Aug 30, 2017 - Especially as over the next three decades millennials will inherit the ...... team in our good doing it will pay dividends⦠I want to win it the right ...
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Business School
Prosocial Branding: Start with a Smile
Michael Richard Armstrong August 2017
Preface I have worked within the service industry for 20 years, in roles ranging from Chairman, Managing Director, quantity surveyor, salesman, to a frontline service employee. I have been fortunate enough to live and work in numerous countries and regardless of language or culture, a warm smile always seemed to unify people.
I have always understood the importance of doing the right thing and my personal motto is: “Treat people the way you would like to be treated yourself”.
I now understand that this is being prosocial. Prosocial Behaviour is complex, yet simple. I understand how powerful a smile is within life and work. Previously, I associated smiling with being liked and one surmises being prosocial is another way of wanting to be liked. This thesis has allowed me to undertake a research project on a theory I have had for some time.
This thesis is for everyone first and foremost, but it has been targeted to be relevant to brands and branding. All businesses should be aware that their staff are essential to the brand, and to customer satisfaction. Businesses large or small require staff investment, to ensure their employees are positive brand ambassadors and behave accordingly, inline with the brands values. In addition to being happy, all staff should be trained in elements of marketing, to ensure that their actions are positive towards the customer and the brand. I have learned so much from this research and “I wish I knew then, what I know now.”
Michael Richard Armstrong, Newcastle - 8am 30th August 2017.
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Acknowledgements It has been a challenge to assemble a large research project of this nature and I have called in many debts in the process. Various individuals have contributed to the development and structure of this dissertation.
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Fiona Urquhart, whose advice, guidance and patience has been crucial in supporting me through this rewarding, yet challenging project. I would also like to thank everyone in Newcastle University Business School for their support and guidance over the year, and Raffaele Filieri and Saurabh Bhattacharya for content validity for the survey used in this research.
Additionally, I must acknowledge the participants of my research, without their time none of this would have been possible. A special thanks to the two models used in the stimuli photographs, Richard Freeman and Alex Whelan. Thank you to all who gave me their valuable time and input, particularly Kirsten White, Faye Langley, Amanda Mitten, David Mitten, Justin Pullen, Ian White, Tom Chubb, Phillip Griffiths, Lee Thomas, Ruth Chubb, Layth Abdulla, and Kirsten Mayne who kindly participated in numerous interviews and focus groups on the content and structure of my survey. A special thanks to Richard Freeman for all his support, proofreading and photographic expertise.
Lastly, I would like to thank my sister, father, niece and nephew, for their patience in continually proofreading my dissertation.
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Abstract Prosocial is the opposite of antisocial (Vardi, 2001). Why would any brand not want to be perceived as prosocial? Especially as over the next three decades millennials will inherit the largest distribution of wealth ever, and they are willing to pay more for brands that display a social conscious and look to help society.
This thesis suggests that a positive initial interaction with a customer, by a frontline service employee can affect the customer's perception of the brand. If a genuine (duchenne) smile is used for this positive interaction, it will take up to four seconds for a person to acknowledge, process, mimic, feel true enjoyment and return the smile.
Within this thesis the researcher developed a new scale, to measure prosocial behaviour of the brand. The initial results suggest that it is valid and reliable. Prosocial behaviour was tested using a well-known and powerful tool: The genuine smile. The genuine smile is known to increase many positive feelings of true enjoyment, but it is also a gauge for how prosocial a person is perceived.
Within this research 149 respondents participated in the pilot study and 485 in the main study. The researcher used two independent variables to manipulate six different treatment groups, consisting of a 3 x 2 between subject design; Smile Type (Genuine smile, fake smile, no smile) and gender. Everything else was kept constant and the respondents were measured regarding their perception of prosocial behaviour of the brand, using the newly developed scale, for only one of the treatment groups. The results showed a significant increase in perception of prosocial behaviour of the brand, for a duchenne or fake smile, over no smile and gender differences were in line with current research.
This thesis has opened up many further research areas, and added to the already extensive research on the power of the smile. If your frontline service employees smile to customers, it is suggested that the customer will feel true enjoyment and this will also transfer to the customers’ perception of the brand, concerning prosocial behaviour. Millennials are becoming the driving force behind the move towards ‘Prosocial Branding’.
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For the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne Business School
Prosocial Branding: Start with a Smile Issue Date:
1st September 2017
Prepared by:
Michael Richard Armstrong
Course:
MSc International Marketing
Module:
Dissertation in marketing NBS8512
Tutor:
Fiona Urquhart
Word Count:
10,677
Declaration
I confirm that this Dissertation is my own work and that all sources are fully referenced and acknowledged. I give permission for this Dissertation to be reproduced as a sample on Blackboard in future years.
_______________________________________________ Signature
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Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 2 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 6 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. 9 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 10 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1 - Introduction ........................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Research Questions and Aims. ....................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2 - Review of the literature ......................................................................................... 16 2.1 Emotions ......................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Communication .............................................................................................................. 18 2.3 Facial Expressions .......................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Duchenne Smile ............................................................................................................. 19 Hypothesis 1: ........................................................................................................................ 19 2.5 The Power of the Smile .................................................................................................. 21 2.6 Gender Differences......................................................................................................... 23 Hypothesis 2: ........................................................................................................................ 23 Hypothesis 3: ........................................................................................................................ 24 2.7 Emotional Labour ........................................................................................................... 24 2.8 Prosocial Behaviour ....................................................................................................... 24 2.9 Frontline Service Employees.......................................................................................... 25 2.10 Emotional Contagion .................................................................................................... 26 2.11 PSB in Brands .............................................................................................................. 27 2.12 Brand Equity................................................................................................................. 27
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2.13 Social Marketing .......................................................................................................... 28 2.14 Scale Construction ........................................................................................................ 29 2.15 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 30 2.16 Gap in Current Research .............................................................................................. 30 2.17 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 3 - Methodology ......................................................................................................... 32 3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 32 3.2 Creating the Experimental Stimuli ................................................................................. 35 3.3 Pre-tests .......................................................................................................................... 35 3.3 Pilot Study ...................................................................................................................... 37 3.4 Reliability and Validity .................................................................................................. 38 3.5 Construct Validity of PSBB Scale.................................................................................. 39 3.5.1 Convergent Validity ................................................................................................ 39 3.5.2 Discriminant Validity .............................................................................................. 41 3.6 Sampling ......................................................................................................................... 41 3.7 Procedure and Analytical Method .................................................................................. 43 3.8 Ethics .............................................................................................................................. 46 Chapter 4 - Results ................................................................................................................... 47 4.1 Preliminary Analysis ...................................................................................................... 47 4.2 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 48 4.2.1 Hypothesis 1: ........................................................................................................... 48 4.2.2 Hypothesis 2: ........................................................................................................... 50 4.2.3 Hypothesis 3: ........................................................................................................... 51 4.3 Results Discussion .......................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 5 - General Discussion ................................................................................................ 56 5.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 6 - Limitations and Recommendations ....................................................................... 62 6.1 Limitations...................................................................................................................... 62
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6.2 Assumptions ................................................................................................................... 63 6.3 Managerial Relevance .................................................................................................... 64 6.4 Future Research .............................................................................................................. 66 References ................................................................................................................................ 69 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 86 Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 900 Appendix A: Smile Process .................................................................................................. 91 Appendix B: Questionnaire Design and Form Procedure .................................................... 92 Appendix C: Raw Data....................................................................................................... 100 Appendix D: Statistical Tables - Main Study ..................................................................... 101 Appendix E: Pilot Questionnaires - Male Genuine Smile Group 1 ................................... 117 Appendix F: Pilot Questionnaires - Male No Smile Group 5 ............................................ 121 Appendix G: Main Study Questionnaire ............................................................................ 126
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Abbreviations ATB:
Attitude Towards the Brand
PSB:
Prosocial Behaviour
PSBB:
Prosocial Behaviour of the Brand
FSE:
Frontline Service Employees
MGS:
Male Genuine Smile
MFS:
Male Fake Smile
MNS:
Male No Smile
FGS:
Female Genuine Smile
FFS:
Female Fake Smile
FNS:
Female No Smile
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List of Tables
Table 1.1
Research Questions and Aims
15
Table 2.1
Guidelines for Scale Development and Analysis
29
Table 3.1
Treatment Groups
32
Table 3.2
Scale Development
34
Table 3.3
Research Pre-tests
36
Table 3.4
Scale Construct Selection
37
Table 3.5
Pilot Study Comparison of Means
38
Table 3.6
Internal Reliability of Scales
39
Table 3.7
Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted from Construct
39
Table 3.8
Correlation Matrix
40
Table 3.9
Rotated Component Matrix
40
Table 3.10
Questionnaire Design Process
45
Table 3.11
Ethical Issues and Responses from the Research Project
46
Table 4.1
Demographic and Psychographic Information
47
Table 4.2
Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances
48
Table 4.3
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects of the Dependent Variable
49
Table 4.4
Descriptive Statistics
50
Table 4.5
Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances
50
Table 4.6
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects of the Dependent Variable
51
Table 4.7
Descriptive Statistics
51
Table 4.8
Descriptive Statistics
52
Table 5.1
Thesis Changes
61
Table 5.2
New Questions
61
Table 6.1
Stimuli Limitations
62
Table 6.2
Health club Further Research Constructs
63
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1
Mind Map
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Figure 2.2
Duchenne Smile
20
Figure 2.3
Fake Smile
21
Figure 2.4
Keller’s Brand Equity Model
28
Figure 2.5
Conceptual Framework
31
Figure 3.1
Treatment Group Photographs
33
Figure 3.2
Histogram of Frequencies
43
Figure 4.1
Summary of findings within the Conceptual Framework
53
Figure 4.2
Estimated Marginal Means of PSBB
54
Figure 5.1
Estimated Marginal Means of PSBB
57
Figure 5.2
Treatment Group Photographs
58
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Chapter 1 - Introduction Prosocial Branding: Start with a Smile
The aim of the study is to investigate if there is a correlation between a genuine smile by a front-line service employee (FSE), and the effect it has on a customer’s perception of the brand, concerning prosocial behaviour (PSB). “Pro-social brands are the next step for companies looking to morally engage with consumers. Driven by marketers who are moving beyond claims of sustainability and into strong stands on relevant social issues, this trend picked up momentum in 2014.” (Sachs, 2015). Key patterns are beginning to emerge that millennials1 prefer to do business with brands that are prosocial, sustainable, ethical and help society, plus, they are willing to pay more from brands that show this (Landrum, 2017). As the world's richest individuals approach retirement, the next three decades will see trillions of dollars fall into the hands of their younger family members; the largest wealth transfer from one generation to the next (Osterland, 2016). It could be argued that brands need to positively contribute to society and millennials are becoming the driving force in this.
