-
be coherently executed in multiple media.
Lehman Hutton (1989), which suggests
media option programs that lasted many
The presence of strategy is a major tool
that implementation—and not strategy
years. This channel IMC orientation actually evolved into an organizational culture for both brands that was highly measurable. Thus, if use of a broad array
Although the use of strategy in an advertising campaign
of media can be a component of the creative idea, creativity and breadth of me-
is obviously helpful in many ways, it should be especially
dia use should be correlated.
helpful in determining whether campaigns can be H6:
Creativity is positively correlated with wide media use.
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formation—is the main issue constraining
strategy, and IMC executives at various
Ten New York agencies and nine Detroit
media palettes. This widely circulated in-
levels within advertising agencies. The
agencies agreed to participate in the study.
dustry report was one of the first compre-
depth interviews included four CEOs from
These traditional full service agency of
hensive looks at IMC during the agency
the leading worldwide agency systems,
record (AOR) shops handle a broad spec-
merger wave of the 1980s. The focus was
two in New York and two in Detroit. Also
trum of diversified accounts campaigns.
on how to organize advertising agencies
included were: chief creative officers, cre-
Table 1 presents respondent demograph-
to take maximum advantage of their non-
ative directors, copywriters, art directors,
ics, a broad representation of the adver-
traditional agency acquisitions. This re-
executive vice presidents, managing direc-
tising industry. The distribution of product
port suggested one could devise strategies
tors, senior vice presidents, vice president
categories is reported in Table 2, and this
that employed many media, but imple-
account supervisors, and IMC digital ac-
diversity is also representative of overall
mentation limitations of creating coherent
count executives. This form of in-depth
U.S. advertising spending. In most prod-
campaigns in those media held back
interview method provided insight for the
uct categories, the percent of sample was
broader media use. However, this was
development of research variables. Inter-
consistent with the percent of total U.S.
over a decade ago and certainly these
views included the leading executives at
advertising spending reported in 1998 (Ad-
issues should have been dealt with by
the major agency holding companies, and
vertising Age, 1999). Average annual me-
now. Thus, from the above discussion, a
the leading creative and media agencies.
dia billings for each client studied were
link between strategy and media palette’s
Large representative media firms were also
approximately U.S.$65 million.
breadth may be more closely examined
consulted for guidance. Once these com-
The respondents reported media com-
from the following hypotheses:
mon variables were identified in the first
prise Table 3. It is important to note that
H8:
phase of qualitative research, multiple
the majority of electronic media used was
A broader media palette occurs
focus groups were structured to probe
interactive media. Of the 146 campaigns
when:
further into specific constructs with cre-
that had an electronic component, 122 cam-
(a) the client brief contains a strat-
atives, account management, strategists,
paigns had an exact description of the
and media executives. The authors mod-
campaign. Most frequent electronic me-
erated four focus groups.
dia usage mentioned included web pages,
egy and (b) the final campaign is considered to be on-strategy.
Because of the questionnaire length
promotion hyperlinks, or gaming simula-
(25–30 minutes), the surveys were person-
tions. None of the campaigns were de-
METHOD
ally distributed to agency employees
scribed as a banner advertisement, but at
This research was part of the Advertising
during the normal business day. Food in-
least 81 were clearly designated as web
Creativity and Integration Strategy Pro-
centives were provided during mid-day
pages—and mostly likely many more were.
gram (AdCrisp). A comprehensive meth-
survey collection. Agency management ad-
Most of these sites were extremely sophis-
odological review has been published
vance approval and on-site cooperation
ticated and interactive, for example, the
(Koslow, Sasser, and Riordan, 2003, 2006),
was secured. New York and Detroit were
U.S. Navy recruitment site with its com-
so only a brief review of relevant points
chosen for domestic data collection. New
plex interactive gaming and interwoven
is needed. Respondents from different
York is typically ranked as the top adver-
content designed at Campbell-Ewald’s
functional areas were queried about the
tising market, while Detroit is usually the
interactive unit. Therefore, electronic me-
last three campaigns they developed. Par-
third or fourth largest, based on total bill-
dia in the study are mostly designated as
ticipant views were solicited from cre-
ings, so they are fairly representative of
interactive web pages.
ative, media, specialists, planning, research,
spending. Kover (1995) and Koslow, Sasser,
and account executives, as well as other
and Riordan (2003, 2006) also used the
RESULTS
areas. Qualitative exploratory interviews
New York and Detroit markets in previ-
Media experience measurement
were first undertaken followed by a
ous advertising research.
To measure new and old media experi-
questionnaire.
