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QUERIES | | 1| | > Sasser, 2000a or 2000b? | | 2| | > Cornelisson and Lock, 2001 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 3| | > Sasser, 1989a or 1989b? | | 4| | > Sasser, 1991 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 5| | > Please provide issue number. | | 6| | > Please provide issue number. | | 7| | > Reed and Ewing, 2004 is not in the Ref. list. Add to Refs. or delete here. | | 8| | > Please provide issue number. | | 9| | > Sasser, 1996 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 10|| | > Sasser and Koslow, 2005 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 11|| | > Sasser and Muth, 2001 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 12|| | > Schultz and Kitchen, 1997 is not cited in text. Please cite in text or delete here. | | 13|| | > Please provide issue number.

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Creative and Interactive Media Use by Agencies: Engaging an IMC Media Palette for Implementing Advertising Campaigns SHEILA L. SASSER

This study examines IMC media use by advertising agencies from a perspective of

Eastern Michigan

how creative and media implementation effects impact the scope of media selected

University [email protected]

for campaigns. The study was based upon a quantitative analysis of 872 advertising campaigns from 309 respondents from the largest advertising agencies in New York

SCOTT KOSLOW University of Waikato

and Detroit. Overall, campaigns contain more integrated media when there is solid

(Te Whare Waananga

consumer research, formal advertising testing, diverse media experience, agency

o Waikato)

industry specialization, and high agency motivation. Creativity is positively correlated

[email protected]. ac.nz

with wider IMC media use, showing that integrated interactive media campaigns using a broader media palette can be highly creative. However, neither the presence of

EDWARD A. RIORDAN Wayne State University [email protected]

strategy in the client’s brief nor the perception of the campaign being “on strategy” has any effect on the scope or number of media used.

the media component of

istics of specific media audiences. Fewer studies

advertising has metamorphosed. Beginning with

have examined execution and implementation con-

IMC and experiential initiatives, media have trans-

trol functions of integrated media campaigns, given

formed toward interactive and engagement mod-

the trends toward common outsourcing.

IN

THE LAST DECADE,

els (Swain, 2004). Such intense media change

However, it is increasing clear that using sev-

continues to challenge existing media measure-

eral media simultaneously is desirable because of

ment conventions. Emerging “three screen” con-

synergies among media (Naik, Mantrala, and Saw-

siderations driven by technology and multitasking

yer, 1998; Naik and Raman, 2003; Reid, 2003), but

behavioral changes are affecting creative develop-

only limited research has assessed why multiple

ment, planning, and implementation. Such changes

media are used in campaigns (Nowak, Cameron,

have already been evident at the media strategy,

and Krugman, 1993; Stammerjohan, Wood, Chang,

planning, and buying levels, as enormous media

and Thorson, 2005). If using multiple media is

buys are considered without appropriate metrics

desirable, then what exactly is holding agencies

normally used to drive such choices. Just as cli-

back from selecting and integrating media in or-

ents demanded IMC prior to valid measurement

der to identify and exploit those synergies?

frameworks, advertising execution variables are

The present authors suggest that implementa-

forcing contemplation of emerging media without

tion level constraints limit media choices. For ex-

reliable metrics.

ample, some advertising client situations are more

Unfortunately, in a world of rapidly changing

appropriate for campaign executions across a wide

media strategies, research perspectives have failed

range of media. Yet, in other situations, advertis-

to keep up. Much earlier research on media use

ing employees are still challenged and quite lim-

focused on identifying optimal decisions that in-

ited in extending creative executions from one

dividual media planners select in purchasing a

“safe” medium to another. Could there be a path

single medium (Rust, 1985, 1986) or the character-

of least resistance approach where some agencies

DOI: 10.2501/S0021849907070286

September 2007

JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH

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CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE

Emerging

“three

screen”

considerations

driven

So what exactly is a campaign? Several authors have attempted to clarify

by technology and multitasking behavioral changes

what constitutes an actual campaign. Parente, Vanden Bergh, Barban, and Marra

are affecting creative development, planning, and

(1996) define an advertising campaign as “a series of advertisements, and the activities that help produce them, which are

implementation.

designed to achieve interrelated goals” (p. 13). These advertisements have some routinely play it safe and limit media

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:

physical continuity in terms of slogans,

selection to preserve creative integrity

CREATIVITY, STRATEGY, AND

taglines, characters, and sounds, but also

rather than risk an unfamiliar execution

IMPLEMENTATION

some psychological continuity in terms of

outcome?

The messy reality of advertising imple-

coherent themes, images, tones, and atti-

This research provides empirical evi-

mentation is that after a great deal of

tudes alluding to Plummer’s (1984/1985,

dence that campaigns contain more me-

abstract strategizing and conceptual plan-

1985) earlier points about the brand.

dia when the following implementation

ning, one finally has to produce real ad-

Traditionally, an advertising campaign

conditions are present: good consumer

vertisements that incorporate strategy in

was historically regarded as a flight or

market research, formal advertising test-

persuasive and creative ways (Ogilvy,

series of spots placed to run over a given

ing, high levels of diverse media experi-

1983). Unfortunately, this creative process

period of time in a given media. Folgers’

ence, agency industry specialization, and

remains elusive, encompassing diverse per-

long-lasting campaign, “the best part of

high employee motivation levels. Using a

ceptions and definitions (Koslow, Sasser,

waking up is Folgers’ in your cup,” was

broader media palette, or IMC approach,

and Riordan, 2003, 2006). As part of this

originally created by D’Arcy Masius Ben-

with a wider number of media also re-

general ambiguity over advertising cre-

ton & Bowles (DMB&B) in the 1970s. Saat-

sults in greater creativity. However, it is

ative processes, there appears to be no set

chi & Saatchi has revived this classic

also important to note that other situa-

formula for determining even what me-

campaign airing it almost exclusively in

tions have no effect on increasing the

dia to include in an integrated advertis-

television. Although the Folgers’ cam-

number of media used in a campaign.

ing campaign. Most media use decisions

paign began in the 1970s, it continues

Surprisingly, the extent to which a cam-

appear to be considerations of factors re-

today with only slight changes to refresh

paign is based on strategy does not have

lating to audiences and media vehicle fac-

the basic script and no signs of wearing-

a significant effect on the number of me-

tors (Parente, Vanden Bergh, Barban, and

out. McCann Erickson Worldwide experi-

dia used in execution.

Marra, 1996). Deighton (2000) also sug-

enced similar success with the popular

First, a discussion is offered of how

gests a two-dimensional framework that

long-running Taster’s Choice Coffee Cam-

implementation and strategy affect the me-

contrasts broadcast versus interactive and

paign, which evolved into a global televi-

dia scope of a single campaign, termed

mass versus customized/addressable clas-

sion soap opera drama complete with a

the media palette. Second, several hy-

sifications. Other researchers examine ef-

fan club and cliff hangers, after airing for

potheses are tested using data on 872

fects of sponsorship, experience, and expert

nearly a decade (Sasser, 2000).

advertising campaigns from 309 industry

endorsements on campaigns (Sneath,

However, more recent campaigns are

respondents. It is found that implementa-

Finney, and Close, 2005; Wang, 2005).

