Providing Psychological Services to Racially, Ethnically, Culturally, and Linguistically Diverse Individuals in the Schools Recommendations for Practice MARGARET R. ROGERSa, COLETTE L. INGRAHAMb, ALBERTO BURSZTYNc, NELDA CAJIGAS-SEGREDOd, GISELLE ESQUIVELe, ROBYN HESSf, SARA G. NAHARIg and EMILIA C. LOPEZh a University of Maryland at College Park, bSan Diego State University, cBrooklyn College, dLong Island University, e Fordham University at Lincoln Center, fUniversity of Nebraska-Kearney and gQueens College at the City University of New York
ABSTRACT Psychologists who work in the schools have an ethical and professional responsibility to become informed about the knowledge base that addresses the delivery of psychological services to children from diverse backgrounds. This article reflects (1) a synthesis of some of the existing knowledge base about how best to promote the educational and psychological well-being of diverse students and their families within the school context, and (2) recommendations for practices for psychologists working in the schools. These recommendations for practice are intended to address professional issues which, if neglected in service delivery to racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse populations, can lead to inappropriate referrals for services, misassessments of needs and issues, ineffective interventions and therapeutic approaches, and erroneous research results. Specific professional practices are identified and illustrations of those practices are provided to help guide psychologists’ behavior and actions when delivering services to a diverse clientele in the schools.
Address correspondence to: Margaret R. Rogers, PhD, 3234B Benjamin Bldg, College of Education, University of Maryland at College Park, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA. Email:
[email protected]. School Psychology International Copyright © 1999 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi), Vol. 20(3): 243–264. [0143–0343 (199908) 20:3; 243–264; 005695]
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School Psychology International (1999), Vol. 20(3) Psychologists working in the schools are faced with the challenges and realities of delivering services to an increasingly diverse student body. Recent US demographic estimates suggest that the majority of students currently enrolled in the nation’s urban public schools are racial or ethnic minority group members (National Center for Education Statistics, 1993) and almost 10 million children speak a language other than English (Waggoner, 1994). Children of diverse cultural, linguistic or economic backgrounds are particularly at risk for educational inequities in today’s schools (Barona and Garcia, 1990; Kozol, 1991). To respond to the psychological and educational needs of this diverse clientele, psychologists must attain cross-cultural competence and develop specialized skills. In recognition of the need for specialized skills, other professions, most notably counseling, early childhood education and teacher education, have each established position statements or guidelines regarding service delivery to culturally and linguistically diverse individuals (e.g. Banks et al., 1992; National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1995; Sue et al., 1992). An important step in the development of cross-cultural competence is to become informed regarding the existing knowledge base of empirical findings, legal decisions, regulatory standards and codes, and professional best practices specific to work in diverse schools. Psychologists practicing in the schools need to be able to act in affirmative and skillful ways to respond to a student body that represents significant demographic changes. The demographic changes being observed and the ways those changes impact the educational experience and culture of the schools raise some compelling questions for psychologists practicing in those schools. How might cultural or language factors affect psychological service delivery for diverse populations? How do psychological services in the schools need to change when the child/family/educator is not of European descent? What can the monolingual psychologist do when administrative pressure is applied to conduct an evaluation with a child who speaks little English? How do major court cases and the current ethical standards speak to and guide service delivery with diverse clients? How should interpreters be used during psychological service delivery? How can psychologists encourage respect and help to affirm the diverse backgrounds of students presently involved in schools? In this article, the American Psychological Association (APA) Division 16 Task Force on Cross-Cultural School Psychology Competencies summarizes some of the existing knowledge base, offers practical illustrations and applications of that knowledge base, and presents recommendations for providing psychological services in schools to diverse individuals and groups. This article is not meant to provide an exhaustive synthesis of the relevant literature nor is it meant to address every possible service delivery dilemma. Instead it is designed to expand upon 244
Rogers et al.: Providing Psychological Services the content of the APA (1991) Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services to Ethnic, Cultural, and Linguistically Diverse Populations and uses the format of the original Guidelines to do so. This expansion of the original (1991) Guidelines document was undertaken to draw attention to the need to consider practice issues which are unique to psychological service delivery with children and youth in diverse schools. The original (1991) Guidelines document did not expressly address the needs of children and youth nor did it provide benchmarks and insights to guide psychological practice in schools. The main purpose of the present article is to offer recommendations for practice for psychologists working in the schools who deliver psychological services to diverse individuals. These recommendations for practice were accepted by the APA Division 16 Executive Council in January 1997. The information contained in this article refers to work with racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse individuals and groups. Diverse individuals include African-American, Hispanic (e.g. MexicanAmerican, Latino, Puerto Rican, etc.), Pacific Islander (e.g. Samoan, Hawaiian, etc.), Native American (e.g. Sioux, Cherokee, etc.), AsianAmerican (e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Korean, etc.), biracial, non-English-language background and bilingual persons. Just as individuals from the aforementioned populations represent considerable heterogeneity within their respective racial, ethnic or linguistic group, Caucasians of European-American descent are also heterogeneous and diverse. Many of the recommendations for practice described in this article are applicable to the