The sampling frame focused on the 20
ence (Hypothesis H3a), nine questions
An exploratory qualitative study was
largest agencies in New York and the 10
directly asked whether the respondent
initiated by the authors conducting in-
largest in Detroit. These agencies com-
had experience with various media. The
depth interviews and focus groups with
prised over three-fourths (75 percent) of
list of media provided included televi-
creatives, account management, media,
the total billings in their respective cities.
sion, radio, newspaper, magazines, direct
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
TABLE 1 Sample Demographics* Demographic Variable Levels Frequency Percent ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Gender
Male 163 53.1 Female 144 46.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Age 18–24 29 9.5 25–34 141 46.1 35–44 80 26.1 45–54 50 16.3 55–64 6 2.0 65+ 29 9.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Highest level of education
High school 4 1.3 Some college 16 5.2 Associate degree 6 2.0 Creative design/art program 12 3.9 Bachelor degree 223 72.6 Graduate degree 46 15.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Have you ever worked on the client side?
No 278 90.0 Yes 31 10.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank CEO/COO 5 1.6 Executive vice president 12 3.9 Managing director 6 1.9 Senior vice president 28 9.1 Vice president 33 10.7 Director 52 16.8 Manager 71 23.0 Executive 78 25.2 Specialist 24 7.8 Other 5 1.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Area of current position
Account/strategy 111 35.9 Creative 124 40.1 Media/research 39 12.6 Other 35 11.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ City
Detroit 150 48.5 New York 159 51.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Number and percent reporting experience with three or more cammpaigns in . . .
Consumer package goods 150 48.5 Automotive/vehicles 139 45.0 Consumer durables (excluding autos) 52 16.8 Retail 127 41.1 Restaurant/food service 69 22.3 Financial services or banking 104 33.7 Other services 47 15.2 Business to business 83 26.9 Telecommunications/technology 88 28.5 Other 33 10.7 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ *Total sample ⫽ 309; frequency differences are attributable to missing item data.
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TABLE 2 Product Categories of Sample and Total U.S. Advertising Spending in 1998
TABLE 3 Distribution of Media Used in Campaigns
Total U.S. Advertising Spending
Was the Sample
Campaign Used
Category (%) (%) ................................................................................................................................................................................. Automotive 17.7 20.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Retail 14.6 10.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Movies and media 5.2 2.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Financial 4.8 6.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Medicines and proprietary remedies 4.5 4.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Food and food products (not confections) 4.2 6.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Telecommunications 4.1 3.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Restaurants and fast food 4.0 2.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Travel, public transportation, hotels, and resorts 3.8 1.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Local services and amusements 3.4 1.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Direct response companies 2.9 0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Insurance and real estate 2.6 1.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Computers and software 2.6 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Government and organizations 1.9 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Personal hygiene and health 1.8 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Beverages 1.7 4.4 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Apparel 1.7 1.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Cosmetics and beauty aids 1.6 4.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Confectionery and snacks 1.4 3.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................
by the Client? ................................... No Yes ........................................................................... Television 46 466 ........................................................................... Radio 11 195 ........................................................................... Print 44 490 ........................................................................... Direct response 4 135 ........................................................................... Electronic (mostly web pages) 7 139 ........................................................................... Outdoor 9 140 ........................................................................... Other media 12 56 ........................................................................... Total 133 1,621 ........................................................................... response, electronic, transit, and outdoor “out of home” options. A ninth “all other media” category was also used. Respon-
Audio and video equipment, and supplies 1.3 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Games, toys, and hobbycraft 1.2 0.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................
dents were asked if they had experience
Hair products and accessories 1.1 0.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Beer and wine 1.1 1.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................
any of these media.
Household soaps, cleansers, and polishes 1.0 2.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Household supplies (paper, plastic, foil) 0.7 1.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................
with three or more campaigns that used These nine dichotomous scales were factor analyzed using G-Index factor analy-
Building materials, equipment, and utensils 0.6 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Schools, camps, seminars 0.6 0 .................................................................................................................................................................................
sis (Stewart, 1981). G-Index factor analysis
Household appliances, equipment, and utensils 0.6 0.08 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Sporting goods 0.6 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................
only adjusted to deal with the problems
Manufacturing: equipment, freight 0.5 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Household furnishing and accessories 0.5 0.8 .................................................................................................................................................................................
analysis decomposes a matrix of Pearson
Pets, pet foods, and supplies 0.5 1.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Office machines, furniture, and supplies 0.4 0.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................
is a variant of traditional factor analysis, of dichotomous data. Traditional factor product moment correlations, but G-Index factor analysis decomposes a matrix of
Gasoline, lubricants, and fuels 0.4 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Jewelry and watches 0.4 0 .................................................................................................................................................................................