viewed as an interrelated set of advertise-

tion issues explain over one-quarter of

Plummer indicates that a brand’s image

ments designed to run simultaneously in

the variance in the number of media cho-

encompasses all such associations, even

close proximity across several media. These

sen, but the extent to which a campaign

those linked somehow in memory or pos-

campaigns use the same theme or slogan

is on-strategy has no effect. Finally, this

sibly stimulated by an evoked cue in an

executed synergistically in print, televi-

research reviews implications and recom-

integrated campaign (Plummer, 1984/

sion, and alternative forms of media along

mendations for integrated marketing com-

1985, 1985). Thus, an exploration of the

with elaborate promotional variations

munications (IMC) concepts and suggests

implementation issues involved with de-

across channels to engage viewers expe-

possible directions for future media strat-

termining the media palette is appropri-

rientially (Woodard, 2005). This facilitates

egy research on emerging media.

ate focusing on execution variables.

a multipronged effort achieving both

2


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Page:3 CREATIVE AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA USE

breadth and depth of penetration of the

Diversification necessitated greater integration of IMC.

target audiences, while encouraging interaction via the addressable component

It is reasonable to assume that once they “saw the light”

(Deighton, 2000; Wang, 2005). These innovations become the “norm” and combine

on IMC’s demonstrated effectiveness for a multiple media

with other technologically advanced modes of content sponsorship, channel blocking,

campaign, they would continue to advocate using a wider

and other more extreme interactive “three screen” media variations, constantly in

media palette.

flux and moving. Kevin Brown, Senior Partner, JWT Ford Motor Media, comments “this is the kind of stuff that keeps me awake at night” (Brown, 2004).

campaigns with a broad media palette

media palette. In the face of emerging

because clients and agency CEO’s in-

measurement challenges, at least the ef-

Effect of research focus on media use

sisted upon a change, as budget dollars

fects of the measurable media provide an

Historically, advocates of using integrated

shifted to promotional budgets. Those

anchor for some type of assessment. For

multiple media campaigns focused on a

agency cultures stimulating a measurable

example, using a billboard component in

regular theme: using more media in-

effectiveness orientation thrived. Diversi-

a campaign may be perceived to enhance

creases the measurable effectiveness of

fication necessitated greater integration of

the effectiveness of television component,

campaigns. For example, case studies have

IMC. It is reasonable to assume that once

by promoting recall and extending fre-

been compiled by agencies and brands

they “saw the light” on IMC’s demon-

quency. Thus, it is proposed that:

analyzing measured media use results,

strated effectiveness for a multiple media

often employing client proprietary sales

campaign, they would continue to advo-

data, Nielsen, Simmons Marketing Re-

cate using a wider media palette. The measurable effectiveness orienta-

ket. Cases have also been derived from

tion manifests in agency organizational

internal IMC channel relational databases

culture. It affects the development of cam-

tracking performance for clients; informa-

paigns in two ways: usage of consumer

tion not usually shared with academics or

research and usage of formal advertising

1989a, 1989b, 1990, 2000). Recently, similar evidence has appeared in the aca-

䉳

The breadth or scope of the media palette will increase when:

search Bureau, and BDI/CDI data by mar-

especially other practitioners (Sasser, 1986,

H1:

effectiveness. Consumer research aids the 1 understanding of the type of media that

(a) target audience market research is used, and (b) formal testing of advertisements is used. Category and media experience effects on media use

could be used for a specific target audi-

McArthur and Griffin (1997) demonstrate

demic literature (e.g., Naik and Raman,

ence. Sometimes consumer research might

that the value of media combinations ap-

2003). Formal campaign testing and eval-

identify the target audience’s media expo-

pears to differ by product categories. Be-

uation have become standard features of

sure patterns directly, but other times it

cause there is not much theory behind

the emerging media strategy approach

may give a psychographic profile from

why these media combinations differ, it

(Franz, 2000).

which media exposure could be inferred.

follows that it must be time consuming to

Numerous valuable creative directions

Focusing on the formal testing of adver-

discern which media provide the optimal

arise when using a broad media palette.

tisements assumes that some of the peo-

synergies in various IMC situations.

Surprisingly, the data and research exec-

ple involved in the campaign may have

However, once these complex patterns are

utives were early champions who were

learned about the measured effectiveness

learned or built into a framework, it frees

among the first to advocate using multi-

of using a broad media palette in a prior

up time for further media exploration to

ple media. Generally, agency creative de-

campaign. They therefore become cham-

find new effective permutations and ulti-

partments were slower to adopt an IMC

pions and advocate it in the current cam-

mately use more media.

media approach, concerned about the “in-

paign. A formal testing orientation also

For example, if an advertising execu-

tegrity” and “dilution” of the creative mes-

provides an ability to measure the effec-

tive primarily deals with retail clients,

sage. They finally were forced to develop

tiveness of campaigns using a broad

his or her learning would focus on

September 2007


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understanding print media vehicles com-

The evolution of media management

least six major roles involved in the pro-

monly used in that category. Likewise, an

structures in agencies (Gronstedt and

duction of advertising, including account

executive with automotive experience may

Thorson, 1996; Shearson Lehman Hutton,

executive, copywriter, and art director. In-

focus on television and magazine media.

1989) has spawned two types of agency

dustry reports (Shearson Lehman Hutton,

Once an executive gains such relevant

media experience: new and traditional me-

1989) offer more pointed descriptions of

media experience, there is a fairly steep

dia. Traditional media would be televi-

the high degree of specialization of vari-

learning curve. Thus, executives with nar-

sion, radio, magazine, newspaper, and

ous creative areas, further breaking down

row category experience will have an ex-

other options that existed within agen-

creative specializations by the media level.

tensive body of tacit knowledge about

cies’ domain of expertise prior to the me-

The implication of creative skill special-

which media vehicles work well together

dia revolution of the 1980s and 1990s.

ization is that to develop a campaign in

for the category’s typical consumers.

New media would be the variety of other

multiple media, it must be coordinated in

Enhanced by proactive media represen-

media like interactive, buzz “street” mar-

organizational settings. For example, sales

tatives presenting new ideas to agencies

keting, direct response, electronic, data-

promotion, direct marketing, and public

and their clients, this knowledge fuels the

base 1:1, and other areas that agencies

relations specialists all work in separate

“cause.” For example, a Time Warner re-

acquired in the 1980s and 1990s for com-

domains with little crossover skills be-

gional manager insisted “the responsibil-

petitive reasons. Therefore, these skills may

tween them (Woodard, 2005). A campaign

ity role of media representatives is to create

rest within two different strata of agency

using television, print, and direct mail

fresh and innovative forms of integrated

employees.

could easily necessitate a dozen different

media use and sponsorships to inspire

The media experience agency employ-

target audience response” (Kogler, 2004).

ees bring to bear on a particular cam-

Knowledgeable specialists in product cat-

paign should also have an effect. For

How to coordinate teams of creative

egories understand the value of such offers.

example, if an agency executive has only

specialists is a difficult problem, causing

Moreover, it may be frustrating for a

worked with television advertising, there

both human resource and organizational

category generalist to re-learn specific me-

may be an experience bias toward that

problems for advertising agencies (Shear-

dia interactions with each successive cli-

medium. Another executive who has ex-

son Lehman Hutton, 1989). To fill critical

ent. The level of knowledge necessary to

clusively planned and executed print, may

skill gaps, sales promotion, direct market-

explore category specific media synergies

tend to see only problems that can be

ing, or other specialists are often hired or

may be an elusive hurdle, especially as

solved by print advertising, given those

brought in as consultants from outside

media technology accelerates. Many me-

are the tools of familiarity. However, ex-

agencies to join internal agency teams.

dia executives are already stretched thin

posure to other media like buzz market-

Although this is intended to provide

trying to understand new audiences. Be-

ing, interactive, outdoor, or radio opens

needed media skills, such an approach

cause product category generalists have

the executive’s mind to other approaches.