PSB is planned actions that are intended to benefit or help another person or group of individuals (Wong and Ackfeldt, 2017), the opposite to antisocial (Vardi, 2001). This thesis suggests that brands will receive higher scores of prosocial behaviour, by the result of their FSE’s being perceived as more prosocial, the simple, yet powerful smile has been used as the treatment in this study. “So, if you want people to like you... SMILE!” (Carnegie, 2011).
The smile is one of the most important signals in human interactions (Johnson and Spector, 2007) and a smile takes up to four seconds to be recognised and mimicked by the receiver, resulting in true enjoyment (Jaffe, 2012). Generally, a smile is based on true, and usually positive feelings that affect social interactions (Ekman2, 1992). Smiles often signal that 1
Millennials are people reaching young adulthood in the early 21st century (Roberts, 2016). Dr. Paul Ekman is a Professor Emeritus in Psychology at UCSF. He is a leading authority of nonverbal behaviour, encompassing facial expressions and gestures. 2
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someone is happy and they like the individual to whom they smile at (Ekman, 2006). Moreover, smiling individuals receive higher ratings of attractiveness, kindness, honesty, helpfulness and competence; they are liked more, and are responded to with more cooperative behaviours, increased responsiveness, and affiliative signals, than people who do not smile (Johnson and Spector, 2007).
Clifton and Ahmad (2013) argues that the word brand can be used in three different affiliated senses:
1. In everyday use, a brand is a marked product. 2. Brands are trademarks. 3. Brand refers to its stakeholders’3 beliefs and expectations about its products and services, sold under a specific trademark or about the company that provides them, this could be referred to as brand equity4.
The use of the same word to mean three separate things does not help in the thinking and this becomes muddier when the anti-globalisation movement refers to brands as bullies, whereas, they are really attacking the American multinational corporations,5 that own global brands (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013). People don’t really trust brands, they see corporations as faceless profiteers, so more than ever, brands are trying to behave like people (Parekh, 2017). Brands need to be perceived as prosocial, because consumers are people, and they are now demanding more from the brands they support (Woerde, 2016). People trust other people more than they do brands, so the theory is; humanize the brand (Demers, 2016). Brands must be aware that all touchpoints6 with customers are critical (Middleton, 2013) and due to the move towards societal endeavours, as argued by Yuval Noah Harari’s book: ‘Sapiens’ (2016), humans are looking to be part of a social environment, brands need to become more humanized and behave like model citizens, therefore, becoming prosocial. Also, brands that boast about being prosocial will be viewed negatively by society (Small et al., 2015). 3
Stakeholders are customers, creditors, directors, employees, government, shareholders, suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources. 4 Brand equity is the commercial value that derives from consumers/customers perceptions/beliefs of the brand name of a particular product/service, rather than from the product or service itself. 5 A multinational corporation is normally a large corporation, which is incorporated in one country which produces or sells goods or services in various countries. 6 A touchpoint is any time a customer/stakeholder or potential customer/stakeholder comes in contact with the brand: Anything that may create an impression in the mind of the customer/stakeholder.
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FSE’s will portray increased prosocial behaviour if they're happy about working for the brand, what the brand produces, and how the brand treats its employees and customers (Diener, 2017). This thesis is testing if FSE’s portray a genuine smile to customers, the perception of prosocial feelings to the brand will increase. Millennials are driving brands to being more human and prosocial (Nielsen Global, 2015). This thesis suggests that smiling staff will increase the brands prosocial perception.
The power of the smile is not just in the giving, but the receiving (Castellano, 2015). When you smile genuinely, true enjoyment is felt, and the person who receives the smile will reciprocate, also feeling true enjoyment (Ekman, 2006). We have all entered a shop or service situation and been unacknowledged by a FSE, thereby creating contempt, and also have felt the opposite when welcomed with a genuine smile. Why is this true enjoyment not ubiquitous? Surely every brand would like their staff to smile, and every customer would welcome the feeling of true enjoyment. This thesis suggests that FSE’s who are prosocial to the customer, not only increase positive feelings to the FSE, but transfer this feeling to the brand.
This thesis is testing if human characteristics or traits can be transferred over to the brand from their FSE’s. Prosocial behaviour of the brand (PSBB), is the dependent variable. Gender and Smile type (Genuine smile, fake smile, and no smile) are the manipulated independent variables, in a 3 x 2 between-subject7 experimental design. A new scale to measure PSBB will be developed and a proven scale attitudes towards the brand (ATB) (Spears and Singh, 2012) is added, to test construct validity.
This study is important in relation to marketing, as brands that are prosocial have potential to create an enormous force for good, and consumers, especially millennials, are looking for brands that benefit society.
In the next chapter, the review of literature will provide academic underpinning of the thesis, and within chapter three, the methodology describes how the research was undertaken. Chapter 4 states the results of the data analysis and the following chapter will discuss the results. In the
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Between groups/ Independent measures: Different participants are used in each condition/group of the independent variable.
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final section, recommendations and managerial relevance will be discussed, and further research recommended.
1.1 Research Questions and Aims.
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Chapter 2 - Review of the literature The literature review will provide academic underpinning of the thesis by examining how a smile can influence the customer's perception of the brand, via the FSE’s smile type and gender. The author will synthesise the research on the power of the smile and via the literature suggest a link between genuine smiles and PSB of FSE’s, and how that will transfer onto the brand the employee represents. The focus of the thesis will be specifically on how to increase PSBB and how to develop a reliable and valid scale to measure PSBB. Due to the depth of the topics, the literature review has been structured into a framework, via a mind map in figure 2.1, page 16.
2.1 Emotions In emotional theory, it is understood that all humans have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognisable (Ekman, 1992). Emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct (Burton, 2017). In a cross-cultural study, Ekman (1992) found that there are six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. In contrast, Plutchik (1997) categorised basic emotions into eight feelings, which he grouped into four pairs of opposites joy-sadness, anger-fear, trust-distrust and surprise-anticipation. Emotions affect people’s characters and life outcomes by inducing how people think, behave and interact with others, and facial expressions are a barometer of the emotions (Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981; Izard, 1971). Emotions are a necessary form of communication (Burton, 2017).
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2.2 Communication Communication is purely the act of transferring information from one place to another; there are four types; verbal, nonverbal, written and graphs/charts (Coates, 2017) - and this study is considering smile, a type of nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication describes the process of assigning information in the form of nonlinguistic representations, which includes haptic communication8, chronemic communication9, body language10, facial expressions, gestures11, eye contact, and how one dresses (Navarro, 2017; Ekman, 2006; Hogg and Gabbott, 2000). Emotions and facial expressions are constant across humanity (Friesen and Ekman, 2003). Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication (Ekman, 2006) and are fundamentally relevant to understanding a smile.
2.3 Facial Expressions A facial expression is motions or positions of the muscles underneath the skin of the face and these movements carry the emotional state of an individual to observers (Arndt et al., 2008; Ekman, 2006). Facial expressions are an essential means of assigning social information among humans, but they also ensue in most other mammals and some other animal species (Song, Over and Carpenter, 2016).
People can adopt facial expressions voluntarily or involuntarily, and the brain is responsible for controlling the expressions (Wronka and Walentowska, 2010). Voluntary facial expressions are often socially conditioned (not innate) and track a cortical route in the brain; conversely, involuntary facial expressions are thought to be innate and follow a subcortical route in the brain (Ekman and Oster, 1979).
A genuine smile is a happy involuntary facial expression and is characterised as a Duchenne smile (Ekman, 1992). 8
Haptic communications are how people communicate through touch (Navarro, 2017). Chronemic communication is the study of the role of time in communication (Navarro, 2017). 10 Body language the conscious and unconscious movements and postures by which attitudes and feelings are communicated (Navarro, 2017). 11 Gestures are a movement of part of the body, especially a hand or head, to express an idea/meaning (Ekman, 1992). 9
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2.4 Duchenne Smile A Duchenne smile is a happy facial expression resulting from real happiness or true enjoyment, characterised by engaging the muscles around a person's mouth and eyes (Jaffer, Ichesco and Gerstner, 2016; Hall and Gunnery, 2014; Bartlett et al., 1999). The expression is named after Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne (de Boulogne), a French neurologist who significantly advanced the science of electrophysiology12 (Jaffer et al., 2016).
Hypothesis 1: PSBB will be higher for subjects exposed to a duchenne smile in comparison to subjects exposed to other smile types A smile begins in our sensory corridors, then funnels to the brain and rises to the surface of the face where two muscles are waiting to be roused into action (Jaffer, Ichesco and Gerstner, 2016). The zygomatic major13, which is in the cheek, tugs the lips upward, and the orbicularis oculi14, which surrounds the eye socket, squashes the outside corners into the shape of a crow’s foot (Jaffe, 2012). The entire event is quick, typically lasting from two-thirds of a second to four seconds, and those who see it, often respond by mirroring the action, and smiling back (Niedenthal et al., 2010) (Appendix A - Smile Process). The Duchenne smile is the facial expression that has the highest positive emotional content (Jaffer, Ichesco and Gerstner, 2016).
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Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of human biological cells and tissues. The zygomaticus major is a muscle used in facial expression, which draws the angle of the mouth superiorly and posteriorly, to allow someone to smile. 14 The orbicularis oculi are a muscle in the human face that closes the eyelids. 13
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Figure 2.2: Duchenne Smile
Lines formed around and under the eyes. Controlled by the orbicularis oculi muscle.
Raised cheeks.
Naso-labial folds15.
Corners of the mouth pulled back and up. Controlled by the zygomatic major16 muscle.
There have been many researches on Duchenne smile detection, it is considered normal that the public will detect a duchenne smile around 60% of the time, therefore, higher than the chance level of 50% (McKie, 2015). It also must be noted that people are unusually poor at detecting fake smiles and a logical explanation for this; is that it may be easier for people to get along if they don't always know what others are really thinking (Wade, 2010).