G-Indices, a measure of association that
Liquor 0.4 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Toiletries for men 0.3 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................
mous variables have equal marginal
Horticulture and farming 0.3 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Eye glasses, medical equipment, and supplies 0.3 0.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Pharmaceutical companies 0.2 0.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Fitness and diet programs and spas 0.2 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................
equals correlations when the dichotodistributions (see Stewart, 1981, for details). Two factors were identified by the eigenvalue-greater-than-1 and scree plot rules. The model explains 59 percent of
Aviation (not travel) 0.1 0.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Other or could not be classified 2.5 4.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................
the total variance. VARIMAX rotated fac-
Total 100 100 .................................................................................................................................................................................
The two factors closely match an ex-
Source: Advertising Age (1999).
tor loadings are shown in Table 4. pectation of a divide between new and
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TABLE 4 G-Index Factor Analysis of Media Experience
sumer research available (3 items), use of
Traditional Media New Media Commonalities .............................................................................................................................................................
and “on-strategy” (4 items). Each item
formal testing (4 items), internal motivation (2 items), no strategy in brief (4 items),
Television 0.772 −0.195 0.634 .............................................................................................................................................................
was measured with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ⫺3 ⫽ strongly disagree to
Radio 0.729 0.002 0.531 .............................................................................................................................................................
⫹3 ⫽ strongly agree. These items were
Newspapers 0.777 0.053 0.607 .............................................................................................................................................................
factor analyzed, and the VARIMAX ro-
Magazines 0.762 −0.211 0.625 .............................................................................................................................................................
tated loadings are listed in Table 6. The
Direct response −0.102 0.656 0.441 .............................................................................................................................................................
model confirms seven factors by both the eigenvalue-greater-than-one and scree plot
Electronic −0.010 0.702 0.492 .............................................................................................................................................................
rules. These factors also explain 66.2 per-
Transit 0.129 0.777 0.621 .............................................................................................................................................................
cent of the variance. The hypothesized
Outdoor 0.669 0.445 0.646 .............................................................................................................................................................
structure was confirmed. Except for the media palette measure, new construct mea-
Other media −0.516 0.674 0.720 .............................................................................................................................................................
sures were calculated by summing items
Eigenvalues 3.052 2.265 .............................................................................................................................................................
associated with each factor. These new scales are summarized in Table 7.
traditional media experience. The only
other
problem appears to be some limited cloud-
telecommunications/technology, or other.
The objective was to use information on
ing on the last two items. The outdoor
A two-step cluster analysis was per-
whether campaigns employed various me-
item loads mainly on the traditional me-
formed consistent with Punj and Stew-
dia to develop a single scale of the width
dia factor, but some amount on the new
art’s (1983) recommendations. First, Ward’s
of the media palette. Therefore, this re-
media factor. Had the item been worded
minimum distance method was utilized,
search used indicator variables for whether
billboards, it might have loaded more
and it was found that cluster membership
or not specific media were used. (A pre-
cleanly on the traditional media factor,
became stable with six clusters and a 10
ferred method of measuring the width of
but the use of the term outdoor may allow
percent trim. Second, all respondents were
the media palette was to obtain the bill-
for fairly innovative outdoor “out of home”
assigned to six clusters employing itera-
ings associated with each media. From
media. The other media item also is some-
tive portioning using the cluster centroids
pretests it was determined that less that
what clouded between the items, but best
from the initial cluster solution. The
20 percent of all respondents could esti-
loads on the new media factor and con-
pseudo-F statistic was 44.12, the cubic clus-
mate the dollar size of the account bill-
ceptually fits best there as well. Overall,
tering criterion was 14.22, and the ap-
ings, so the percent of participants who
the findings support Hypothesis H3a that
proximate expected over-all R 2 was 33.5
could estimate billings by media surely
new and traditional media experiences
percent. Table 5 provides means for the
should be less. Thus, the focus switched
are independent factors.
six clusters. Interpretations of the clusters
to whether or not a specific media was
services,
business-to-business,
Width of the media palette
go from the most specialized experience
used.) The media categories were: tele-
Category experience
on the left of Table 5 to the most broad on
vision, radio, print, direct response,
To understand product category experi-
the right of Table 5. Automotive, retail,
electronic, outdoor, and other media. Fol-
ence, respondents were given a list of 10
and package goods experience clusters can
lowing Stewart (1981), these data were
possible product categories and asked to
be viewed as common types of more spe-
analyzed using G-Index factor analysis
select any categories in which they had
cialized experience.
with QUARTERMAX rotation. By the
work experience. These categories in-
eigenvalues-great-than-1 and scree plot
cluded: consumer package goods, auto-
Multi-item scales
rules, there were three clear factors to-
mobiles/vehicles, consumer durables
The five independent variables discussed
gether explaining 75.7 percent of the to-
(excluding autos), retail, restaurant/food
in the hypotheses were measured with 14
tal variance. The results are presented in
service, financial services or banking,
items. These seven constructs were: con-
Table 8.