does not always work. Some media spe-

even more consumer groups to under-

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

cialists are not as strategically oriented,

stand, they are the most overextended.

specialists working together on an integrated agency client team.

and some agency strategists do not unNew and traditional media

derstand the media specialists, creating

might limit themselves to the most fre-

experience:

difficulties in conceiving and implement-

quently used media with broad exposure

(a) are independent factors and

ing strategies.

like television or print, e.g., the path of

(b) increase the breadth of the

The organizational challenge of coordi-

least resistance. Those with narrow cat-

media palette within its media

nating these specialists explains the re-

egory experience will have more knowl-

factor.

search finding that larger media palettes

When these generalists choose media, they

H3:

edge to move outside the set of frequently

are associated with cooperative cross-

used media. Based on this analysis, the

Campaign implementation and skill

functional teams with diverse, specialized

following hypothesis is offered:

specialization

group members (Gronstedt and Thorson,

Implementing campaigns with a wide

1996; Lloyd, 2001). For example, case stud-

Narrow product category ex-

media palette is complicated by the spe-

ies by Sasser (1989a, 1989b, 1991) provide 4

perience leads to broader media

cialization of advertising skill sets. For

more details and suggest that in the most

palettes.

example, Hirschman (1989) explored at

successful breakthrough cases, strategic and

H2:

4


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creative development occurred spontane-

A key element of this framework is that individual level

ously when individual media creative strategies were synchronized in cross-functional

processing is only important when the individual has a

group settings. When specialists from creative, media, and account management

direct impact on the strategy development and implemen-

brainstormed in war rooms, the campaign media palette design expanded.

tation process. Conversely, those campaigns lacking

When one group sets the creative theme or strategy and then delivers or “hands

strategic insight may not be coherently executed across

off” the preconceived strategy concept to the other executives, with no room for

several media simultaneously.

innovation or knowledge sharing, the media palette narrowed. To create a broad media palette, industry task forces were established between agencies, such as the Interpublic Coca-Cola task force comprised of agency executives from various disciplines and offices who met in secret off-site locations to redefine the cola business. When there is an extensive mix of interdisciplinary executives represented in these groups, the media palette expands significantly. Although there can be benefits to the coordinated group approach Sasser (1989a, 1989b) advocates, the advertising development norm holds that most creatives still work in relative isolation (El-Murad

that there will be a radio version. Cre-

(Gronstedt, 1996; Phelps, Johnson, and Har-

atives may routinely work inside their

ris, 1996) than the top management teams

own discipline, unaware of the variety of

that Corner, Kinicki, and Keats (1994) con-

media employed and to some this is a

sider, organizational rank still seems to be

good thing to maintain the “creative in-

correlated with an increased campaign

tegrity” or “purity” of the idea. Yet, ac-

overview (Gronstedt and Thorson, 1996).

count and media executives are not as

Thus, awareness of all the media used

specialized, nor are they as isolated, due

should be higher for higher ranked agency

to the very nature of their positions. So

employees. The lack of a media usage

they often have broader knowledge of the

overview is particularly the case with low

media used in a campaign, and this dif-

ranking individuals in the creative depart-

ference may be measurable. Therefore, it

ment. For example, Rothenberg (1994)

is hypothesized that:

stresses how creatives rarely have a full understanding of the ways media are sup-

H4:

Awareness of the scope of the

and West, 2003, 2004; Moriarty and Vanden

posed to integrate and may be unaware

media palette in campaigns will

Bergh, 1984; West, 1994) and focus on

of them entirely. Thus, it is proposed that:

be:

their own part of the puzzle rather than

(a) higher for agency media and

H5:

Awareness of the scope of the

consider how their work fits it in with the

account executives and

media palette in campaigns will:

whole strategy (Rothenberg, 1994). Some-

(b) lower for agency creatives.

(a) increase with progressively

times creatives know the content of other

higher levels of agency rank

advertising and promotions with which

Another area in which awareness of the

to remain consistent, but have no input

media palette may differ is in the rank of

(b) decrease with lower levels of

into the planning process. However, many

the employee. Corner, Kinicki, and Keats

agency rank, especially in cre-

creatives may not even be aware that other

(1994) detail a framework of both individ-

ative, being the least aware

media are being used, and therefore a

ual and organizational processing and how

of a broad media palette.

shared strategy brief and common ac-

they interact to form and execute strat-

count and media executives provide the

egies. A key element of this framework is

Creativity, internal motivation,

structure for the multiple media campaign.

that individual level processing is only

and media use

and

It is possible that an executive develop-

important when the individual has a di-

Many advertising industry experts be-

ing direct response materials may be com-

rect impact on the strategy development

lieve that creativity and innovation is cru-

pletely unaware that there will be a

and implementation process. Although ad-

cial to media planning, especially at

television element of the campaign. Tele-

vertising strategy planning can be more

creative agencies like BBDO, where the

vision art directors may also be unaware

consensual and more widely distributed

client expects the highest possible level of

September 2007


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breakthrough thinking (Martin, 2003). A

If broad media use is a component of

for keeping campaigns focused as agen-

focus on group work among skilled ad-

the creative idea, then the same predic-

cies move through the implementation pro-

vertising specialists suggests that devis-

tors that affect creativity should be appar-

cess. It should also enable agencies to

ing an outstanding multiple media IMC

ent. Amabile’s (1996) seminal work makes

push the limits of their planning abilities,

campaign is more than just translating

it clear that the best predictor of creativity

broadening the media palette. This broad-

from one medium to another. At its pin-

is internal motivation. That is, people are

ening may occur up to the point of the

nacle, it should be the joint production of

creative because they want to be creative.

strategy basis limitation, taking advan-

a creative idea across several media spe-

In contrast, external motivation reduces

tage of available media synergies per Naik

cialities and an integral part of the cre-

creativity because people try to game the

and Raman (2003).

ative concept itself (Lloyd, 2001).

reward system and provide what they

Conversely, those campaigns lacking

In a number of campaigns, a wide

believe will get the rewards rather than

strategic insight may not be coherently

media palette has been part and parcel

truly be creative. The irony is that at-

executed across several media simulta-

of the creative idea for the campaign.

tempts to provide “incentives” for agen-

neously. Despite starting out with the in-

Multidisciplinary task forces inspired some

cies to be creative usually backfire and

tention to use several media, agency teams

of the longest-running, award-winning,

reduce creativity. But when creatives take

may ultimately drop the use of various

integrated campaigns. When CAA and

it upon themselves to be internally moti-

media during the campaign development

Hollywood threatened to usurp IPG

vated, only then does creativity increase

process and in the end produce a cam-

Coca-Cola advertising agencies, a multi-

greatly. The relationship between internal

paign in only a single medium (Zambar-

agency, multidisciplinary group of ex-

motivation and increased creativity is pos-

dino and Goodfellow, 2003).

perts across every media specialization

sibly the most reliable one in the whole of

Because strategy development is a multi-

was assembled by IPG CEO Phil Geier

the creativity literature. Therefore, if broad

step process, it can go astray at various

to brainstorm in an off-site integrated

media use can be a component of a cre-

stages both externally with clients and

think-tank setting in New York. Like-

ative idea, then internal motivation should

internally with the agency planning pro-

wise, when General Motors Buick Divi-

predict broad media use.

cesses. Ideally, strategy should originate

sion and McCann-Erickson sought to

with advertising clients, but Helgesen

redefine the brand, a radical creative

H7: The more internally motivated the

(1992) notes they rarely have strategies

“thinkubation” session was held off-site

agency employees, the broader

and may emphasize short-term tactics. If

in Chicago for several days to think “out-

the media palette.

clients do not have strategies when they

side of the box” (Sasser, 2006). This ap-

come to agencies, they could later de-

proach initiated multiple media solutions,

Strategic focus’ effect on multiple

velop one or the agency could provide

irrespective of any specific media ap-

media use

one during the agency planning process.

proach, using IPG agencies as well as

Although the use of strategy in an adver-

In either case, the appropriate strategy

specialized outside consultants to re-

tising campaign is obviously helpful in

basis for the campaign is determined.

invent the brand. IBM and 3M also dra-

many ways, it should be especially help-

However, a cautionary note to this

matically reframed how they defined

ful in determining whether campaigns can

line of reasoning is provided by Shearson

campaigns, offering integrated multi-

be coherently executed in multiple media.