A fake smile is made to look like a duchenne smile to trick people (Ekman, 1992), however, a fake smile is generally considered better than no smile (Johnson and Spector, 2007).
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The nasolabial folds, known as "smile lines" or "laugh lines", are facial features. They are the two skin folds that run from each side of the nose to the corners of the mouth. 16
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Figure 2.3: Fake Smile
Lines less formed around and under the
eyes.
Controlled
by
the
orbicularis oculi muscle.
Cheeks are not raised.
No naso-labial folds.
Corners of the mouth pulled back, but not up. Controlled by the zygomatic major muscle.
2.5 The Power of the Smile Smiling is one of the most widespread human responses (Savitz, 2011; Lau, 1982). Smiling in people is perceived by the layperson as an uncomplicated facial expression with a straightforward meaning, however, smiling is one of the most intricate facial displays taking several forms (Paluck, Hecht and LaFrance, 2003; Friesen and Ekman, 1982). Smiling is evolved behaviour, which may have its roots in the bared-teeth display of monkeys (Song et al., 2016).
Smiling and laughing are regularly associated together, and while they often occur together, there is a distinct difference between them (Preuschoft, 2017). Smiles are more likely to express feelings of pleasure or goodwill (Song et al., 2016; Savitz, 2011), while laughter is a construct, which commonly works by presenting a surprising idea, which heightens one's arousal or tension through a play manipulation, which specifies that the message should not be taken seriously (Holt, 2011).
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Professor Campbell17 suggests that humans are born smiling, using 4D ultrasound technology, we can now see that developing babies seem to smile, even in the womb (cited in, Oakeshott, 2003). Smiling in man is innate; new-born babies smile initially in their sleep, and even blind babies smile to the sound of a human voice (Darwin, S, and Darwin, 1972; Freedman, 1964). Goffman (1955) argued that human nature is not natural, but a formally prearranged system of social activity.
Mehu (2006) research supports that smiling faces are perceived as being expressively betterlooking, more generous, healthier, friendlier, more extroverted, and more open to experiences than their impartial counterparts. A person smiling is perceived to be more intelligent and produces true enjoyment in the smile receiver, more so than a non-smiling person (Johnson and Spector, 2007; Lau, 1982). Smiling stimulates the brain's reward mechanism in a way that even chocolate and money cannot match (Chase, 2014). Charles Darwin18 wrote the facial feedback response theory, which states that the act of smiling itself makes you feel better, rather than smiling just being a result of feeling good (Darwin, S, and Darwin, 1972). In a related study, researchers supported Darwin’s theory by proving that facial feedback alters the neural processing of emotional content in the brain, in a way that helps us feel better when we smile (Haslinger et al., 2009).
A 2010 study found that it was tough to frown when looking at someone who smiles; it also found that smiling is evolutionarily contagious and it suppresses the control we have on our facial muscles (Söderkvist and Dimberg, 2010). Smiling can make you healthier, reduce the level of stress enhancing hormones and increase the number of mood-enhancing hormones (Fredrickson, 2003; Fredrickson, 1998).
Smile mimicking is essential to determine if a smile is real or fake; without being able to mimic the smile, people’s judgment is impaired, and conversely, if people can mimic, then their judgement is excellent (Iacoboni et al., 2014; Innes-Ker et al., 2001). Mimicking a smile and experiencing it physically assists us to comprehend if it's real or fake, so that we can understand the emotional state of the smiler. (Söderkvist and Dimberg, 2010). The importance of a smile
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Professor Campbell is a leading expert and pioneer of Ultrasound Diagnosis in medicine. Charles Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution and the facial feedback response theory. 18
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and face-to-face contact cannot be undervalued; smiles are extremely contagious – like yawns, if you smile, the other person usually smiles back. (Lewis, 1990).
Research has suggested that under a diverse variety of social circumstances, females are more likely than males to smile (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett, 2010; Ellis, 2006).
2.6 Gender Differences In a recent study by Abdullahi and Kumar (2016), they stated within their conclusion: “In a nutshell, we can say that more or less males and females do not differ on prosocial behaviour.”
It is widely assumed that within Western culture women are both more emotional and more open than men (Meier, 2007; Paluck et al., 2003; Fischer and Oatley, 2000). This is based on gender roles; females are usually expected and believed to be more empathetic and prosocial than males, whereas males are likely to be independent and achievement oriented (AkungbaAkoko, Ajasin and Afolabi, 2013). However, research suggests that there are no gender differences regarding PSB (Afolabi, 2013).
Hypothesis 2:
There will be no significant difference between male and female scores of PSBB
In a recent study in children, it was found that there was an expectation that people with Duchenne smiles would be more prosocial, and that girls were better at detecting them and boys struggled to detect duchenne smiles on girls faces (Song et al., 2016). This thesis will test the findings in Song et al. (2016) study; will a MGS stimulate the respondent to rate PSBB higher, than all the other groups?
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Hypothesis 3: PSB of the brand will be higher for subjects exposed to a duchenne smile by a male FSE than:
a) Duchenne smile by a female FSE b) Fake smile by a male FSE c) Fake smile by a female FSE d) No smile by a male FSE and e) No smile by Female FSE
2.7 Emotional Labour Emotional labour is the process of dealing with feelings and expressions to fulfil the emotional necessities of a job (Grandey, Rupp and Diefendorff, 2013; Hochschild, 1985). Hochschild (1983) devised the term emotional labour in his book ‘The Managed Heart: The Commercialization of Feeling’, and he focused on surface acting19 and deep acting20 as the key strategies that employees use to control their emotions.
2.8 Prosocial Behaviour Psychologists have shown an interest into PSB since the 20th century, however, it was not until the 1960s that these behaviours became a key focus of psychological research (Wong and Ackfeldt, 2017).
PSB are planned actions that are intended to benefit or help another person or group of individuals (Wong and Ackfeldt, 2017; Dunfield, 2014). The object to be viewed favourably by others is an essential motive of human behaviour (Small et al., 2015). Prosocial motivation, the
19
Surface acting: Worker’s monitor their behaviour or appearance to display the emotions the situation commands, without varying one's duchenne underlying feeling. 20 Deep acting describes the depiction of vital emotions through the adjustment of one's feelings to sincerely experience the essential emotion (Hoffmann, 2015).
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longing to defend and help the well-being of others, is separate from altruism21 and autonomous of self-interested motivations (Habashi et al., 2016; Davidescu, 2015; Berg and Grantt, 2010). PSB is also defined as ‘voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another,' is a social act that benefits people and society, such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering (Yuan, Zhang and Kou, 2016; Motowidlo and Brief, 1986). Obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted behaviours (such as paying for shopping or stopping at a "Stop" sign) are also viewed as PSB’s (Ledford, 2007). A study in 2016 showed that children expect people displaying duchenne smiles to be more prosocial than those showing fake smiles (Song et al., 2016). FSE’s who have positive emotions and are genuinely engaged by their work will convey that sense of pleasure to customers (Lin and Lin, 2011; Rosengren and Söderlund, 2008; Bettencourt and Brown, 1997; Lewis, 1990).
2.9 Frontline Service Employees FSE attitudes and behaviours during service encounters influence customers’ perceptions of service quality (Malhotra and Ackfeldt, 2016), however, this has not been tested to see if these perceptions transfer over to the brand. Prosocial service behaviours characterise optional behaviours of a helping nature, which employees direct at customers to help service quality and recovery (Malhotra and Ackfeldt, 2016; Berg and Grant, 2010; Wong and Ackfeldt, 2006; Bettencourt and Brown, 1997). It's hard to differentiate between a role prescribed behaviour22 and discretionary behaviour,23 especially in a service context, whereby workers may manifest many behaviours when interacting with customers (Wong and Ackfeldt, 2006).
Robert K. Greenleaf first articulated the ideas behind servant leadership (Frick, 2017), it is both a leadership philosophy and set of leadership practices (Chen, Yonghong and Zhonghua, 2014). Traditional leadership typically involves the accumulation and exercise of power by the
21
Altruism: the attitude of caring about others and doing things that help them, although, you receive nothing in return. 22 Prescribed Behaviour is anticipated behaviour demarcated by the job description. 23 Discretionary behaviour is voluntary behaviours, especially in a service context.
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organisation leader, however, the servant-leader shares control, puts the requirements of others first and helps people progress and perform as highly as possible (Spears, 1996). Servant leadership inverts the power pyramid; instead of the people working to serve the leader, the leader exists to serve the people (Spears, 1996). When leaders shift their mind-set and serve first, they reveal purpose and ingenuity in those around them, resulting in higher performance and engaged, happy employees (Frick, 2017). A servant leader's focus should be to motivate and equip the people they influence. Servant leadership is a thinking and set of practices that improves the lives of individuals, builds healthier organizations and ultimately creates a more just and caring world; high-quality service delivered by FSE’s is considered a major source of a service organisations competitive advantage (Babakus, Yavas and Ashill, 2011).
Research suggests that a Duchenne smile influences assessments of service providers regarding their perceived level of competence and their perceived service quality ratings (Mooney and Andrzejewski, 2016). FSE’s convey cues to the customer during interactions within service encounters and smiling has been shown to create true enjoyment in the smiler and individuals around them (Larson, Jensen and Wang, 2016). Primeval emotional contagion has been projected to explain why ‘service with a smile’ predicts encounter gratification (Grandey and Barger, 2006).
2.10 Emotional Contagion Emotional contagion is the phenomena of having one person's emotions, and connected behaviours directly activate similar emotions and behaviours in other individuals (Lu and Zhang, 2013). Emotional contagion is undertaken through unconscious mimicry and synchronisation of people’s expressions, vocalisations, postures, gestures and movements with those of another person (Barger and Grandey, 2006). When individuals instinctively mirror their companion’s expressions of emotion, they come to sense replications of those people’s emotions (Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson, 1993).
In a controversial experiment with Facebook users, emotional contagion was tested outside of in-person interaction, between individuals; these results indicated that emotions expressed by others on Facebook influence the viewer's own emotions, constituting controversial experimental evidence for massive-scale contagion, via social networks (Krame, 2014). This
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evidence is not conclusive, but points to people being able to feel enjoyment even on a photograph or computer screen, which this thesis will use as its stimuli within the experiment.