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TABLE 5 Means for Product Category Experience Clusters Narrow
Package
Specialized
Goods
Auto
Retail
Moderate
High
Breadth
Breadth
Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Package goods experience 0.000 1.000 0.127 0.593 0.800 0.833 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Auto experience 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.148 0.240 0.639 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Durables experience 0.081 0.091 0.069 0.185 0.080 0.694 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Retail experience 0.000 0.000 0.284 1.000 0.400 0.944 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Restaurant experience 0.081 0.145 0.176 0.222 0.080 0.722 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Financial services experience 0.162 0.182 0.196 0.204 1.000 0.889 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Other services experience 0.162 0.109 0.069 0.111 0.320 0.389 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Business to business experience 0.081 0.091 0.216 0.148 0.440 0.944 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Telecommunications/technology 0.216 0.164 0.118 0.130 0.960 0.778 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Other category experience 0.189 0.073 0.078 0.093 0.160 0.139 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Cluster membership 37 55 102 54 25 36 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Interpretation of the last two factors was straightforward because a single me-
usage of the other four. This factor was
of the media palette, which is defined as
termed Unmeasured Media.
the sum of each of the three factors’ scores.
dium appeared on each. The second fac-
Prior to this point, the assumption has
tor measures television usage and the third
been that breadth of the media palette is a
print usage. The two factors have an im-
single factor. This is not the case, accord-
portant interpretation in this sample. The
ing to the research findings. So, the new
Single item measures
choice to use television is independent of
question becomes “what measures will be
Creativity was estimated with a single
the decision to use any other medium.
used to test the hypotheses?” Using each
item scale as suggested by Amabile (1996).
Likewise, the choice to use print is also
of the three factors’ scores as dependent
The item read, “Using your own subjec-
independent of the decision to use any
variables in three separate models may be
tive definition of advertising creativity,
other medium. The last factor included
useful. However, models predicting each
how creative was this advertisement/
use of radio, direct response, electronic,
of three separate factors’ scores will not
campaign?” The response scales ranged
outdoor, or other media. That is, when a
give a broad overview of the combined
from “Far less than average” (1) to “Far
respondent reported that one of these five
effects of all three factors. Thus, we also
above average” (5). The mid point was
media was used, there was an increased
introduce a fourth measure, overall breadth
labeled “Average creativity” (3).
These four measures will be used to test the hypotheses.
A single item, nine-level variable, measured rank. In the study, “CEO/CCO”
When a respondent reported that one of these five
was the highest rank, coded as 1. “Specialist” was the lowest rank, coded as 9.
media—radio, direct response, electronic, outdoor, and
Other levels are listed in Table 1.
other—was used, there was an increased usage of the
Model tests To test the hypotheses, four generalized
other four. This factor was termed Unmeasured Media.
linear models (GLM) were performed,
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TABLE 6 Factor Analysis of Independent Variables (VARIMAX Rotated) Use of
“On-
Consumer No
Formal Strategy” Research Strategy Internal Testing Campaign Available in Brief Motivation Commonalities ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ There was good market research information on the business.
0.122
0.153
0.708
0.279
0.106
0.629
0.055
0.109
0.791
0.018
0.238
0.697
The creatives had access to market and media research that painted a clear picture of the target market. We were running blind on this account because we didn’t have access to proper market research information. −0.122 −0.169 −0.713 −0.111 0.071 0.569 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ The account didn’t expect to use formal testing on the advertising produced.
−0.834 −0.006
−0.081
−0.078
0.072
0.714
0.865 −0.006
0.060
0.028
0.005
0.753
0.800
0.079
0.069
−0.016
0.654
The account’s creative output was expected to be formally tested for recall, likeability, attitude change, or other measures. Focus groups, in-theater tests, consumer panels, or other formal means were used to evaluate the advertisement(s) produced for this account.
0.054
The creative output for this account was expected to be assessed by formal research methods. 0.862 −0.017 0.068 0.027 −0.026 0.749 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Developing advertising for this product/service was fun.
−0.016
0.185
0.114
0.135
0.819
0.736
Working with the product/service was interesting. −0.085 0.212 0.086 0.024 0.808 0.714 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ The brief the client gave to the agency contained a clear strategy.