Lehman Hutton (1989), which suggests

media option programs that lasted many

The presence of strategy is a major tool

that implementation—and not strategy

years. This channel IMC orientation actually evolved into an organizational culture for both brands that was highly measurable. Thus, if use of a broad array

Although the use of strategy in an advertising campaign

of media can be a component of the creative idea, creativity and breadth of me-

is obviously helpful in many ways, it should be especially

dia use should be correlated.

helpful in determining whether campaigns can be H6:

Creativity is positively correlated with wide media use.

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formation—is the main issue constraining

strategy, and IMC executives at various

Ten New York agencies and nine Detroit

media palettes. This widely circulated in-

levels within advertising agencies. The

agencies agreed to participate in the study.

dustry report was one of the first compre-

depth interviews included four CEOs from

These traditional full service agency of

hensive looks at IMC during the agency

the leading worldwide agency systems,

record (AOR) shops handle a broad spec-

merger wave of the 1980s. The focus was

two in New York and two in Detroit. Also

trum of diversified accounts campaigns.

on how to organize advertising agencies

included were: chief creative officers, cre-

Table 1 presents respondent demograph-

to take maximum advantage of their non-

ative directors, copywriters, art directors,

ics, a broad representation of the adver-

traditional agency acquisitions. This re-

executive vice presidents, managing direc-

tising industry. The distribution of product

port suggested one could devise strategies

tors, senior vice presidents, vice president

categories is reported in Table 2, and this

that employed many media, but imple-

account supervisors, and IMC digital ac-

diversity is also representative of overall

mentation limitations of creating coherent

count executives. This form of in-depth

U.S. advertising spending. In most prod-

campaigns in those media held back

interview method provided insight for the

uct categories, the percent of sample was

broader media use. However, this was

development of research variables. Inter-

consistent with the percent of total U.S.

over a decade ago and certainly these

views included the leading executives at

advertising spending reported in 1998 (Ad-

issues should have been dealt with by

the major agency holding companies, and

vertising Age, 1999). Average annual me-

now. Thus, from the above discussion, a

the leading creative and media agencies.

dia billings for each client studied were

link between strategy and media palette’s

Large representative media firms were also

approximately U.S.$65 million.

breadth may be more closely examined

consulted for guidance. Once these com-

The respondents reported media com-

from the following hypotheses:

mon variables were identified in the first

prise Table 3. It is important to note that

H8:

phase of qualitative research, multiple

the majority of electronic media used was

A broader media palette occurs

focus groups were structured to probe

interactive media. Of the 146 campaigns

when:

further into specific constructs with cre-

that had an electronic component, 122 cam-

(a) the client brief contains a strat-

atives, account management, strategists,

paigns had an exact description of the

and media executives. The authors mod-

campaign. Most frequent electronic me-

erated four focus groups.

dia usage mentioned included web pages,

egy and (b) the final campaign is considered to be on-strategy.

Because of the questionnaire length

promotion hyperlinks, or gaming simula-

(25–30 minutes), the surveys were person-

tions. None of the campaigns were de-

METHOD

ally distributed to agency employees

scribed as a banner advertisement, but at

This research was part of the Advertising

during the normal business day. Food in-

least 81 were clearly designated as web

Creativity and Integration Strategy Pro-

centives were provided during mid-day

pages—and mostly likely many more were.

gram (AdCrisp). A comprehensive meth-

survey collection. Agency management ad-

Most of these sites were extremely sophis-

odological review has been published

vance approval and on-site cooperation

ticated and interactive, for example, the

(Koslow, Sasser, and Riordan, 2003, 2006),

was secured. New York and Detroit were

U.S. Navy recruitment site with its com-

so only a brief review of relevant points

chosen for domestic data collection. New

plex interactive gaming and interwoven

is needed. Respondents from different

York is typically ranked as the top adver-

content designed at Campbell-Ewald’s

functional areas were queried about the

tising market, while Detroit is usually the

interactive unit. Therefore, electronic me-

last three campaigns they developed. Par-

third or fourth largest, based on total bill-

dia in the study are mostly designated as

ticipant views were solicited from cre-

ings, so they are fairly representative of

interactive web pages.

ative, media, specialists, planning, research,

spending. Kover (1995) and Koslow, Sasser,

and account executives, as well as other

and Riordan (2003, 2006) also used the

RESULTS

areas. Qualitative exploratory interviews

New York and Detroit markets in previ-

Media experience measurement

were first undertaken followed by a

ous advertising research.

To measure new and old media experi-

questionnaire.

The sampling frame focused on the 20

ence (Hypothesis H3a), nine questions

An exploratory qualitative study was

largest agencies in New York and the 10

directly asked whether the respondent

initiated by the authors conducting in-

largest in Detroit. These agencies com-

had experience with various media. The

depth interviews and focus groups with

prised over three-fourths (75 percent) of

list of media provided included televi-

creatives, account management, media,

the total billings in their respective cities.

sion, radio, newspaper, magazines, direct

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TABLE 1 Sample Demographics* Demographic Variable Levels Frequency Percent ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Gender

Male 163 53.1 Female 144 46.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Age 18–24 29 9.5 25–34 141 46.1 35–44 80 26.1 45–54 50 16.3 55–64 6 2.0 65+ 29 9.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Highest level of education

High school 4 1.3 Some college 16 5.2 Associate degree 6 2.0 Creative design/art program 12 3.9 Bachelor degree 223 72.6 Graduate degree 46 15.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Have you ever worked on the client side?

No 278 90.0 Yes 31 10.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank CEO/COO 5 1.6 Executive vice president 12 3.9 Managing director 6 1.9 Senior vice president 28 9.1 Vice president 33 10.7 Director 52 16.8 Manager 71 23.0 Executive 78 25.2 Specialist 24 7.8 Other 5 1.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Area of current position

Account/strategy 111 35.9 Creative 124 40.1 Media/research 39 12.6 Other 35 11.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ City

Detroit 150 48.5 New York 159 51.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Number and percent reporting experience with three or more cammpaigns in . . .

Consumer package goods 150 48.5 Automotive/vehicles 139 45.0 Consumer durables (excluding autos) 52 16.8 Retail 127 41.1 Restaurant/food service 69 22.3 Financial services or banking 104 33.7 Other services 47 15.2 Business to business 83 26.9 Telecommunications/technology 88 28.5 Other 33 10.7 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ *Total sample ⫽ 309; frequency differences are attributable to missing item data.