2.11 PSB in Brands Pro-social brands that look outward to take a position on important ethical issues, and their aim is to be perceived as a brand that has a political stance, is more involved and committed, therefore being more prosocial (Sridharan, Barrington and Saunders, 2015; Sachs, 2015).
One of the most important aspects of an organization's prosocial feel is via the prosocial interactions its employees have with customers, which is imperative for the company’s brand (Punjaisri and Wilson, 2007).
People often boast about, or advertise, their charitable deeds to others to increase their prosocial perception. Boasting signals a self-seeking motivation (a yearning for credit) that deteriorates the acknowledgement of generosity (Small et al., 2015). Although, boasting has a positive result when PSB is unknown, because it notifies others that an actor has behaved kindly. Bragging does not help and often damages, when PSB is already known, because it indicates a selfish motive (Small et al., 2015). Research suggests that a person trying to advertise it is prosocial, is self-defeating (Cain and Newman, 2014) and it will be perceived as worse than behaviours that produced no charitable benefit (Cain and Newman, 2014). The next section will discuss brand equity and consumer perceptions.
2.12 Brand Equity Brand valuation adds financial value associated with the brand to the bottom line, it has been around since the 1980’s and is now widely accepted (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013). Whereas, brand equity is built by consumer perception, which includes both knowledge and experience with a brand and its products (Keller, 2013). Brand equity has three factors: consumer perception, effects (negative and positive), and the resulting value (Middleton, 2013). The perception that a consumer segment holds about a brand directly results in either positive or negative effects (Bettencourt and Brown, 1997). If the brand equity is positive, the organization, its products and its financials can benefit (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013). If the brand equity is
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negative, the opposite is true. There are many brand equity models that use consumer research to assess the relative performance of brands (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013).
Keller (2013), developed the Brand Equity Model, known as the Customer-Based Brand Equity model (CBBE), it is published in his widely used textbook, "Strategic Brand Management.", and is shown in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Keller’s Brand Equity Model
Building the right type of experiences around your brand is crucial, so that customers have specific, positive thoughts, feelings, beliefs, opinions, and perceptions about it (Keller, 2013). Using a smile to help build brand equity seems very simple, but empirical evidence suggests a Duchenne smile increases people's positive perceptions.
2.13 Social Marketing It is suggested that social marketing has the primary aim of ‘social good’,24while in commercial marketing the aim is primarily financial (Gendall, 2003). There is a broader focus in social marketing, moving to socio-cultural and structural influences on social issues and beyond just changing individual behaviour (Della Porta and Caiani, 2011).
Social marketing looks to develop and integrate marketing principles, with other approaches, to influence behaviours that benefit individuals and communities, for the greater social good. It seeks to integrate research, best practice and theory, as well as audience and partnership insight (Gendall, 2003).
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Social good: A good or service that benefits the largest number of people, in the largest way possible.
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2.14 Scale Construction Developing a reliable and valid measurement instrument for measuring PSBB.
The researcher was unable to find an adequate or appropriate existing scale to measure the construct of PSBB, due to prosocial branding being a relatively new concept, therefore, the researcher found it necessary to create a new scale25 (Malhotra, 2010). Failure to carefully develop a measurement instrument can result in invalid and non-integratable data, therefore, a systematic seven step process is outlined (table 2.1), to describe how the researcher devised a new scale (Hinkin, Tracey and Enz, 1997), to measure the perception of PSBB.
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A continuum upon which measured objects are located.
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2.15 Methodology The methodology of this study is formed from the review of the literature and will be based on a Quantitative research26 method, a 3 x 2 between subject experimental design with two independent variables27, namely Smile and a control variable28 of Gender. The dependent variable is PSBB. The thesis will measure the cause and effect relationship between a duchenne smile and PSBB. Quantitative research will be used in this study as a process of measurement to connect empirical observations to mathematical expressions and measure the relationships (Malhotra, 2010). Deductive logic, also known as a top-down approach, will be used in the research. Deductive reasoning is a methodical and logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of several premises that are assumed to be true (Edmonds and Kennedy, 2013).
2.16 Gap in Current Research To date, there have been numerous studies undertaken on the power of the smile, but to the researcher's knowledge there has been no study which has used the smile, to test if FSE’s character traits29 can be passed over to the brand they represent. In addition, there is very little research on prosocial branding and no established scale, therefore, the researcher needed to develop a new scale to measure PSBB.
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Quantitative research methods are the systematic empirical examination of visible phenomena via statistical, mathematical and computer techniques (Hair et al., 2010). 27 Independent variable - a variable whose variation does not depend on that of another. 28 The control variable in scientific experimentation is the experimental element which is constant and unchanged throughout the course of the investigation. 29 Character traits are all the aspects of people's behaviour and attitudes, which make up that person's personality.
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2.17 Conceptual Framework
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Chapter 3 - Methodology 3.1 Research Design An in-depth academic knowledge about the topic and scale construction has been assimilated through secondary research to provide a thorough understanding about the research gap and how to develop a reliable and valid new scale, for measuring the perception of PSBB. An exploratory research30 method was used, to allow the researcher to control and manipulate stimuli, and accurately determine the cause and effect relationship, between independent and dependent variables (Malhotra, 2010). This thesis will test specific hypotheses and measure the customer's perception of PSBB, after the respondent observes one of the six different treatment groups (Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1), then to compare the means of the respondent’s perception of PSBB and analyse if they are significantly different from one another.
30
Exploratory research primary objective is the provision of insights into and comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher.
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Figure 3.1: Treatment Group Photographs
A systematic seven step process is followed to allow the researcher to develop a new scale (Hinkin, Tracey and Enz, 1997), for the perception of PSBB, as described in Table 3.2. The survey needed to have a new scale added to test that the PSBB construct was measuring what it was supposed to be, and it was not correlating with the respondent’s attitude to the brand in the questionnaire, to test discriminant validity (Bryman and Bell, 2015).
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3.2 Creating the Experimental Stimuli To conduct a rigorous experiment, the effects of product selection bias 31 and the effects of established brands needed to be eliminated (Bryman and Bell, 2015). Known brands may weaken the experiment results (Hair, 2016), therefore, a fictional brand is used within the disguised questionnaire, unknown to the sample32. The study reduced the effects of model’s bias33 by not using existing models, as they may have distorted the experiment (Hair, 2010). The same background, clothes, position, facial expression, gesture and smile types of the models were used to increase the effectiveness of the experiment (Hair, 2016). Model smile types were chosen within small focus groups, using a Q-sort scale34 to ensure consistency. A professional photographer was used in the stimuli production, to ensure photographic consistency.
3.3 Pre-tests Pre-tests are the activity of bringing together members of a preferred audience to react to the components of a communication operation, before they are produced in the final form (Hinkin, Tracey and Enz, 1997). Please see pre-tests carried out in the table 3.3 and 3.4.
31
Brand selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of brands for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analysed. 32 A sample or Sampling is the process of choosing units from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may generalize the results back to the population from which they were chosen. 33 Model bias is an inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair. 34 The Q-Sort Scaling is a Rank order scaling technique, wherein the respondents are asked to sort the desired objects into piles, based on similarity according to a specific criterion such as preference, attitude or perception.
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3.3 Pilot Study There were 149 respondents within the pilot study, reduced to 148 after data cleansing procedures. 69 in treatment group one (MGS) and 79 in Treatment Group five (MNS) (Table 3.5). One respondent was removed due to an incomplete questionnaire.
Within the pilot study the five-item scale loaded as a one factor solution, its commonalities were all above 0.7 for each item, the minimum component matrix score was 0.843, KMO35 was
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Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test is a measure of how suited your data is for Factor Analysis.
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0.879 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity36 was significant p < 0.01. The internal reliability37 (Cronbach Alpha38) was 0.92.
The pilot study findings suggested that the scale was measuring what it was supposed to, the sample size was adequate and there were high correlations between the items within the construct. The researcher used the pilot study to test the two of the six treatment groups. As predicted, the mean of MGS was higher than MNS, in regards to PSBB, see table 3.5. The main questionnaire was distributed following content and validity amendments.
3.4 Reliability and Validity Factor analysis and internal consistency reliability checks revealed that both selected constructs displayed a Cronbach Alpha value above 0.7, the minimum value for sufficient measurement validity and reliability (Hair, 2016). Table 3.6 shows the Cronbach Alpha’s for the pilot and main study.
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The Bartlett test of sphericity is used to verify that variances are equal across groups or samples. Equal variances across samples is called homogeneity of variances. 37 Internal consistency is a method of reliability in which we evaluate how well the items tested are proposed to measure the same construct. 38 Cronbach's alpha is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related a set of items are as a group.
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Table 3.7 shows the internal reliability of the scale if any of the items were removed from the construct39. None of the Cronbach Alphas were higher than the Cronbach alpha for the 5-item construct (0.92), therefore, all five items remained (Field and Hole, 2011). The main study Cronbach Alpha showed a small increase from the pilot study.
3.5 Construct Validity of PSBB Scale Due to the author developing a new scale, construct validity was tested (Field and Hole, 2011). Convergent Validity tests whether the items converge to measure the construct and discriminant validity tests that the construct is truly distinct from another construct (Malhotra, 2016), in the thesis the following scales are tested, PSBB and ATB.
3.5.1 Convergent Validity
Using the correlation matrix table 3.8, convergent validity was tested. ATB had a minimum correlation of 0.64 and an average item correlation of 0.78, significant to p > 0.01. PSBB had a minimum correlation of 0.72 and an average item correlation of 0.83 significant to p > 0.01. This suggests that convergent validity of these two constructs are valid.
39
A construct is a suggested attribute of a person that often cannot be measured directly, but can be assessed using several items.
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The smallest within-factor correlations for ATB was 0.64, with a significance of p < 0.01. The smallest within-factor correlations for PSBB was 0.72, with a significance of p < 0.01. These correlations are significantly different to zero and hence convergent validity is supported (Campbell and Fiske, 1959).
A Further stringent stress test to confirm convergent validity was undertaken to test the factor loadings, to ensure they loaded into two factors.
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Using table 3.9, ATB1 to ATB5 loads distinctly into component 1 and the average factor loadings are 0.90, greater than 0.7, this confirms convergent validity. PSBB1 to PSBB5 loads distinctly into component 2 and the average factor loadings are 0.90, greater than 0.7, this also confirms convergent validity.