−0.159 −0.067
−0.244
−0.734
−0.060
0.631
There was no strategic direction given to the agency in the client’s brief.
0.132
0.074
0.178
0.736
0.159
0.622
−0.059
0.139
0.269
0.640
0.216
0.552
The advertising strategy, which should have been in the client’s brief, was actually constructed by the agency.
The brief showed that the client had a specific strategy in mind. 0.022 −0.037 0.223 −0.607 0.199 0.459 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ This advertisement/campaign was “on strategy.”
0.077
0.799
0.073
0.092
0.072
0.663
0.038
0.856
0.021
0.072
0.098
0.748
−0.025
0.804
0.156
0.063
0.140
0.694
This advertisement/campaign was a good fit with the client’s strategy. This advertisement/campaign was an appropriate strategy for the client.
This advertisement/campaign was built on good strategy. −0.071 0.712 0.314 0.084 0.215 0.664 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Eigenvalues 2.93 2.70 2.02 2.00 1.60 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
one predicting each of the three di-
percent for unmeasured media, televi-
presents a summary of hypotheses and
mensions of the media palette and an
sion usage, print usage, and overall
statistical support.
additional one summing these three di-
breadth of the media palette, respec-
Parameters in Table 9 address Hypoth-
mensions. The four models fit acceptably
tively. Key statistical outputs are listed in
eses H1a and H1b, the effects of market
with R 2 equal to 16.8, 26.6, 10.4, and 25.6
Table 9, in summary form. Table 10
research and formal testing on the media
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thest cluster to the left has the most spe-
TABLE 7 Summaries of New Scales
cialized experience. The general trend of this graph is that the broader one’s expe-
Standard Scale
Cronbach’s
Mean Deviation Points Minimum Maximum Alpha ............................................................................................................................................................. Traditional media experience 2.88 1.31 5 0 4 0.715 ............................................................................................................................................................. New media experience 1.55 1.32 6 0 5 0.562 .............................................................................................................................................................
rience, the less multiple media are used. The only exception to this appears to be automotive experience in the case of television. Thus, Hypothesis H2 is generally supported.
Use of formal testing 2.17 6.89 25 −12 12 0.867 .............................................................................................................................................................
To examine the effect of traditional and
“On-strategy” 7.88 3.88 23 −10 12 0.832 .............................................................................................................................................................
new media, consider the parameters in
Consumer research available 3.03 3.87 19 −9 9 0.702 .............................................................................................................................................................
Table 9. From the parameters in this table, the two types of media experience have
No strategy in brief 0.83 4.84 23 −10 12 0.664 .............................................................................................................................................................
independent and positive effects on all
Internal motivation 2.42 2.78 13 −6 6 0.677 .............................................................................................................................................................
four media use measures. Therefore, Hypothesis H3b is supported in all cases except traditional media experience’s effect on unmeasured media.
palette’s breadth. Market research has a
Product category experience, the sub-
Awareness of a broad media palette in
positive effect on the media palette’s
ject of Hypothesis H2, does have a signif-
campaigns is considered in Hypotheses
breadth for three of the four models, in-
icant effect on several media palette
H4a through H5b, across types of agency
cluding unmeasured media and televi-
breadth measures. To understand this in
executive areas and rank. Because of the
sion usage and media palette breadth. For
more detail, consider Figure 1, which plots
presence of interaction terms, deeper analy-
formal testing, positive effects were ob-
the least square means of each experience
sis is required. Consider Figure 2, which
served in predicting television usage and
segment. The six clusters are sorted by
shows the impact of rank and area on
media palette breadth. Thus, these hypoth-
the average cluster means, with the high-
overall media palette breadth. The pat-
eses were supported in media palette
est average cluster means on the right.
tern observed is that all lines show a
breadth, yet partially supported in spe-
That is, the farthest cluster to the right
general tilt in support of the idea that
cific media usage areas.
has the broadest experience and the far-
higher rank leads to more awareness of overall media palette breadth. The line for creatives has a much more pronounced slope, with lower level creatives being
TABLE 8 Media Usage G-Index Factor Analysis
aware of considerably fewer media than either account or media executives. At higher levels of rank, creatives are statis-
Unmeasured Media
Television
tically similar to other executives of high
Print
Factor Factor Factor Commonalities .............................................................................................................................................................
rank, when it comes to awareness of a broad media palette. There is not a clear
Television −0.076 0.954 −0.025 0.916 .............................................................................................................................................................
difference statistically between account and
Radio 0.764 0.262 0.036 0.654 .............................................................................................................................................................
media executives. Thus, there is support
Print −0.057 −0.023 0.985 0.975 .............................................................................................................................................................
for Hypotheses H4a, H4b, H5a, and H5b.