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TABLE 2 Product Categories of Sample and Total U.S. Advertising Spending in 1998

TABLE 3 Distribution of Media Used in Campaigns

Total U.S. Advertising Spending

Was the Sample

Campaign Used

Category (%) (%) ................................................................................................................................................................................. Automotive 17.7 20.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Retail 14.6 10.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Movies and media 5.2 2.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Financial 4.8 6.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Medicines and proprietary remedies 4.5 4.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Food and food products (not confections) 4.2 6.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Telecommunications 4.1 3.9 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Restaurants and fast food 4.0 2.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Travel, public transportation, hotels, and resorts 3.8 1.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Local services and amusements 3.4 1.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Direct response companies 2.9 0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Insurance and real estate 2.6 1.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Computers and software 2.6 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Government and organizations 1.9 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Personal hygiene and health 1.8 2.6 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Beverages 1.7 4.4 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Apparel 1.7 1.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Cosmetics and beauty aids 1.6 4.1 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Confectionery and snacks 1.4 3.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................

by the Client? ................................... No Yes ........................................................................... Television 46 466 ........................................................................... Radio 11 195 ........................................................................... Print 44 490 ........................................................................... Direct response 4 135 ........................................................................... Electronic (mostly web pages) 7 139 ........................................................................... Outdoor 9 140 ........................................................................... Other media 12 56 ........................................................................... Total 133 1,621 ........................................................................... response, electronic, transit, and outdoor “out of home” options. A ninth “all other media” category was also used. Respon-

Audio and video equipment, and supplies 1.3 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Games, toys, and hobbycraft 1.2 0.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................

dents were asked if they had experience

Hair products and accessories 1.1 0.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Beer and wine 1.1 1.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................

any of these media.

Household soaps, cleansers, and polishes 1.0 2.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Household supplies (paper, plastic, foil) 0.7 1.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................

with three or more campaigns that used These nine dichotomous scales were factor analyzed using G-Index factor analy-

Building materials, equipment, and utensils 0.6 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Schools, camps, seminars 0.6 0 .................................................................................................................................................................................

sis (Stewart, 1981). G-Index factor analysis

Household appliances, equipment, and utensils 0.6 0.08 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Sporting goods 0.6 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................

only adjusted to deal with the problems

Manufacturing: equipment, freight 0.5 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Household furnishing and accessories 0.5 0.8 .................................................................................................................................................................................

analysis decomposes a matrix of Pearson

Pets, pet foods, and supplies 0.5 1.0 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Office machines, furniture, and supplies 0.4 0.5 .................................................................................................................................................................................

is a variant of traditional factor analysis, of dichotomous data. Traditional factor product moment correlations, but G-Index factor analysis decomposes a matrix of

Gasoline, lubricants, and fuels 0.4 0.5 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Jewelry and watches 0.4 0 .................................................................................................................................................................................

G-Indices, a measure of association that

Liquor 0.4 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Toiletries for men 0.3 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................

mous variables have equal marginal

Horticulture and farming 0.3 0.2 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Eye glasses, medical equipment, and supplies 0.3 0.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Pharmaceutical companies 0.2 0.8 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Fitness and diet programs and spas 0.2 0.2 .................................................................................................................................................................................

equals correlations when the dichotodistributions (see Stewart, 1981, for details). Two factors were identified by the eigenvalue-greater-than-1 and scree plot rules. The model explains 59 percent of

Aviation (not travel) 0.1 0.3 ................................................................................................................................................................................. Other or could not be classified 2.5 4.6 .................................................................................................................................................................................

the total variance. VARIMAX rotated fac-

Total 100 100 .................................................................................................................................................................................

The two factors closely match an ex-

Source: Advertising Age (1999).

tor loadings are shown in Table 4. pectation of a divide between new and

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TABLE 4 G-Index Factor Analysis of Media Experience

sumer research available (3 items), use of

Traditional Media New Media Commonalities .............................................................................................................................................................

and “on-strategy” (4 items). Each item

formal testing (4 items), internal motivation (2 items), no strategy in brief (4 items),

Television 0.772 −0.195 0.634 .............................................................................................................................................................

was measured with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ⫺3 ⫽ strongly disagree to

Radio 0.729 0.002 0.531 .............................................................................................................................................................

⫹3 ⫽ strongly agree. These items were

Newspapers 0.777 0.053 0.607 .............................................................................................................................................................

factor analyzed, and the VARIMAX ro-

Magazines 0.762 −0.211 0.625 .............................................................................................................................................................

tated loadings are listed in Table 6. The

Direct response −0.102 0.656 0.441 .............................................................................................................................................................

model confirms seven factors by both the eigenvalue-greater-than-one and scree plot

Electronic −0.010 0.702 0.492 .............................................................................................................................................................

rules. These factors also explain 66.2 per-

Transit 0.129 0.777 0.621 .............................................................................................................................................................

cent of the variance. The hypothesized

Outdoor 0.669 0.445 0.646 .............................................................................................................................................................

structure was confirmed. Except for the media palette measure, new construct mea-

Other media −0.516 0.674 0.720 .............................................................................................................................................................

sures were calculated by summing items

Eigenvalues 3.052 2.265 .............................................................................................................................................................

associated with each factor. These new scales are summarized in Table 7.

traditional media experience. The only

other

problem appears to be some limited cloud-

telecommunications/technology, or other.

The objective was to use information on

ing on the last two items. The outdoor

A two-step cluster analysis was per-

whether campaigns employed various me-

item loads mainly on the traditional me-

formed consistent with Punj and Stew-

dia to develop a single scale of the width

dia factor, but some amount on the new

art’s (1983) recommendations. First, Ward’s

of the media palette. Therefore, this re-

media factor. Had the item been worded

minimum distance method was utilized,

search used indicator variables for whether

billboards, it might have loaded more

and it was found that cluster membership

or not specific media were used. (A pre-

cleanly on the traditional media factor,

became stable with six clusters and a 10

ferred method of measuring the width of

but the use of the term outdoor may allow

percent trim. Second, all respondents were

the media palette was to obtain the bill-

for fairly innovative outdoor “out of home”

assigned to six clusters employing itera-

ings associated with each media. From

media. The other media item also is some-

tive portioning using the cluster centroids

pretests it was determined that less that

what clouded between the items, but best

from the initial cluster solution. The

20 percent of all respondents could esti-

loads on the new media factor and con-

pseudo-F statistic was 44.12, the cubic clus-

mate the dollar size of the account bill-

ceptually fits best there as well. Overall,

tering criterion was 14.22, and the ap-

ings, so the percent of participants who

the findings support Hypothesis H3a that

proximate expected over-all R 2 was 33.5

could estimate billings by media surely

new and traditional media experiences

percent. Table 5 provides means for the

should be less. Thus, the focus switched

are independent factors.

six clusters. Interpretations of the clusters

to whether or not a specific media was

services,

business-to-business,

Width of the media palette

go from the most specialized experience

used.) The media categories were: tele-

Category experience

on the left of Table 5 to the most broad on

vision, radio, print, direct response,

To understand product category experi-

the right of Table 5. Automotive, retail,

electronic, outdoor, and other media. Fol-

ence, respondents were given a list of 10

and package goods experience clusters can

lowing Stewart (1981), these data were

possible product categories and asked to

be viewed as common types of more spe-

analyzed using G-Index factor analysis

select any categories in which they had

cialized experience.

with QUARTERMAX rotation. By the

work experience. These categories in-

eigenvalues-great-than-1 and scree plot

cluded: consumer package goods, auto-

Multi-item scales

rules, there were three clear factors to-

mobiles/vehicles, consumer durables

The five independent variables discussed

gether explaining 75.7 percent of the to-

(excluding autos), retail, restaurant/food

in the hypotheses were measured with 14

tal variance. The results are presented in

service, financial services or banking,

items. These seven constructs were: con-

Table 8.