3.5.2 Discriminant Validity
Discriminant Validity for each item was tested by counting the number of times that the item correlated higher with items of other factors (Table 3.8), than with items of its own theoretical factor (Hair, 2010), therefore, testing ATB and PSBB were truly distinct from one another. Discriminant Validity was tested using the correlation matrix approach40 (Field and Hole, 2011), ATB’s lowest correlation was 0.64 (Table 3.8), greater than 19 of a possible 25 correlations, within the construct PSBB, there were five violations. PSBB’s lowest correlation was 0.72, greater than all the correlations within the other construct ATB, there were no violations. Out of a total of 50 correlations (5 x 5 + 5 x 5 = 50), there were only five violations. Campbell and Fiske (1959) suggest that there should be less than 50% violations, there were five violations (10%), therefore, confirming discriminant validity.
3.6 Sampling In ideal circumstances simple, random41 and stratified sampling42 would have been used, but due to budgetary and time constraints, non-probability sampling43 was conducted (Hair, 2016). Both convenience44 and snowball sampling45 were adopted within the research (Bryman and 40
Correlation matrix approach - a comparison of minimum values of correlation with the other construct and then that is evaluated with the number of violations (Hinkin, Tracey and Enz, 1997). A violation happens when the correlation is greater than the minimum correlation of the other construct (Field and Hole, 2011). 41 Simple random sampling is a subset of a statistical populations in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. 42 Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique where the researcher divides the population into subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects from the different strata. 43 Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are collected in a process that does not allow all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. 44 Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are chosen because of their convenient accessibility to the researcher. 45 Snowball sampling is a nonprobability sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their friends and colleagues.
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Bell, 2015), as sample members are not selected from a sampling frame 46, snowball samples are subject to numerous biases (Hair, 2016). Due to the researchers social network a sampling frame could be suggested, prior to undertaking the analysis. The sample would be higher in respondents being British, professionals and aged 35 to 45. Data cleansing47 processes were applied and resulted in a reduction in the sample size, out of 485 initial responses, 416 were in accordance with the predetermined criteria and suggested sampling frame. Fourteen outliers were identified within the sample, differing opinions are made about whether to retain or remove the outliers (Hair, 2010). Seven outliers were removed after factor analysis was conducted (Hair, 2016).
PSBB was negatively distributed, with skewness of -0.529 (SE = 0.1) and a kurtosis of 3.93 (SE = 0.2). Looking at the histogram of frequencies in Figure 3.2, the tail on the left is longer than the tail on the right. This suggests there is a greater concentration of frequencies at the higher end of the PSBB scale. There were a high number of Neither Agree/Disagree responses, which was consistent with the pilot study, the author suggests that this may have been caused by factors (internal and external) distracting the respondent from viewing the stimuli, or being unable to mimic the smile. A 7-point Likert scale was used, which can lead to an increase in kurtosis and flattens the bell curve, however, the skewness and kurtosis scores are within normal thresholds (Hair, 2016).
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Sampling frame is a list of people forming a population from which a sample is taken. Data cleansing is the process of finding and correcting (or removing) corrupt or inaccurate records from a database and refers to identifying incomplete, incorrect, inaccurate or irrelevant parts of the data and then replacing, modifying, or deleting the dirty or coarse data. 47
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Figure 3.2: Histogram of Frequencies
3.7 Procedure and Analytical Method After evaluating all possible data collection methods, the researcher chose questionnaires as the survey method, which tend to be used in descriptive48 and explanatory research49 (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2016). The type of questionnaire used by the thesis will be a selfcompleted online questionnaire, which will be distributed to the respondents via the internet, using a hyperlink. Due to increased mobile usage, the questionnaire was designed for both desktops/laptops and mobile devices smartphones/tablets (Titcomb, 2016).
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Descriptive research is a method used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. Explanatory research is a method attempting to connect ideas to understand the cause and effect, therefore, explain what is going on. 49
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The questionnaire was designed and structured using the Newcastle University's Qualtrics license. The questionnaire allowed the researcher to transfer the respondent’s answers into formatted numerical values, to be exported into SPSS V2450, to allow the data to be analysed via factor analysis, two-way ANOVA51 and one-way ANOVA, in such a way that the author could compare the means of the different treatment groups and establish construct validity for the new scale PSBB.
The questionnaire required thorough planning, structure and to understand the advantages and disadvantages, as shown in table 3.10, to be able to develop a new scale (Malhotra, 2010), along with testing specific hypotheses and examining relationships, the full questionnaire form and design process is in Appendix B. Questionnaire design is an art rather than a science and has a distinct lack of theory (Malhotra, 2010). Due to the experience required to guarantee an ideal questionnaire, the researcher undertook a pilot study (Appendix E and F) to gain a better understanding of questionnaire design (Bell and Bryman, 2015). This gained valuable knowledge for undertaking the final questionnaire and essential for developing a new scale. The researcher also tested two of the treatment groups and analysed the results. Face validity was gained through informal interviews and content validity was gained from experts in branding and marketing research (Malhotra, 2010). The researcher then took all the observations from face validity and advice from content validity, to amend the questionnaire.
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SPSS V24 is statistics software package used for logical batched and non-batched statistical analysis. Analysis of variance or ANOVA is a collection of statistical models used to analyse the differences among group means and their associated procedures. 51
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The main amendments from the pilot study to the final study was the inclusion of a new scale ATB, to ensure that the respondent’s attitude towards the unknown brand (Navajo), was not influencing the respondent’s perceptions of PSBB. This is tested using factor analysis to ensure that the new scale PSBB, is adhering to construct validity principals. The stimuli photographs
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were amended after the results of the pilot study. How the stimuli is viewed by the respondents was amended, the photograph is compulsorily held on screen for five seconds, to increase respondent viewing; as in the pilot study there were a high number of ‘Neither Agree/Nor Disagree’ responses, which suggests that some respondents had not viewed the stimuli, therefore they had been unable to mimic the smile, which is essential. The 5-point Likert scale, used in the pilot study was changed to a 7-point Likert scale, on the advice of content validity.
The first part of the questionnaire is devoted to ethics. The next section is disguised questions asking about the fictional brand Navajo and the scale measuring ATB. After the ATB scale, the stimuli photograph is shown for five seconds and then it directs the respondents to the PSBB scale. It concludes with psychographic and demographic questions. The questionnaire (Appendix G) took on average four minutes to complete and post questionnaire interviews with respondents suggested that it was successfully disguised.
3.8 Ethics
The project will be undertaken in accordance with the Newcastle University ethical guidelines (Ncl.ac.uk, 2016), the MRS Code of Conduct (www.mrs.org.uk, 2014), and the DataProtection-Act of 1998. All respondents volunteered freely to participate within the study and had the chance to withdraw at any time, all the data collected was treated confidentially (Table 3.11).
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Chapter 4 - Results
4.1 Preliminary Analysis
Demographic and psychographic information is shown in table 4.1. The sample composition highlights some geodemographic imbalances, which result from applying convenience and snowballing sampling techniques (Field and Hole, 2011). As predicted, the sample frame has particularly strong sample concentration, in categories of age (67% aged 36-55), occupation (54% professionals) and geographic distribution (86% from the UK), which reveals the social
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network of the researcher. Due to both independent variables being innate, the differences were observed, but not deemed not relevant.
4.2 Data Analysis The Levene’s52 test was significant (Table 4.2), however, the group sample sizes are approximately equal and large, and there is normality (Jaccard, 2005). An experimental design is often robust to test of variance and data normality (Field and Hol2, 2003). The ratio of the largest group variance to the smallest group variance is less than 3, therefore, ANOVA can be ran because it is somewhat robust to heterogeneity of variance, in these circumstances (Jaccard, 2005).
4.2.1 Hypothesis 1:
PSB of the brand will be higher for subjects exposed to a Duchenne smile in comparison to subjects exposed to other smile types
Main Effect: A two-way analysis of variance was carried out on PSBB (Table 4.3).
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The Levene's test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances for a variable calculated for two or more groups.
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The variable smile type was significant (F = 27.02 [2, 409], p < 0.01).
Using Table 4.4, the mean of PSBB under total fake smile is = 4.57 VS mean of PSBB under total no smile is = 3.82 (t = 5.77, p < 0.01); The mean of PSBB under total duchenne smile is = 4.66 VS mean of PSBB under total no smile is = 3.82 (t = -6.15, p < 0.01); The mean of PSBB under total Duchenne smile is = 4.66 VS mean of PSBB under total fake smile is = 4.57 (t = 0.97, p > 0.05). Thus, H1 is partially supported.
Main Effect: A two-way analysis of variance was carried out on prosocial behaviour of the brand. The variable gender was insignificant (F = 1.38 [1, 409], p > 0.05).
Interaction Effect: The variable Smile Type*Gender was insignificant (F = 0.77 [2, 409], p > 0.05).
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H1 predicted PSBB would be higher for subjects exposed to a Duchenne smile in comparison to subjects exposed to other smile types. This hypothesis was partially supported. Genuine and Fake smiles are not significantly different; however, Fake and Genuine smiles are both significantly different to no smile.
4.2.2 Hypothesis 2:
There will be no significant difference between male and female scores of PSBB The Levene’s test p value = 0.146 (Table 4.5), which is greater than 0.05, so equal variances can be assumed, therefore, ANOVA can be ran for the data.
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A one-way analysis of variance was carried out on PSBB (table 4.6).
The variable gender was insignificant (F = 1.41 [1, 413], p > 0.05. Using Table 4.7, the mean of PSBB under male is = 4.42 VS mean of PSBB under female is = 4.29 (t = -1.19, p > 0.05) Thus, H2 is supported.
Within table 4.7, male scores of PSBB are higher than female scores, however the results are statistically insignificant.
4.2.3 Hypothesis 3:
PSB of the brand will be higher for subjects exposed to a duchenne smile by a male FSE (Table 4.8)
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a) Genuine smile by a female FSE
The mean of PSBB under MGS is = 4.81 VS mean of PSBB under FGS is = 4.51 (t = -1.84, p < 0.1). Thus, H3a is supported.
b) Fake smile by a male FSE
The mean of PSBB under MGS is = 4.81 VS mean of PSBB under MFS is = 4.57 (t = -1.688, p < 0.1). Thus, H3b is supported.
c) Fake smile by a female FSE
The mean of PSBB under MGS is = 4.81 VS mean of PSBB under FFS is = 4.57 (t = -1.82, p < 0.1). Thus, H3c is supported.
d) No smile by a male FSE
The mean of PSBB under MGS is = 4.81 VS mean of PSBB under MNS is = 3.86 (t = -5.72, p < 0.01). Thus, H3d is supported.