competent practice of psychological services delivered in the schools to all ethnic and linguistic groups, including Caucasians of European-American descent. At the same time, this article was principally developed to pertain specifically to children, their families and school personnel who, because of their status as diverse racial, ethnic, linguistic or cultural group members, may be at risk for receiving inadequate and/or inappropriate services. While school psychologists are typically the primary psychological service providers in the schools, psychologists representing other specialties (e.g. educational psychology, developmental psychology, clinical psychology) also deliver school-based services. Consequently, in this article the term ‘psychologist’ is used to refer not only to school psychologists but also to all psychologists from related specialties who provide psychological services in the schools. The article is organized around recommendations for practice regarding six major domains of service delivery. The six domains include (1) Legal and Ethical Issues, (2) School Culture, Educational Policy and Institutional Advocacy, (3) Psychoeducational Assessment and Related Issues, (4) Academic, Therapeutic and Consultative Interventions, (5) Working with Interpreters, and (6) Research. Within each major domain 245
School Psychology International (1999), Vol. 20(3) are primary categories of expertise and specific issues to address in providing psychological services to racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse individuals and groups. References are included to guide readers to resources for more complete coverage of the topics discussed.
Legal and ethical issues Psychologists who work in the schools are informed about local, state and federal laws and regulations as well as major court cases that pertain to all children, including racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse children and their families. They are also aware of social and educational public policy issues and the ways that these issues influence the schools and the educational services provided to diverse students. (a)
(b)
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Psychologists working in the schools inform their professional practices through knowledge of legal precedents that influence service delivery to racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse students. Illustrative statement: Diana v. California State Board of Education (1970) provided the legal mandate for psychologists to assess children in their native language. Psychologists who work in the schools are informed about the various ways that laws protect individual and civil rights, including rights regarding access to educational and related services, confidentiality, informed consent, due process and native language communications (Fischer and Sorenson, 1996). Psychologists incorporate this information into their professional practice. Psychologists who work in the schools are knowledgeable about information sources regarding immigration laws, and laws regarding residency, citizenship and migrant families (Fischer and Sorenson, 1996). Psychologists working in the schools are cognizant of major legislation and litigation regarding bilingual education and English as a second language (ESL) programs, are familiar with the ways that bilingual education and ESL programs are implemented in the schools, and are aware of the effectiveness of different models of bilingual education and ESL programs (Baca and Cervants, 1989; Collier, 1995). IIlustrative statement: The Bilingual Education Acts and the Lau v. Nichols (1974) ruling have promoted the institutionalization of bilingual education in US schools. Psychologists who practice in the schools advocate for public policy 246
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and educational law that best serves the needs of racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse youth. Psychologists providing school-based services work to institutionalize educational policies and practices known to positively impact student growth.
Psychologists who work in the schools are knowledgeable about the ethical and regulatory context of providing psychological services to diverse students, parents, and school personnel. Their principal ethical responsibility is the protection of individual human rights. Psychologists are ultimately responsible for the decisions that they make about the services they deliver to diverse individuals. (a)
(b)
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Psychologists are guided by their professional training and code of ethics to deliver the best available service to individuals and groups. Where there is a conflict between the interests of the institution and the individual or group, the psychologist must assert and seek to satisfy the needs of the individual or group first. Psychologists are aware of the unique ethical challenges and complex ethical issues faced when delivering services to racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse individuals in the schools. Illustrative statement: The use of community-based cultural consultants in work with parents presents several layers of ethical issues (e.g. confidentiality, professional competence). Psychologists consider their ethical code, as well as relevant legal precedents, and other professionally relevant regulatory standards as guides to their professional conduct with diverse students. Illustrative statement: The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing by the American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association and National Council on Measurement in Education (1985) and as soon as they are available, the revised standards, help to inform professional behavior regarding the development and use of tests. When asked to participate in unethical behaviors or activities, psychologists take action to uphold their ethical standards. Illustrative statement: An English speaking psychologist may be asked to assess the language and cognitive skills of a non-English speaking child without adequate resources, materials, interpreters or training. Instead of personally fulfilling the request, the psychologist seeks out the assistance of an appropriately trained psychologist who is skilled in the language and culture of the child to handle the referral. Psychologists are aware of their own cultural values and biases, and have the ability to recognize the limits of their own multicultural 247
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competence and expertise and how these may be detrimental to a culturally diverse individual (Rosenfield and Esquivel, 1985; Vazquéz Nuttall et al., 1990). Psychologists seek out educational, consultative, and training experiences to improve their understanding and effectiveness in working with culturally diverse populations (American Psychological Association, 1992).