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TABLE 5 Means for Product Category Experience Clusters Narrow

Package

Specialized

Goods

Auto

Retail

Moderate

High

Breadth

Breadth

Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster Cluster ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Package goods experience 0.000 1.000 0.127 0.593 0.800 0.833 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Auto experience 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.148 0.240 0.639 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Durables experience 0.081 0.091 0.069 0.185 0.080 0.694 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Retail experience 0.000 0.000 0.284 1.000 0.400 0.944 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Restaurant experience 0.081 0.145 0.176 0.222 0.080 0.722 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Financial services experience 0.162 0.182 0.196 0.204 1.000 0.889 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Other services experience 0.162 0.109 0.069 0.111 0.320 0.389 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Business to business experience 0.081 0.091 0.216 0.148 0.440 0.944 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Telecommunications/technology 0.216 0.164 0.118 0.130 0.960 0.778 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Other category experience 0.189 0.073 0.078 0.093 0.160 0.139 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Cluster membership 37 55 102 54 25 36 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Interpretation of the last two factors was straightforward because a single me-

usage of the other four. This factor was

of the media palette, which is defined as

termed Unmeasured Media.

the sum of each of the three factors’ scores.

dium appeared on each. The second fac-

Prior to this point, the assumption has

tor measures television usage and the third

been that breadth of the media palette is a

print usage. The two factors have an im-

single factor. This is not the case, accord-

portant interpretation in this sample. The

ing to the research findings. So, the new

Single item measures

choice to use television is independent of

question becomes “what measures will be

Creativity was estimated with a single

the decision to use any other medium.

used to test the hypotheses?” Using each

item scale as suggested by Amabile (1996).

Likewise, the choice to use print is also

of the three factors’ scores as dependent

The item read, “Using your own subjec-

independent of the decision to use any

variables in three separate models may be

tive definition of advertising creativity,

other medium. The last factor included

useful. However, models predicting each

how creative was this advertisement/

use of radio, direct response, electronic,

of three separate factors’ scores will not

campaign?” The response scales ranged

outdoor, or other media. That is, when a

give a broad overview of the combined

from “Far less than average” (1) to “Far

respondent reported that one of these five

effects of all three factors. Thus, we also

above average” (5). The mid point was

media was used, there was an increased

introduce a fourth measure, overall breadth

labeled “Average creativity” (3).

These four measures will be used to test the hypotheses.

A single item, nine-level variable, measured rank. In the study, “CEO/CCO”

When a respondent reported that one of these five

was the highest rank, coded as 1. “Specialist” was the lowest rank, coded as 9.

media—radio, direct response, electronic, outdoor, and

Other levels are listed in Table 1.

other—was used, there was an increased usage of the

Model tests To test the hypotheses, four generalized

other four. This factor was termed Unmeasured Media.

linear models (GLM) were performed,

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TABLE 6 Factor Analysis of Independent Variables (VARIMAX Rotated) Use of

“On-

Consumer No

Formal Strategy” Research Strategy Internal Testing Campaign Available in Brief Motivation Commonalities ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ There was good market research information on the business.

0.122

0.153

0.708

0.279

0.106

0.629

0.055

0.109

0.791

0.018

0.238

0.697

The creatives had access to market and media research that painted a clear picture of the target market. We were running blind on this account because we didn’t have access to proper market research information. −0.122 −0.169 −0.713 −0.111 0.071 0.569 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ The account didn’t expect to use formal testing on the advertising produced.

−0.834 −0.006

−0.081

−0.078

0.072

0.714

0.865 −0.006

0.060

0.028

0.005

0.753

0.800

0.079

0.069

−0.016

0.654

The account’s creative output was expected to be formally tested for recall, likeability, attitude change, or other measures. Focus groups, in-theater tests, consumer panels, or other formal means were used to evaluate the advertisement(s) produced for this account.

0.054

The creative output for this account was expected to be assessed by formal research methods. 0.862 −0.017 0.068 0.027 −0.026 0.749 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Developing advertising for this product/service was fun.

−0.016

0.185

0.114

0.135

0.819

0.736

Working with the product/service was interesting. −0.085 0.212 0.086 0.024 0.808 0.714 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ The brief the client gave to the agency contained a clear strategy.

−0.159 −0.067

−0.244

−0.734

−0.060

0.631

There was no strategic direction given to the agency in the client’s brief.

0.132

0.074

0.178

0.736

0.159

0.622

−0.059

0.139

0.269

0.640

0.216

0.552

The advertising strategy, which should have been in the client’s brief, was actually constructed by the agency.

The brief showed that the client had a specific strategy in mind. 0.022 −0.037 0.223 −0.607 0.199 0.459 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ This advertisement/campaign was “on strategy.”

0.077

0.799

0.073

0.092

0.072

0.663

0.038

0.856

0.021

0.072

0.098

0.748

−0.025

0.804

0.156

0.063

0.140

0.694

This advertisement/campaign was a good fit with the client’s strategy. This advertisement/campaign was an appropriate strategy for the client.

This advertisement/campaign was built on good strategy. −0.071 0.712 0.314 0.084 0.215 0.664 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Eigenvalues 2.93 2.70 2.02 2.00 1.60 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

one predicting each of the three di-

percent for unmeasured media, televi-

presents a summary of hypotheses and

mensions of the media palette and an

sion usage, print usage, and overall

statistical support.

additional one summing these three di-

breadth of the media palette, respec-

Parameters in Table 9 address Hypoth-

mensions. The four models fit acceptably

tively. Key statistical outputs are listed in

eses H1a and H1b, the effects of market

with R 2 equal to 16.8, 26.6, 10.4, and 25.6

Table 9, in summary form. Table 10

research and formal testing on the media

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thest cluster to the left has the most spe-

TABLE 7 Summaries of New Scales

cialized experience. The general trend of this graph is that the broader one’s expe-

Standard Scale

Cronbach’s

Mean Deviation Points Minimum Maximum Alpha ............................................................................................................................................................. Traditional media experience 2.88 1.31 5 0 4 0.715 ............................................................................................................................................................. New media experience 1.55 1.32 6 0 5 0.562 .............................................................................................................................................................

rience, the less multiple media are used. The only exception to this appears to be automotive experience in the case of television. Thus, Hypothesis H2 is generally supported.

Use of formal testing 2.17 6.89 25 −12 12 0.867 .............................................................................................................................................................

To examine the effect of traditional and

“On-strategy” 7.88 3.88 23 −10 12 0.832 .............................................................................................................................................................

new media, consider the parameters in

Consumer research available 3.03 3.87 19 −9 9 0.702 .............................................................................................................................................................