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e) No smile by Female FSE The mean of PSBB under MGS is = 4.81 VS mean of PSBB under FNS is = 3.79 (t = -5.23, p < 0.01). Thus, H3e is supported.
H3 a, b, c, d and e are all supported. A MGS had the highest score of PSBB and it was significantly different to all other treatment groups. In Figure 4.1 the findings are summarized within the conceptual framework.
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4.3 Results Discussion The findings suggest that within this sample, FSE’s character traits regarding PSB are passed over to the brand they represent. The results indicate that a duchenne or fake smile increases the PSBB score and it is observed that a FSE who does not smile, is scored considerably lower.
Figure 4.2: Estimated Marginal Means of PSBB
Using figure 4.2, it is clear that a MFS and FFS, and MNS and FNS are similar, however, there is a considerable difference between a MGS and a FGS. The results are inferring that between the six groups there are no significant gender differences, however, a MGS will be rated higher as men struggle to differentiate between a FGS and FFS, whereas women can more easily tell the difference between a fake or Duchenne smile in either gender, concurring with the study in children, by Song et al. (2016).
The story of the results is mainly conclusive and they suggest that PSBB is increased when a Duchenne or fake smile is used, by either gender. It also suggests that character traits from FSE’s can be passed over to the brand they represent. 54
The measurement of PSBB must also be discussed in this section; the researcher can suggest that the newly developed scale to measure PSBB, is valid and reliable. Respondents within the sample could relate to the brand in a humanised manner, as the items within the construct of PSBB, were based upon human PSB traits.
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Chapter 5 - General Discussion This thesis suggests that a positive initial interaction with a customer by a FSE, can positively affect the customer's perception of the brand, with regards to PSBB. The results confirm there were no gender differences, as confirmed in Abdullahi and Kumar’s (2016) study, however, a MGS was significantly different from the other five treatment groups, suggesting that Song et al.’s (2016) study within children, match the findings of this thesis. The results on the differences between genuine and fake smiles was not conclusive. This research suggests that there is little difference to the smile receiver, whether the smile is duchenne or fake. The review of literature was conclusive on the power of the smile (Carnegie, 2011) and the evidence suggests that a smile will increase the smile givers score of PSB (Song et al., 2016). The gap in the literature showed there was no empirical evidence that the enjoyment felt from receiving a Duchenne smile from an FSE, would or could pass over to the brand.
Research suggests that a Duchenne smile influences assessments of service providers regarding their perceived level of competence and their perceived service quality ratings (Mooney and Andrzejewski, 2016) and this thesis follows this premise, regarding PSB of the FSE; this thesis adds to the literature by suggesting that the perception of PSB of the FSE can and will, pass over to the brand. This thesis confers with empirical research on gender differences within smile interpretation and muddies the water further on detecting a duchenne or fake smile.
The main theme suggested in this thesis is that brands must see themselves as human and behave accordingly (Parekh, 2017), and it is not just about the brands marketing communications, but it must encompass every touchpoint the customer has with the brand (Middleton, 2013). The brand needs to be perceived as a valued member of society, use their power to benefit the globe and due to this, brand equity is becoming increasingly important (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013). Brands are gaining power, with some brands turning over more than countries; Apple has available cash in the bank that exceeds the GDP’s53 of two-thirds of the world’s countries (Khanna and Francis, 2017). Millennials are leading indicators of large-scale changes in the future of consumer behaviour and they expect a two-way relationship with brands; through the feedback they express both online and offline, millennials influence the purchases of other customers and potential customers (Barton and Koslow, 2014). Millennials help to define
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GDP is short for gross domestic product of a country.
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brands and the use of the internet, social media, and mobile devices greatly amplify millennials’ opinions, and accelerate their impact (Roberts, 2016). Prosocial brands demonstrate to everyone that they are part of society and have the interest of everyone and the future of the planet at their core.
H1: predicted PSB of the brand would be higher for subjects exposed to a Duchenne smile in comparison to subjects exposed to other smile types. This hypothesis was partially supported. Closer examination of the comparison of the means indicated that a fake smile was not significantly different from a Duchenne smile, however a smile (fake or genuine) was significantly different to no smile. In addition, the findings suggest that male respondents struggled to differentiate between a fake or duchenne smile, from women. The findings strongly indicate that PSBB was considerably higher when a smile was detected, over no smile.
Figure 5.1: Estimated Marginal Means of PSBB
A graphical representation of the interaction is provided in Figure 5.1, it is observed that male and female scores in fake and no smiles are very similar, you can see they are virtually exact. The main difference is between a MGS and FGS, and a FGS is marginally lower than a FFS.
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The sample could differentiate from a MGS and a MFS, however, the results suggest that a FGS and a FFS were harder to differentiate, as found in a recent study in children (Song et al., 2016). There may be evidence to challenge the FFS and FGS results, if we look at all six treatment groups in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Treatment Group Photographs
When pre-testing the treatment stimuli photographs, they were not judged between genders, they were only tested via Q-sort into which category they would be placed. As you can see within the images, a FFS (G4) is subtly different from the MFS (G3). In the MFS there are no teeth on display and within the FFS there is, could the respondents have mistaken the show of teeth in the FFS, as a Duchenne smile; due to smiling being an evolved behaviour which has its roots in the bared-teeth display of monkeys: in addition, boys struggle to differentiate smile types from girls, this could have also exaggerated the results (Song et al., 2016).
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A further observation was that the majority of the surveys were completed on mobile devices, therefore, the size of the stimuli photographs were small. Moreover, this was not the case in the male subject, but due to the teeth being on display in the female subject, this may have skewed the results, therefore, increasing the FFS mean. Would the results have been the same if the stimuli were not a photograph, but a true experiment where face to face contact could be used, therefore, emotional contagion would have been higher. Emotional contagion would allow the FSE to synchronise their emotions and behaviours, and directly activate similar emotions and behaviours in the customer (Lu and Zhang, 2013). A study conducting a true experiment should be undertaken, to test this observation.
Could the differing attractiveness of the models have affected the scores? In hindsight, the researcher would have added a covariant of attractiveness of the models. Moreover, due to the difficulty in differentiating between a Duchenne and fake smile, the models should have been tested using quantitative research before the main study, to ensure that the model smiles and attractiveness were as similar as possible.
H2: is supported, there are no significant differences between male and female scores of PSBB, suggesting agreement with a recent study by Abdullahi and Kumar (2016). Moreover, when comparing the means between a MGS, with the other five treatments groups, a MGS was significantly different to the rest. The results are suggesting that there are no gender differences within the six treatment groups, however, a MGS is significantly different when comparing it individually within each group, therefore confirming Song et al. (2016) findings, a MGS will rate higher for PSB.
H3: PSB of the brand was significantly higher for subjects exposed to a Duchenne smile by a male FSE than, a) duchenne smile by a female FSE b) fake smile by a male FSE c) fake smile by a female FSE d) no smile by a male FSE and e) No smile by Female FSE.
In contrast, was a MGS stimuli more powerful than a FGS stimuli? Looking at figure 5.2 it does not become obvious. Moreover, was a FGS less powerful to the respondents, once again this is not obvious. The findings suggest that a FFS was marginally more powerful than a FGS, possibly due to the model showing her teeth and making the fake smile more convincing, rather than the FGS being weak, logic would suggest.
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The thesis suggests a positive relationship between a FSE’s smile and an increased perception of PSBB, alternatively, when the FSE does not smile, there is a lower score of PSBB. The importance of a Duchenne smile by a FSE is widely acknowledged as beneficial to the brand, however, within the sample in this thesis, the findings suggest that a Duchenne or fake smile increases the perception of PSBB. This research suggests that human characteristics can be transferred onto the brand from FSE’s and logic would suggest that other characteristics could also be passed over to the brand. One of the most important aspects of an organization's prosocial feel is via the prosocial interactions its employees have with its customers, which is imperative for the company’s brand, its social identity, and its overall blueprint (Hoque, 2015). The actions of the brands FSE’s in regard to smiling can be passed onto the brand, therefore, the importance of the staff’s attitudes and personality traits needs to be seriously considered, and the principles of Servant Leadership (Frick, 2017) need to be addressed, to ensure employees are valued and happy, therefore, logic predicts, they will smile more frequently to customers.
5.1 Conclusion The purpose of this thesis was to measure PSBB, via manipulating different treatment groups. The thesis used a quantitative research approach and used some qualitative research methods to pre-test the survey stimuli and analysed the collected data using statistical analysis. This research suggests that human characteristics can be transferred onto the brand from FSE’s, and PSBB was higher, when a FSE was smiling, either by a fake or Duchenne smile.
On reflection, the researcher would have undertaken the changes listed in table 5.1.
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New questions that arose from the thesis are listed in table 5.2.
The key message of this thesis is that a positive initial interaction with a customer by a frontline service employee (via a smile) does not only affect the perception of the FSE, but it can affect the customer's perception of the brand.
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Chapter 6 - Limitations and Recommendations 6.1 Limitations The main limitation of this thesis was not undertaking a true experiment, but due to time and budgetary constraints it was not possible. If a true experiment was undertaken the stimuli and respondents could be controlled and observed more thoroughly (Malhotra, 2010). Using an experimental design did not allow the researcher to be able to control, or view the respondent and evaluate his frame of mind (Shuttleworth, 2017). This could have affected the findings and it also created further stimuli limitations, as table 6.1.
Ensuring consistency between smile types was tested using qualitative research, however, a quantitative approach would have been recommended, but due to time constraints it was not feasible. Another limitation within this thesis was only using one model for either gender. The research should have pre-tested the models more thoroughly, using quantitative research, to ensure consistency of smile types within genders.
Finally, a larger sample size would have been preferred, but due to time constraints it was not feasible.
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6.2 Assumptions For the purpose of this thesis a smile was categorized as innate, therefore, a smile is recognisable throughout the human population (Ekman, 1992). There are some researchers that say smiling is cultural (Goffman, 1955), however, Ekman and Charles Darwin agree that smiling is innate.