School culture, educational policy, and institutional advocacy Psychologists working in schools are aware of aspects of organizational culture and values that promote the healthy development of diverse children and youths. Psychologists recognize that racial, ethnic, cultural and linguistic characteristics of children and families may increase the risk of inadequate and/or inappropriate service delivery (Cummins, 1989; Milofsky, 1989). (a)
(b)
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Within schools and institutions serving culturally and linguistically diverse students, psychologists take a proactive stance to enhance the level and quality of services provided to all individuals (Rogers and Bursztyn, 1995). Psychologists work toward increasing institutional understanding and acceptance of culturally and linguistically diverse individuals, and promote tolerance and respect for difference based on culture, race, ethnicity and language. Psychologists inform and educate school staff about cultural and behavioral patterns of culturally and linguistically diverse populations (Grant and Gomez, 1996; see Kuykendall, 1992 for strategies). In a manner that is readily accessible, families need to be adequately informed of their rights and the expectations of institutions serving their children. Psychologists ascertain that families of all cultures are meaningfully engaged in the discussions affecting their children and are fully aware of the options available for their children’s education. Psychologists create opportunities for parents to be involved in educational decisions about their children (Harry, 1992; Harry et al., 1995; Lynch and Hanson, 1992). Illustrative statement: Communications between school and family are designed to promote parental involvement and parental empowerment. Psychologists develop and implement intervention plans to address intolerance and/or racism within the institutions in which they work (Pinderhughes, 1989).
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Rogers et al.: Providing Psychological Services cognizant of the systemic issues associated with cases referred to them for services. Psychologists are knowledgeable about institutional racism, cultural misinformation and other systemic issues affecting the education of students from culturally and linguistically diverse populations. They provide leadership in developing systems interventions to support the educational success of culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Psychologists working with racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse children and their families have an ethical and professional responsibility to assess whether problems presumed to reside within the student may be manifestations of systemic biases in the institution(s) serving the child (see Apter, 1982, for an ecological framework of children within systems). (a)
(b)
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Psychologists examine individual referrals within the context of institutional and systemic patterns associated with the racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse populations who are part of the school community. Illustrative statement: The psychologist studies referral patterns and determines that a disproportional number of referrals within the past year from Teacher X have involved African-American male youths. The psychologist considers shifting the relationship with the teacher to a consultative relationship. Psychologists rule out systemic factors as causal influences in the student’s situation before proceeding with individually-focused psychoeducational evaluation, intervention or other form of psychological service. Illustrative statement: The next referral for evaluation from Teacher X is handled as a consultation case to explore the potential cultural context for the referral. Psychologists develop interventions to address the systemic factors responsible for referral patterns which inappropriately identify students of racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse populations as the unit of analysis, target for services or focus of diagnosis. Illustrative statement: An in-service is developed to educate teachers and administrators about culturally appropriate behaviors among young African-American males and classroom instructional strategies effective in supporting the educational success of this student population. As a follow up, teachers are coached in implementing the strategies in their classes. Psychologists develop interventions to address the systemic factors associated with the educational success of culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Illustrative statement: The psychologist initiates a series of meet249
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ings with parents and school leaders to examine the curriculum, instructional practices and school programs in a school where 60 percent of the culturally and linguistically diverse students in grades K-2 are identified as candidates for retention. When culturally and linguistically diverse parents are unfamiliar with options available within the US educational system, psychologists advocate for these children and their families and inform parents of possible options and resources.
Psychologists work to educate the community about issues which affect the learning, development and well-being of children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. In doing so, the psychologist works to build bridges of understanding between the schools and homes of children. (a)
(b)
Psychologists working in schools educate school staff and personnel about cultural and linguistic factors significant in the development and success of children from diverse backgrounds. Illustrative statement: The psychologist develops an in-service for school personnel (including teachers, administrators, support staff, custodians, bus drivers, and other school personnel) about the cultural traditions and social customs (e.g. methods of displaying interpersonal respect, means of communicating, gender expectations, traditions about the land) of the local tribe of Native Americans to provide information about students living on the reservation who were just included in the school’s attendance area. Psychologists work to build relationships with families and educate parents and members of the community about cultural and linguistic factors significant in the development and success of children from diverse backgrounds. Illustrative statement: The psychologist organizes a school–community event for Vietnamese families and community members to help them learn how to access school services. The psychologist supports the Vietnamese interpreter and school–community liaison persons to prepare for the event and bridge between the culture of the school and the cultures of the homes.