Direct 0.773 −0.283 −0.122 0.693 .............................................................................................................................................................
That is, lower ranking creatives, particularly specialists, are usually only aware of
Electronic 0.785 −0.165 −0.059 0.646 .............................................................................................................................................................
their own work. Figure 2 illustrates the
Outdoor 0.829 0.052 0.108 0.685 .............................................................................................................................................................
pattern of results for overall media pal-
Other media 0.810 −0.157 −0.222 0.731 ............................................................................................................................................................. Eigenvalues 3.135 1.113 1.052 .............................................................................................................................................................
ette breadth. A similar pattern is observed for unmeasured media, television, and print usage, but is not repeated here. The
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
TABLE 9 GLM Results Predicting Unmeasured Media Usage, Television Usage, Print Usage, and Overall Media Palette Breadth Unmeasured
Overall Media
Media Usage Television Usage Print Usage Palette Breadth ................................................... ................................................... ................................................... ...................................................... Type III Type III Type III Type III Sum of
Sum of
Sum of
Sum of
Parameters Parameters Squares Parameters Squares Squares Parameters Squares ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Intercept −0.396 0.807 −0.948 −0.537 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ No strategy in brief
0.473
−0.005
0.390
−0.005
0.948
−0.008
5.224
−0.018
“On-strategy” 0.083 −0.003 0.070 −0.003 0.223 0.005 0.007 −0.001 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Area
4.805 #
1.378
13.115 #
8.793***
Account
−0.565
−1.033
0.588
−1.010
Creative
−0.625
−0.721
1.313
−0.032
Media
−0.826
−0.386
0.685
−0.526
Other 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank 3.444*** −0.113 12.014*** −0.169 1.311 0.030 41.818*** −0.252 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank * area
1.370
5.970*
8.652*
27.087**
Account
0.084
0.154
−0.031
0.207
Creative
0.065
0.074
−0.153
−0.014
Media
0.103
0.079
−0.060
0.122
Other 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Category experience cluster
3.633*
17.442***
19.467***
56.304***
Automotive
0.199
−0.342
−0.002
−0.144
Broad
0.099
−0.324
−0.134
−0.359
Retail
0.148
−0.090
0.214
0.272
Narrow specialized
0.240
−0.138
0.425
0.526
Package goods
0.063
0.027
0.200
0.289
Moderate 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Traditional media experience
0.283
0.016
55.032***
0.229
7.422***
0.084
113.953*** 0.330
New media experience 9.470*** 0.093 4.017* −0.060 13.369*** 0.110 22.377*** 0.143 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Consumer research available
1.301*
Formal testing of advertisements 0.461
0.012 −0.004
2.931*
0.018
0.297
0.006
56.056***
0.039
0.115
−0.002
11.542*
0.036
41.837*** 0.034
Internal motivation 5.004*** 0.031 1.432 0.017 3.846* 0.027 29.105*** 0.075 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ #
p ⬍ .1; *p ⬍ .05; **p ⬍ .01; ***p ⬍ .001
only exception to this support was that in
less unmeasured media. There were no
variable. It was modeled both as a cat-
models predicting unmeasured media
differences based upon being a creative,
egorical variable and as a reduced contin-
usage, higher ranked individuals were
account, or media executive.
uous scale with no substantive change in
aware of more unmeasured media, and
It is important to note that sensitivity
the results. The reduced scale recoded
lower ranked respondents were aware of
analysis was also performed on the rank
CEO/COO positions as “1,” all VP and
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TABLE 10 Summary of Hypotheses and Empirical Support Results ........................................................................................................................... Overall Unmeasured Media
Media Television
Print
Palette
Breadth Hypothesis Description Usage Usage Usage ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H1a Media palette breath will increase more when market Supported Supported Not Supported research is used. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H1b
Media palette breadth will increase more when formal
Not
Supported
Not
Supported
testing is used. supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H2
Narrow product category experience leads to a broader
Supported
Partially
Supported
Supported
media palette. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H3a
New and traditional media experience are independent
Supported
factors. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H3b
New and traditional media experience broaden the media
Partially
Supported
Supported
Supported
palette. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H4a
Awareness of media palette breadth is higher for media
Not
Supported
Supported
Supported
and account executives. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H4b
Awareness of media palette breadth is lower for creatives.