There have been many researches on Duchenne smile detection, it is considered normal that the public will detect a real smile around 60% of the time, therefore, higher than the chance level of 50% (McKie, 2015). It is suggested that journalists can detect a Duchenne smile 70% of the time and social psychologists, an impressive 80%. Whether a Duchenne or fake smile is shown to the population they will be able to determine that it is a smile, even though a fake smile is a trying to deceive the receiver. Most people are unusually poor at detecting fake smiles, and one plausible explanation for this is that it may be easier for people to get along, if they don't always understand what others are feeling (Wade, 2010).
Prosocial Brand: Definition
There is growing expectation that brands should make meaningful contributions to the world and become part of society (Clifton and Ahmad, 2013). Brands are now being humanized and they need to be helping, sharing, cooperating, donating and volunteering, to aid in society (Parekh, 2017). Prosocial brands should be at the cutting edge of sustainability (enough for all, for everyone), be environmentally friendly, and ethical. Brands need to show that they are part of society, by helping humanity and gaining a social conscious (Hoque, 2015).
Prosocial brands should promote behaviour that is positive, helpful and intended to promote social acceptance, sustainability and has opened the way for brands to consider the interests of a broader set of stakeholders, rather than solely shareholders (Serafeim, 2014). The author’s definition of a ‘Prosocial Brand’ is: “A brand that within its core promotes positive helpful human behaviour , doing the right thing for the planet, society, customers and stakeholders; to increase profit for its shareholders.”
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6.3 Managerial Relevance The thesis has reiterated and added to the known importance of the smile, specifically within service encounters. Managers need to understand the importance of smiling and understand emotional contagion. This research emphasizes the importance of smiling within a service encounter and suggests that managers should look into recruiting FSE’s, which frequently/naturally smile. Imagine having all FSE’s who smile often, they would be perceived as happy, helpful, kind, positive, competent, attractive and a benefit to society. You could argue that employing prosocial staff would be a benefit to the brand internally and externally. This thesis suggests PSBB will be higher due the effect of a smile by a FSE and could this be a more cost-effective way for organisations to be perceived as genuinely prosocial? Training and education will help to promote FSE’s to smile to customers at service encounters, however, to become a prosocial brand, the brand also needs to adopt CSR, sustainability, environmental issues, political stances and ensure their customers, staff, suppliers and shareholders are happy, and the emphasis is shifting from only satisfying the shareholders (Serafeim, 2014).
The importance of brands being perceived as prosocial may drive organisations to review their recruitment and training procedures, as FSE’s who smile, increase the brands prosocial perception. Organisations may need to consider employing FSE’s who smile more frequently, rather than focusing on experience and skills. In a recent study, ‘Smiling as good business’, by Larson, Jensen and Wang (2016; p:72) “To the customer, the employee is the firm.”
The results of this thesis suggest the importance of training employees on what it means to represent a brand and how the brand desires to be perceived. All employees (especially customer-facing employees) need to know far more than the tactical details of a job (Punjaisri and Wilson, 2007). They need to understand and be trained on how all their actions (even the simple act of smiling) can have a positive or a negative influence on customer’s brand perceptions. Every time employees wear the brands clothing, they should become part of the
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brand; every time employees are at work or are representing the brand, they should become part of the brand; every time employees communicate on behalf of the company, they should become part of the brand (De Chernatony, 2010). Training staff on brand representation is critical for all brands and more importantly with employees who directly interact with customers (Punjaisri and Wilson, 2007). FSE’s convey cues to the customer within service interactions and smiling has been shown to create true enjoyment in the smiler and individuals around them (Larson, Jensen and Wang, 2016) and now we can suggest that this will also increase the brands perception of PSB.
Brands should be aware of socially impactful moments and look to do the right thing. In the ever competitive F1,54 the Mercedes and Ferrari teams were competing to win the Hungarian grand prix, however, there was a chance for Mercedes to take an unfair advantage on the driver’s title, by promoting Lewis Hamilton unfairly above his teammate. The decision by Mercedes was made to do the right thing and to be fair (Benson, 2017). Below are two quotes from Mercedes, after the race was completed.
"In life, if you do good things, good things come back to you, so hopefully, globally as a team in our good doing it will pay dividends… I want to win it the right way and I do think today was the right way to do things." Lewis Hamilton (Benson, 2017).
"We don't drive in circles because we enjoy it so much," Wolff said. "We drive in circles because we hope it promotes our brand and makes us sell cars, and it is a very long-term project… We have seen the backlash of decisions that were ruthless and cold-blooded. And the effect it had on a brand… The purpose of us being here is winning in the right way...” Toto Wolff (Benson, 2017).
This is an example of how a brand considers the outcome of their actions (even in ultracompetitive motorsport), and how the brand portrays the philosophy of doing the right thing and acting humanely.
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F1 or Formula One is an international form of motor racing, whose races are called Grands Prix and is arguably the pinnacle of competitive motorsport.
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Will society not gain tremendously if smiling was increased within the population, improving the health of society, creating true enjoyment, lowering stress, promoting a kind and helpful feeling, increasing PSB, which would surely increase exponentially? At our core, we are social animals with a need for interaction and intimacy. Is smiling simply being prosocial, in its basic form.
6.4 Future Research What other positive human traits can be passed over from FSE’s, and conversely, what negative traits can be passed over to the brand?
More research into how to classify the difference between a fake and Duchenne smile should be investigated. The difference between a Duchenne and fake smile was inconclusive, however, this needs to be tested further within a true experiment.
How can brands utilise the smile in other ways, to improve brand equity? Further research to measure how long the customer’s perception of the brand lasts, from service encounters, and would the customer's perception of the brand increase over a period of time?
The effects of smiling in person on PSBB, using a real life experiment within a commercial organisation?
The researcher would like to undertake further research within a Health Club, using the basis of this thesis to undertake a true experiment on the power of the smile, on customers and employee’s. The research would entail surveying the current staff and employees prior to any treatment. The treatment would be a four-week training period, where staff would be taught the importance of the smile, servant leadership principles and trained how to increase positive interactions, within the workplace. After the treatment, the health club would be surveyed again and the results would be statistically analysed. If the basis of this thesis is to be believed, then there could be several possible outcomes, which would add to current research. The following constructs within table 6.2, should be considered within the proposed study.
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A full research design would be essential, along with working alongside the health club to determine what other measurements would be required, to maximise the commercial significance to the company, while testing the effects of smiling and measure the positive influences on the staff and its employees.
More research into prosocial branding should be undertaken, as millennials will be inheriting substantial wealth over the next three decades and research suggests that they prefer brands that are prosocial, and are willing to pay more for it (Landrum, 2017). The more research that is carried out around prosocial branding, the more it will encapsulate everything that is in contact with the brand, that is communicated to the customer and the message is increasingly becoming one of unity, and being a society that helps and cares for one another. The author suggests that prosocial branding should be central to every brand's existence, as they will need to be, truly ‘prosocial’, to be perceived as a ‘Prosocial Brand’. Logic suggests that merely being ‘perceived’ as prosocial, will not be enough for millennials. There are several views on the current progression of economic value:55 are we moving from the service economy into the staged experience economy56 (Pine and Gilmore, 1998)? As later argued by the same authors, are we now moving from the experience economy toward the transformational economy, where the customer is the product (Pine and Gilmore, 2011)? Or, is the experience economy transitioning into the social economy (Hurt, 2011)? Whichever is
55
The progression of economic value relates offering differentiation relevant to customer/consumer needs to customer value and pricing. 56 An experience occurs when a company intentionally uses services as the stage, and goods as props, to engage individual customers in a way that creates a memorable event
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believed, brands need to morally engage with society and be prosocial, to ensure brands continue to be profitable. The author suggests that without being prosocial, brands will lose market share and brands that are prosocial, will increase market share and consequently increase profit. Brands must adopt prosocial behaviour to differentiate themselves and to attract the increasingly powerful and prosocial millennial consumer.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Smile Process
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Appendix B
Questionnaire design and Form Procedure
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Appendix C
Raw Data
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Appendix D
Statistical Tables - Main Study
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Appendix E
Pilot Questionnaires - Male Genuine Smile Group 1
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Appendix F
Pilot Questionnaires - Male N Smile Group 5
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Appendix G
Main Study Questionnaire
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Appendix A: Smile Process
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Appendix B: Questionnaire Design and Form Procedure After evaluating all possible data collection methods, the researcher chose questionnaires as the survey method, which tend to be used in descriptive and explanatory research (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2016). The type of questionnaire used by the thesis will be a self-completed online questionnaire which will be distributed to the respondents via the internet using a hyperlink. Due to the increase in mobile use the questionnaire was designed for both web and mobile (Saunders et al., 2016). Questionnaire design is an art rather than a science – there are no scientific principles that guarantee an ideal questionnaire and it is mainly down to the researcher's skill through experience and there is a distinct lack of theory (Malhotra, 2010). Due to the experience required the researcher decided that a pilot study should be completed to gain a better understanding of the questionnaire design and allowed the researcher to take the outcomes from the pilot study to amend the final study, for the better of the final data.
The questionnaire development used in this thesis follows the questionnaire design process from Malhotra (2010), and is shown below:
1. Specify the information needed 2. Specify the type of interviewing method 3. Determine the content of the individual questions 4. Design the questions to overcome the respondents’ inability and unwillingness to answer 5. Decide on the question structure 6. Determine the question wording 7. Arrange the questions in proper order 8. Identify form and layout 9. Reproduce the questionnaire 10. Eliminate bugs by pretesting. Specify the Information needed The first step in questionnaire design is to specify the information required, which is also the first step in the research design process (Bryman and Bell, 2015). The aim of the study is to
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investigate if there is a correlation between a Duchenne smile by a front-line service employee (FSE) and the effect it has on the customer’s perception of the brand, concerning prosocial behaviour (PSB). Specify the type of interviewing method The method of administering the survey will be an online questionnaire using structured questions. An appreciation of how the type of interviewing method influences questionnaire design was obtained and the main advantages are: 1. Cheap to administer 2. Quicker to administer 3. Absence of interviewer effects 4. No interviewer variability 5. Convenience for respondents.
There are also disadvantages of self-completed questionnaires: 1. Cannot prompt 2. Cannot probe 3. Cannot ask many questions that are not salient to respondents 4. Difficulty in answering other kinds of questions 5. Do not know answers 6. Cannot collect additional data 7. Difficult to ask a lot of questions 8. Not appropriate for some kinds of respondents 9. Greater risk of missing data (Bryman and Bell, 2015).