Table 9. From the parameters in this table, the two types of media experience have

No strategy in brief 0.83 4.84 23 −10 12 0.664 .............................................................................................................................................................

independent and positive effects on all

Internal motivation 2.42 2.78 13 −6 6 0.677 .............................................................................................................................................................

four media use measures. Therefore, Hypothesis H3b is supported in all cases except traditional media experience’s effect on unmeasured media.

palette’s breadth. Market research has a

Product category experience, the sub-

Awareness of a broad media palette in

positive effect on the media palette’s

ject of Hypothesis H2, does have a signif-

campaigns is considered in Hypotheses

breadth for three of the four models, in-

icant effect on several media palette

H4a through H5b, across types of agency

cluding unmeasured media and televi-

breadth measures. To understand this in

executive areas and rank. Because of the

sion usage and media palette breadth. For

more detail, consider Figure 1, which plots

presence of interaction terms, deeper analy-

formal testing, positive effects were ob-

the least square means of each experience

sis is required. Consider Figure 2, which

served in predicting television usage and

segment. The six clusters are sorted by

shows the impact of rank and area on

media palette breadth. Thus, these hypoth-

the average cluster means, with the high-

overall media palette breadth. The pat-

eses were supported in media palette

est average cluster means on the right.

tern observed is that all lines show a

breadth, yet partially supported in spe-

That is, the farthest cluster to the right

general tilt in support of the idea that

cific media usage areas.

has the broadest experience and the far-

higher rank leads to more awareness of overall media palette breadth. The line for creatives has a much more pronounced slope, with lower level creatives being

TABLE 8 Media Usage G-Index Factor Analysis

aware of considerably fewer media than either account or media executives. At higher levels of rank, creatives are statis-

Unmeasured Media

Television

tically similar to other executives of high

Print

Factor Factor Factor Commonalities .............................................................................................................................................................

rank, when it comes to awareness of a broad media palette. There is not a clear

Television −0.076 0.954 −0.025 0.916 .............................................................................................................................................................

difference statistically between account and

Radio 0.764 0.262 0.036 0.654 .............................................................................................................................................................

media executives. Thus, there is support

Print −0.057 −0.023 0.985 0.975 .............................................................................................................................................................

for Hypotheses H4a, H4b, H5a, and H5b.

Direct 0.773 −0.283 −0.122 0.693 .............................................................................................................................................................

That is, lower ranking creatives, particularly specialists, are usually only aware of

Electronic 0.785 −0.165 −0.059 0.646 .............................................................................................................................................................

their own work. Figure 2 illustrates the

Outdoor 0.829 0.052 0.108 0.685 .............................................................................................................................................................

pattern of results for overall media pal-

Other media 0.810 −0.157 −0.222 0.731 ............................................................................................................................................................. Eigenvalues 3.135 1.113 1.052 .............................................................................................................................................................

ette breadth. A similar pattern is observed for unmeasured media, television, and print usage, but is not repeated here. The

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TABLE 9 GLM Results Predicting Unmeasured Media Usage, Television Usage, Print Usage, and Overall Media Palette Breadth Unmeasured

Overall Media

Media Usage Television Usage Print Usage Palette Breadth ................................................... ................................................... ................................................... ...................................................... Type III Type III Type III Type III Sum of

Sum of

Sum of

Sum of

Parameters Parameters Squares Parameters Squares Squares Parameters Squares ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Intercept −0.396 0.807 −0.948 −0.537 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ No strategy in brief

0.473

−0.005

0.390

−0.005

0.948

−0.008

5.224

−0.018

“On-strategy” 0.083 −0.003 0.070 −0.003 0.223 0.005 0.007 −0.001 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Area

4.805 #

1.378

13.115 #

8.793***

Account

−0.565

−1.033

0.588

−1.010

Creative

−0.625

−0.721

1.313

−0.032

Media

−0.826

−0.386

0.685

−0.526

Other 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank 3.444*** −0.113 12.014*** −0.169 1.311 0.030 41.818*** −0.252 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Rank * area

1.370

5.970*

8.652*

27.087**

Account

0.084

0.154

−0.031

0.207

Creative

0.065

0.074

−0.153

−0.014

Media

0.103

0.079

−0.060

0.122

Other 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Category experience cluster

3.633*

17.442***

19.467***

56.304***

Automotive

0.199

−0.342

−0.002

−0.144

Broad

0.099

−0.324

−0.134

−0.359

Retail

0.148

−0.090

0.214

0.272

Narrow specialized

0.240

−0.138

0.425

0.526

Package goods

0.063

0.027

0.200

0.289

Moderate 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Traditional media experience

0.283

0.016

55.032***

0.229

7.422***

0.084

113.953*** 0.330

New media experience 9.470*** 0.093 4.017* −0.060 13.369*** 0.110 22.377*** 0.143 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Consumer research available

1.301*

Formal testing of advertisements 0.461

0.012 −0.004

2.931*

0.018

0.297

0.006

56.056***

0.039

0.115

−0.002

11.542*

0.036

41.837*** 0.034

Internal motivation 5.004*** 0.031 1.432 0.017 3.846* 0.027 29.105*** 0.075 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ #

p ⬍ .1; *p ⬍ .05; **p ⬍ .01; ***p ⬍ .001

only exception to this support was that in

less unmeasured media. There were no

variable. It was modeled both as a cat-

models predicting unmeasured media

differences based upon being a creative,

egorical variable and as a reduced contin-

usage, higher ranked individuals were

account, or media executive.

uous scale with no substantive change in

aware of more unmeasured media, and

It is important to note that sensitivity

the results. The reduced scale recoded

lower ranked respondents were aware of

analysis was also performed on the rank

CEO/COO positions as “1,” all VP and

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TABLE 10 Summary of Hypotheses and Empirical Support Results ........................................................................................................................... Overall Unmeasured Media

Media Television

Print

Palette

Breadth Hypothesis Description Usage Usage Usage ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H1a Media palette breath will increase more when market Supported Supported Not Supported research is used. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H1b

Media palette breadth will increase more when formal

Not

Supported

Not

Supported

testing is used. supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H2

Narrow product category experience leads to a broader

Supported

Partially

Supported

Supported

media palette. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H3a

New and traditional media experience are independent

Supported

factors. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H3b

New and traditional media experience broaden the media

Partially

Supported

Supported

Supported

palette. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H4a

Awareness of media palette breadth is higher for media

Not

Supported

Supported

Supported

and account executives. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H4b

Awareness of media palette breadth is lower for creatives.

Not

Supported

Supported

Supported

supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H5a

Awareness of media palette breadth increases with higher

Supported

Supported

Supported

Supported

rank levels. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H5b

Awareness of media palette breadth decreases with lower

Not

Supported

Supported

Supported

rank levels, more extremely for creatives. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H6

Breadth of the media palette and creativity are positively

Supported

Not

Supported

Supported

correlated. supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H7

Internally motivated employees design campaigns with

Supported

Not

Supported

Supported

broader media palettes. Supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H8a

Broader media palette campaigns occur when client brief

Not

Not

Not

Not

has a strategy. supported supported supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ H8b

Broader media palette campaigns occur when the final

Not

Not

Not

Not

campaign is on strategy. supported supported supported supported ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

managing director positions as “2,” di-

and (2) lower level creatives had much

porting Hypothesis H6. Internal motiva-

rector and manager as “3,” executive as

lower awareness than account and me-

tion’s effect on media palette’s breadth

“4,” and specialist as “5.” In both sensi-

dia executives.

concerns Hypothesis H7. There is support

tivity analyses, the same substantive pat-

The correlation between creativity and

for this effect in the models predicting

tern emerged: (1) high rank led to more

breadth of the media palette is 0.167, which

unmeasured media, print usage, and over-

awareness of media palette breadth,

is significant at the a ⫽ 0.001 level, sup-

all media palette breadth.