Not
Supported
Supported
Supported
supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H5a
Awareness of media palette breadth increases with higher
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
rank levels. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H5b
Awareness of media palette breadth decreases with lower
Not
Supported
Supported
Supported
rank levels, more extremely for creatives. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H6
Breadth of the media palette and creativity are positively
Supported
Not
Supported
Supported
correlated. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H7
Internally motivated employees design campaigns with
Supported
Not
Supported
Supported
broader media palettes. Supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H8a
Broader media palette campaigns occur when client brief
Not
Not
Not
Not
has a strategy. supported supported supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H8b
Broader media palette campaigns occur when the final
Not
Not
Not
Not
campaign is on strategy. supported supported supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
managing director positions as “2,” di-
and (2) lower level creatives had much
porting Hypothesis H6. Internal motiva-
rector and manager as “3,” executive as
lower awareness than account and me-
tion’s effect on media palette’s breadth
“4,” and specialist as “5.” In both sensi-
dia executives.
concerns Hypothesis H7. There is support
tivity analyses, the same substantive pat-
The correlation between creativity and
for this effect in the models predicting
tern emerged: (1) high rank led to more
breadth of the media palette is 0.167, which
unmeasured media, print usage, and over-
awareness of media palette breadth,
is significant at the a ⫽ 0.001 level, sup-
all media palette breadth.
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
Figure 1 Least Square Means of Overall Media Palette Breadth by Experience Clusters
Figure 2 Least Square Mean Levels of Overall Media Palette Breadth by Rank and Area
To address Hypotheses H8a and H8b,
paigns are to be used. Future research
tising execution variables, influence the
the effect of strategy on the breadth of the
should consider this issue more directly
breadth of the media palette. Lower level
media palette, consider the parameters in
by attempting to integrate effectiveness
advertising executives, especially those in
the models in Table 9. These four models
measures. While this study was designed
the creative department, are the least aware
find no evidence of any statistically sig-
to stratify a broad representation of the
of media usage. If those working on a
nificant effect on media use of either strat-
advertising agency industry, an elusive
campaign are more experienced with a
egy being in the client’s brief, or the degree
sample population, it may be useful to
variety of media, this enhances their abil-
to which the finished campaign is “on-
conduct additional interviews at higher
ity to execute a multiple media IMC cam-
strategy.” Thus, Hypotheses H8a and H8b
levels of the agency. The sample is reflec-
paign. Consumer research usage or formal
are not supported.
tive of the overall make-up of the agency.
testing of advertisements also generally
Other client viewpoints may also be use-
increases the number of media used. In-
DISCUSSION
ful in terms of evaluating the “on-strategy”
ternal motivation is also positively asso-
All of the normal caveats regarding sur-
component of campaigns. Agencies might
ciated with the breadth of the media
vey research apply here, including self-
feel obligated to stick to the strategy, but
palettes. And most importantly, inte-
report measures, response rates, and recall.
clients may view this differently. There-
grated multiple media campaigns are more
Unfortunately, agency personnel have lim-
fore, future research should also incorpo-
creative, not less creative!
ited knowledge of the effectiveness of cam-
rate the client’s perspective on using a
paigns. The effectiveness question remains
broad media palette.
Implications for creativity and strategy
a key issue in IMC and emerging media
Limitations aside, the pattern of results
Because creativity is central to the devel-
research, especially when determining how,
presented here supports the idea that me-
opment of coherent campaigns across
when, and why multiple media cam-
dia and creative implementation, adver-
multiple media options, it should be the
16
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beginning point for development of wide-
However, there are other explanations
dia. Some researchers (e.g., Calder and
ranging IMC and interactive efforts, not
for not finding effects for strategy on me-
Malthouse, 2005; Duncan and Everett, 1993;
strategy. Strategy is a mandate, like a hy-
dia use. It may be that strategy is a nec-
Schulz and Kitchen, 1997) suggest that if
giene factor—it must be present, but such
essary precondition of using several media
one could just think through strategically
presence alone is not enough. It would be
simultaneously and that most campaigns
what an IMC campaign should achieve,
exciting to think that creativity exists in a
already have the minimum required
one could produce focused campaigns in
unique dimension independent of media
threshold. Because the mean of the “on-
several media. This conception of IMC
selection, such that great ideas could be
strategy” factor was consistently high, ap-
has been called new wine in the old skin
applied to any media that the target au-
proximately 8 on a scale that potentially
of the 4Ps (Stewart, 1996), unhelpful to
dience is exposed to, but it does not work
could range from ⫺12 to ⫹12, most of the
managers (Swain, 2004), or management
that way. Truly great creative ideas har-
872 campaigns in this large agency, best
fashion (Cornelissen and Lock, 2001). This 2
ness the power to engage consumers and
practice-oriented sample already meet the
study offers that it is far easier to make a
prompt experiential involvement. While
necessary preconditions. At the same time,
“client pitch” for a strategic IMC cam-
some combinations of media types per-
a broad media palette appears to be a
paign concept across a wide media scope
form better for some situations than
commonly used campaign element, even
than it is to actually muster the creative
others, the trend toward interrelating me-
when driven by the client. If one assumes
expertise to implement the campaign.