With the disadvantages of using self-administered surveys the researcher took this into account and due to the research, the disadvantages were not as relevant. The survey would be designed to limit the disadvantages. Each disadvantage was reviewed as follows:
1. Cannot prompt - The questionnaire was designed to not require any prompting; the questionnaire was designed to be clear and unambiguous. 2. Cannot probe - the questions would be designed to be closed-end questions, therefore not requiring any respondent probing.
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3. Cannot ask many questions that are not salient to respondents - The risk of respondents becoming tired of answering questions that are not salient to them was considered and the questionnaire was designed to be as short as possible. The questionnaire needs to be under five minutes. 4. Difficulty in answering other kinds of questions - Open-ended questions would be limited to one and complex structures, such as filters, would be avoided. 5. Do not know who answers - Due to the population of the study being all humans, this was not seen as a problem. 6. Cannot collect additional data - The questionnaire would be designed to capture all information required. 7. Difficult to ask a lot of questions - Due to ‘respondent fatigue’57 the questionnaire would be limited to a maximum of five minutes to complete. 8. Not appropriate for some kinds of respondents - Respondents literacy levels were considered and the questions were designed to be simple and easy to understand. 9. Greater risk of missing data - Using Qualtrics to collect the data allowed the researcher to ensure that all questions were answered using the ‘forced response’58 option on all questions.
A disguised questionnaire was used in this thesis as the researcher did not want the respondents to know what was being measured and due to the manipulation of the questionnaire it would have changed the respondent’s answers. The questionnaire is about measuring Prosocial Behaviour, but the questionnaire was designed to look like the researcher was launching a new brand of coffee. Determine the content of the individual questions After specifying the information required and the type of interviewing method chosen the next step was to determine individual question content, what content to be included into individual questions (Malhotra, 2010).
All questions within the questionnaire should contribute to the information needed and when designing individual questions, the researcher has three options (Bourgue and Clark, 1994):
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Respondent fatigue is a well-known phenomenon that occurs when survey respondents become tired of the survey task and the quality of the data they provide begins to deteriorate. 58 Forced response in survey questions forces survey respondents choose a response option that indicates a definitive opinion.
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● Adopt questions used in other questionnaires ● Adapt questions used in other questionnaires ● Develop their own questions.
The researcher chose to develop their own questions due to the vast number of poor questions in circulation (Saunders et al., 2016) and to develop a new scale for perception of Prosocial Behaviour of the Brand, which will be discussed later. The researcher only considered the type, wording and length of individual questions rather than the order they appear within the questionnaire (Saunders et al., 2016), this will be completed in the next section. To improve the validity of the questionnaire the researcher chose simple, short (not exceeding 20 words) and clear questions and brief questions used wherever possible. A combination of open and closed questions was used. Open ended questions allow the respondent to give answers in their own way (Fink, 2013) and closed questions provide several alternative answers from which the respondent is instructed to choose (De Vaus, 2014). The researcher decided to use closed questions wherever possible as they are usually quicker and easier to answer (Saunders et al., 2016), as they require minimal or no writing, however, it must be noted that if these responses cannot be easily interpreted, the benefits maybe marginal (Flood, 1994).
There are 6 types of closed questions (Saunders et al., 2015):
A. List - where the items are listed and any maybe selected. B. Category - where only one response can be chosen from a given set of categories. C. Ranking - respondent is asked to place something in order D. Rating - responses are recorded using a rating device E. Quantity - the response is a number stating the amount F. Matrix - where responses to more than two questions can be recorded using the same grid.
There is also another way, creating scales to measure constructs by combining rating questions and this was discussed within the Methodology. Design the questions to overcome the respondents inability and unwillingness to answer The researcher did not assume that respondents would provide accurate answers to all questions and when designing the questionnaire, it was clear that the researcher needed to overcome
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respondents’ inability to answer (Malhotra, 2010). The questions needed to take into consideration the following factors: ● Is the respondent informed? Questionnaires often ask respondents about topics that they are not informed on, therefore, the researcher needed to ensure that the questionnaire and topic was as ubiquitous as possible. Coffee shops are now ubiquitous; however, prosocial behaviour is a topic that not all would understand so instead of informing the respondent, the researcher ensured that the questions would be as simple as possible to understand. ● Can the respondent remember? Lots of things that we may expect everyone to know are remembered by only a few (Malhotra, 2010). The questionnaire was designed to not ask the respondents to remember anything, but used questions that were relevant to or directly stated in the questionnaire. They were asked about what they were given within the questionnaire and not asked to remember anything relevant. ● Can the respondent articulate? Respondents might be unable to articulate certain types of responses (Malhotra, 2010). Taking this into consideration the researcher limited the questionnaire to one open ended question and used fixed responses for the rest of the questions, without using any leading questions (Saunder et al., 2015). Decide on the question structure Structured questions were chosen as they specify the set of response alternatives and response format. Within the questionnaire the use of multiple choice59, dichotomous60, or scales61 were used. Choosing question wording Question wording is the translation of the chosen question content and structure into words that is clear and easily understandable for the respondents (Malhotra p. 332).
The wording of questions was considered carefully to ensure that the responses were valid, therefore, they are measuring what the researcher intended (Saunders et al., 2016). After 59
A choice of answers are provided and respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given (Malhotra, 2010). 60 The dichotomous question has only two response options, such as yes or no (Malhotra, 2016). 61 Measurement scales are used to categorize and/or quantify variables in research. The four scales of measurement that are commonly used in statistical analysis: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales (Bryman and Bell, 2015).
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completing the list of questions, the researcher then evaluated each questions to ensure that the questions were necessary and contributed to the information needed (Malhotra, 2010). The researcher avoided leading or biased questions62, implicit alternatives63, implicit assumptions64 and generalizations65 when choosing the question wording (Malhotra, 2010). The questionnaire was a ‘disguised questionnaire’66, therefore, there were a number of questions which are not directly related to the needed information. The questionnaire was disguised to look like it was asking the respondents about a possible new brand of coffee being released into the market. The researcher did not want the respondents to know what was being measured and to increase rapport and involvement (Malhotra, 2010).
Write about how I used Focus groups to formulate questions for PSB - came up with 2 sets of constructs from ROL and Focus groups. Once the two sets of questions were formulated further focus groups were undertaken to test both sets of questions.
ROL questions - based on human characteristics of PSB.
1. Do you think Navajo believes in helping? 2. Do you think Navajo believes in sharing? 3. Do you think Navajo believes in co-operating? 4. Do you think Navajo believes in donating? 5. Do you think Navajo believes in volunteering?
Focus Group Questions more related to PSB of Brand, a list of questions were used explain the process I went through: 1. Will the companies’ actions benefit society? 2. Will the companies’ actions be kind to the environment? 3. Will the company treat its employees fairly? 62
A leading question gives the respondent a clue as what the answer should be (Malhotra, 2010). An alternative that is not explicitly expressed (Malhotra, 2010). 64 Implicit assumptions are assumptions that are not stated in the questions. 65 Questions should be explicit and not general. 66 Disguised questionnaire - respondents do not know what is being measured and, hence, are not biased in their answers. 63
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4. Will the company treat its customers fairly? 5. Will the company donate to charity? 6. Will the company be ethical?
Both sets of questions were put to focus group members and their opinions were sourced on each set of questions. The outcome was that the second set of questions were more complex and needed a better understanding of CSR and company goals, whereas the first set of questions were simple, clear and easy to understand to anyone. In the Focus Groups, it was noted that the greater the education of the focus group member the easier it was for them to understand the second set of questions. The lower the education of the group member showed a bias to the first set of questions. It must also be noted that the first set of questions was also easy for the more educated to understand, so the first set of questions would be used within the pilot study and then evaluated after.
Arrange the questions in proper order The opening questions are crucial in gaining the confidence and cooperation of respondents and must be interesting, simple and nonthreatening (Malhotra, 2010). The first section of the questionnaire was all about finding out the respondents’ opinions about the fake coffee brand Navajo, as most people like to express their opinions (Malhotra, 2010). These questions are unrelated to the thesis and their responses were not analysed. Usually basic information should be obtained first, however, as the survey was disguised the survey needed to gain the respondents interest before asking the basic questions67.
The second section of the survey was Basic Information relating directly to the research problem (Malhotra, 2010), which was attempting to measure the perception of prosocial behaviour of the brand using six different treatment groups. The six different treatment groups were as below:
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Basic information related directly to the research problem.
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For each treatment group (Table above), a different photograph was used using one element of each independent variable. As stated above in figure ??? the two independent variables are smile type (Genuine Smile, Fake Smile and No Smile) and Gender (Male and Female), with the independent variable being perception of prosocial behaviour of the brand. The concluding section of the survey was classification information68 about the respondents (Bryman and Bell, 2015) and identification information69 was not obtained from the respondents as it was not necessary to the thesis, however, metadata70 was collected for each respondent to show where the data was collected and give information about the data collected. Identify form and layout The format, spacing and positioning of the questions can have a significant effect on the results (Malhotra, 2010), therefore, the researcher tested the questionnaire on many friends and family, to ensure that the form and layout was as simple as possible. The questionnaire was also divided into sections, as it is good practice (Malhotra, 2010).
Reproduce the questionnaire The questionnaire was reproduced using Qualtrics in such a way that it was easy to read and answer. The text was large and clear. The questionnaire was simple and did not impose a strain on the respondent. Eliminate bugs by pretesting. The questionnaire was pretested within personal interviews with a sample of respondents for the purpose of improving the survey, by identifying and eliminating any potential problems (Hair, 2010)
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Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics used to classify respondents. Information within a questionnaire that obtains name, address and phone number. 70 Metadata is a set of data that describes and gives information about other data. 69
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Appendix C: Raw Data
Available on request
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Appendix D: Statistical Tables - Main Study
ATB Scale: Factor Analysis
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PSBB Scale: Factor Analysis
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Construct Validity PSBB and ATB
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Two-Way ANOVA PSBB
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T-statistics tables
Hypothesis 1
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Hypothesis 2
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Hypothesis 3
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Appendix E: Pilot Questionnaires - Male Genuine Smile Group 1
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Appendix F: Pilot Questionnaires - Male No Smile Group 5
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Appendix G: Main Study Questionnaire
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