September 2007


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Figure 1 Least Square Means of Overall Media Palette Breadth by Experience Clusters

Figure 2 Least Square Mean Levels of Overall Media Palette Breadth by Rank and Area

To address Hypotheses H8a and H8b,

paigns are to be used. Future research

tising execution variables, influence the

the effect of strategy on the breadth of the

should consider this issue more directly

breadth of the media palette. Lower level

media palette, consider the parameters in

by attempting to integrate effectiveness

advertising executives, especially those in

the models in Table 9. These four models

measures. While this study was designed

the creative department, are the least aware

find no evidence of any statistically sig-

to stratify a broad representation of the

of media usage. If those working on a

nificant effect on media use of either strat-

advertising agency industry, an elusive

campaign are more experienced with a

egy being in the client’s brief, or the degree

sample population, it may be useful to

variety of media, this enhances their abil-

to which the finished campaign is “on-

conduct additional interviews at higher

ity to execute a multiple media IMC cam-

strategy.” Thus, Hypotheses H8a and H8b

levels of the agency. The sample is reflec-

paign. Consumer research usage or formal

are not supported.

tive of the overall make-up of the agency.

testing of advertisements also generally

Other client viewpoints may also be use-

increases the number of media used. In-

DISCUSSION

ful in terms of evaluating the “on-strategy”

ternal motivation is also positively asso-

All of the normal caveats regarding sur-

component of campaigns. Agencies might

ciated with the breadth of the media

vey research apply here, including self-

feel obligated to stick to the strategy, but

palettes. And most importantly, inte-

report measures, response rates, and recall.

clients may view this differently. There-

grated multiple media campaigns are more

Unfortunately, agency personnel have lim-

fore, future research should also incorpo-

creative, not less creative!

ited knowledge of the effectiveness of cam-

rate the client’s perspective on using a

paigns. The effectiveness question remains

broad media palette.

Implications for creativity and strategy

a key issue in IMC and emerging media

Limitations aside, the pattern of results

Because creativity is central to the devel-

research, especially when determining how,

presented here supports the idea that me-

opment of coherent campaigns across

when, and why multiple media cam-

dia and creative implementation, adver-

multiple media options, it should be the

16


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beginning point for development of wide-

However, there are other explanations

dia. Some researchers (e.g., Calder and

ranging IMC and interactive efforts, not

for not finding effects for strategy on me-

Malthouse, 2005; Duncan and Everett, 1993;

strategy. Strategy is a mandate, like a hy-

dia use. It may be that strategy is a nec-

Schulz and Kitchen, 1997) suggest that if

giene factor—it must be present, but such

essary precondition of using several media

one could just think through strategically

presence alone is not enough. It would be

simultaneously and that most campaigns

what an IMC campaign should achieve,

exciting to think that creativity exists in a

already have the minimum required

one could produce focused campaigns in

unique dimension independent of media

threshold. Because the mean of the “on-

several media. This conception of IMC

selection, such that great ideas could be

strategy” factor was consistently high, ap-

has been called new wine in the old skin

applied to any media that the target au-

proximately 8 on a scale that potentially

of the 4Ps (Stewart, 1996), unhelpful to

dience is exposed to, but it does not work

could range from ⫺12 to ⫹12, most of the

managers (Swain, 2004), or management

that way. Truly great creative ideas har-

872 campaigns in this large agency, best

fashion (Cornelissen and Lock, 2001). This 2

ness the power to engage consumers and

practice-oriented sample already meet the

study offers that it is far easier to make a

prompt experiential involvement. While

necessary preconditions. At the same time,

“client pitch” for a strategic IMC cam-

some combinations of media types per-

a broad media palette appears to be a

paign concept across a wide media scope

form better for some situations than

commonly used campaign element, even

than it is to actually muster the creative

others, the trend toward interrelating me-

when driven by the client. If one assumes

expertise to implement the campaign.

dia that began during early IMC years

high-ranking executives have the most ac-

Implementation challenges have been a

has prompted new ways of thinking about

curate knowledge of media use in cam-

main stumbling block to producing inte-

all technology driven new media oppor-

paigns, then the typical campaign uses at

grated campaigns with a broad media

tunities. More than ever, a renewed

least two to three media options. It may

palette since the 1980s, and execution bar-

genuine commitment to creativity in

be that most campaigns already meet the

riers still exist. The rapid growth of emerg-

media—and the serendipitous journey it

minimum threshold of strategic thinking

ing media options (e.g., Loda and Coleman,

implies for creatives, media specialists,

and thus having more of it will not pro-

2005; Peltier, Schibrowsky, Shultz, and

and others—is truly needed.

䉳

duce more media use in cross-sectional

Zahay, 2006; Stewart, 1992; Trappey and

The focus on creativity as an impor-

data. Strategy must be in place for a broad

Woodside, 2005) further complicates mat-

tant aspect of campaigns with broad me-

media palette to take shape, but the key

ters. Prior to the internet, executing a

dia palettes may also explain a troubling

constraint to expanding the media palette

strategy in television, print, and radio

finding. Although there appears to be a

is implementation. It is an execution vari-

was challenging because of the high

strong literature-based support for the re-

able requiring skill specialization, ex-

level of specialized skills each media de-

lationship between strategy and the me-

perience, research use, and creativity

manded. Today, with a plethora of “3

dia palette’s breadth, no effect was found.

challenges, rather than a strategy forma-

screen” multitasking media requirements,

Some researchers (Reiter-Palmon, Mum-

tion mandate. Strategy is an important

embedded content, gaming interaction

ford, Boes, and Runco, 1997) suggest hav-

precondition of any advertising campaign

placements, and texting issues, it is even

ing a strategy might hinder or strangle

irrespective of media use. The conclusion

more formidable.

creative problem solving associated with

of the Shearson Lehman Hutton (1989)

This research also points out another

broad media palette campaigns. They

report, that implementation challenges are

key weakness in developing campaigns

show that when problems are presented

still the constraining factors holding back

that speak with “one voice” (Gould, Grein,

to subjects in more ambiguous ways, they

broader media use, may still be valid to-

and Lerman, 1999; Reilly, 1991; Sasser,

are solved more creatively. Strategy may

day, as applied to new emerging media

1989, 1991). Lower level advertising cre- 3,4

actually “strangle” the creative and me-

options.

ative personnel often work in isolation

dia planning ideations, handicapping de-

with little knowledge of what other

sired potential ideas through constraints.

Implications for the IMC “debate”

media alternatives are being developing

Thus, the client insists upon a very tight

Although early researchers in IMC fo-

by the creative and media departments.

strategy, to the point of prespecifying me-

cused on strategy issues, this study sug-

Agency boundaries may prevent shared

dia. Yet this hinders the agency imagina-

gests that the main limitation is not

information, inhibiting possible options

tion and media scope, resulting in less

strategic insight, but rather the difficulty

explored, thus creating a media vacuum.

creativity.

of implementing strategy in multiple me-

It then becomes difficult to develop and

September 2007


17

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evolve unique, consistent, or uniform cam-

................................................................................................

paigns if agency executives cannot “hear

SHEILA L. SASSER is an assistant professor of IMC

the voice” of other media, much less pro-

online and marketing at Eastern Michigan University,

pose novel media solutions to the client.

Ypsilanti, Michigan. Her research interests include

Much like an artist using the most famil-

IMC, creativity, international, media, innovation, and

iar brush and palette, some agencies may

internet technology. Her Fall 2006 Journal of Advertis-

prefer to work within a given media com-

ing (JA) article was recognized as runner up for Best

fort zone and may overlook optimal syn-

Paper of the Year Award at AAA. She serves as Spe-

ergies, clinging to their tried and true

cial Issue Co-Editor for Creativity Research in Advertis-

specialties.

ing at JA. Dr. Sasser has been published in the

Agencies need to carefully rethink the

Journal of Advertising Research, the Journal of Advertis-

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held senior executive management posts at interpub-

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broad media palette cannot be imple-

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mented by creatives or other specialists

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other work is being produced. Team or

University of Michigan, Michigan State University,

matrix approaches to executing broad me-

Wayne State University, and internationally.

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................................................................................................

creatives must hear the voice being used

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