dia that began during early IMC years
high-ranking executives have the most ac-
Implementation challenges have been a
has prompted new ways of thinking about
curate knowledge of media use in cam-
main stumbling block to producing inte-
all technology driven new media oppor-
paigns, then the typical campaign uses at
grated campaigns with a broad media
tunities. More than ever, a renewed
least two to three media options. It may
palette since the 1980s, and execution bar-
genuine commitment to creativity in
be that most campaigns already meet the
riers still exist. The rapid growth of emerg-
media—and the serendipitous journey it
minimum threshold of strategic thinking
ing media options (e.g., Loda and Coleman,
implies for creatives, media specialists,
and thus having more of it will not pro-
2005; Peltier, Schibrowsky, Shultz, and
and others—is truly needed.
䉳
duce more media use in cross-sectional
Zahay, 2006; Stewart, 1992; Trappey and
The focus on creativity as an impor-
data. Strategy must be in place for a broad
Woodside, 2005) further complicates mat-
tant aspect of campaigns with broad me-
media palette to take shape, but the key
ters. Prior to the internet, executing a
dia palettes may also explain a troubling
constraint to expanding the media palette
strategy in television, print, and radio
finding. Although there appears to be a
is implementation. It is an execution vari-
was challenging because of the high
strong literature-based support for the re-
able requiring skill specialization, ex-
level of specialized skills each media de-
lationship between strategy and the me-
perience, research use, and creativity
manded. Today, with a plethora of “3
dia palette’s breadth, no effect was found.
challenges, rather than a strategy forma-
screen” multitasking media requirements,
Some researchers (Reiter-Palmon, Mum-
tion mandate. Strategy is an important
embedded content, gaming interaction
ford, Boes, and Runco, 1997) suggest hav-
precondition of any advertising campaign
placements, and texting issues, it is even
ing a strategy might hinder or strangle
irrespective of media use. The conclusion
more formidable.
creative problem solving associated with
of the Shearson Lehman Hutton (1989)
This research also points out another
broad media palette campaigns. They
report, that implementation challenges are
key weakness in developing campaigns
show that when problems are presented
still the constraining factors holding back
that speak with “one voice” (Gould, Grein,
to subjects in more ambiguous ways, they
broader media use, may still be valid to-
and Lerman, 1999; Reilly, 1991; Sasser,
are solved more creatively. Strategy may
day, as applied to new emerging media
1989, 1991). Lower level advertising cre- 3,4
actually “strangle” the creative and me-
options.
ative personnel often work in isolation
dia planning ideations, handicapping de-
with little knowledge of what other
sired potential ideas through constraints.
Implications for the IMC “debate”
media alternatives are being developing
Thus, the client insists upon a very tight
Although early researchers in IMC fo-
by the creative and media departments.
strategy, to the point of prespecifying me-
cused on strategy issues, this study sug-
Agency boundaries may prevent shared
dia. Yet this hinders the agency imagina-
gests that the main limitation is not
information, inhibiting possible options
tion and media scope, resulting in less
strategic insight, but rather the difficulty
explored, thus creating a media vacuum.
creativity.
of implementing strategy in multiple me-
It then becomes difficult to develop and
September 2007
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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE
evolve unique, consistent, or uniform cam-
................................................................................................
paigns if agency executives cannot “hear
SHEILA L. SASSER is an assistant professor of IMC
the voice” of other media, much less pro-
online and marketing at Eastern Michigan University,
pose novel media solutions to the client.
Ypsilanti, Michigan. Her research interests include
Much like an artist using the most famil-
IMC, creativity, international, media, innovation, and
iar brush and palette, some agencies may
internet technology. Her Fall 2006 Journal of Advertis-
prefer to work within a given media com-
ing (JA) article was recognized as runner up for Best
fort zone and may overlook optimal syn-
Paper of the Year Award at AAA. She serves as Spe-
ergies, clinging to their tried and true
cial Issue Co-Editor for Creativity Research in Advertis-
specialties.
ing at JA. Dr. Sasser has been published in the
Agencies need to carefully rethink the
Journal of Advertising Research, the Journal of Advertis-
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mented by creatives or other specialists
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University of Michigan, Michigan State University,
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................................................................................................
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SCOTT KOSLOW is an associate professor of marketing
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