Psychoeducational assessment and related issues Psychologists working in schools are knowledgeable about assessment issues as they relate to diverse students and are skilled in performing customized and sensitive psychoeducational evaluations (Armour-Thomas, 1992; Baca and Almanza, 1991; Barona et al., 1990; Caterino, 1990; Collier, 1988; Holtzman and Wilkinson, 1991). 250
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Psychologists acknowledge that assessment is a comprehensive process of gathering information about students which: • considers the impact of socio-cultural, environmental, political, experiential and language-based factors; • may or may not include standardized testing; and • contradicts its purpose unless culturally acceptable, informed and effective intervention programs are designed and implemented. Psychologists consider cultural sources of information about students and search for culture specific confirming data (ArmourThomas, 1992; Lopez, 1995; Ortiz and Garcia, 1988). Illustrative statement: When conducting observations, psychologists use appropriate comparison group members. For example, a second language learner is compared to another second language learner (Chamberlain and Medeiros-Landuran, 1991). Psychologists acknowledge the impact of second language/culture acquisition on the cognitive and socio-emotional development of individuals (Hamayan and Damico, 1991; Leung, 1994; Lopez, 1995). Illustrative statement: Throughout the assessment, the psychologist considers the situations and domains in which first and second languages are used and the skills covered by each of these languages (e.g. both social and academic language proficiency are assessed across languages and across a variety of tasks to construct a valid picture of the student’s language proficiencies) (Fradd and Weismantel, 1989; Lopez, 1995; Ortiz and Garcia, 1988).
Psychologists working in schools have expertise in selecting and using a wide array of assessment procedures that fit the referred student according to his/her individual characteristics, including culture and language (American Educational Research Association et al., 1985; Collier, 1988; Ortiz and Garcia, 1988; Ramirez, 1990). (a)
(b)
Psychologists have expertise in conducting informal and formal language assessments and in differentiating a language disorder from second language acquisition developmental stages. Illustrative statement: Problems that a student exhibits as a manifestation of his/her limited English proficiency may be interpreted erroneously as an intrinsic learning problem (Gersten and Woodward, 1994; Harklau, 1994). Psychologists have expertise in assessing the student’s biculturalism and are supportive thereof (Cummins, 1989; Vazquéz Nuttall et al., 1990). Illustrative statement: When conducting an assessment, the psychologist needs to take into account language behavior considered to be 251
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socially appropriate in the culture of the test taker. For example, in some cultures children may join adult conversations only with explicit permission from the adults. Children from these cultures learn to wait for an invitation to participate. Therefore, brief or infrequent responses from a child when in adult company should not be interpreted as evidence of a child’s ‘low verbal ability’ (Tharp, 1989). Psychologists incorporate cultural and linguistic information in written reports (Rogers, 1993).
Psychologists working in schools recognize the limitations of standardized instruments and the ramifications of using such instruments in the assessment of racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse students (American Educational Research Association et al., 1985; Armour-Thomas, 1992; Figueroa, 1990; Fradd and Weismantel, 1989; Geisinger, 1992; National Association of School Psychologists, 1992; Pianta and Reeve, 1990). (a)
(b)
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Psychologists understand the limitations and pitfalls associated with the prescribed use of standardized instruments not normed or validated with the population being served. They recognize that using measures not normed with the group or individual being served may compromise the validity of the test results and the assessment process and may lead to inappropriate and inaccurate interpretations of test scores and results. Illustrative statement: Psychologists look for assessment techniques that allow for the most complete and valid assessment possible. For example, a psychologist may use performance-based assessment, functional assessment dynamic assessment, or developmental assessment techniques to ensure validity provided those techniques have been found to be more accurate for a given group or individual. Psychologists are well versed in the psychometric properties of all instruments that they use. They are informed of possible threats to the validity of an assessment situation when instruments are used that were not specifically developed for the population being served (Figueroa, 1990; Geisinger, 1992). Illustrative statement: When using tests not normed for a group or individual, psychologists report findings in a descriptive and qualitative manner (Collier, 1988; Damico, 1991; Holtzman and Wilkinson, 1991). Psychologists are able to adapt existing assessment tools when necessary. When adapting standardized instruments, they report all deviations from standardized testing procedures and conditions (Rogers, 1993). 252
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Psychologists make a continuous effort to consider how the historical and cultural context of any given assessment instrument affects item content and test structure and potentially, test performance (American Psychological Association, 1991; National Association of School Psychologists, 1992). Psychologists are informed about the availability of translated versions of assessment instruments and are knowledgeable about the norm groups used during the test development of these instruments (American Psychological Association, 1991; Figueroa et al., 1984; National Association of School Psychologists, 1992). Psychologists acknowledge that translated testing is of questionable validity. They understand that translations are rarely equivalent across languages, and psychological constructs are not necessarily constant across languages and cultures (Bracken and Barona, 1991). Psychologists refrain from the use of ‘on-the-spot translations’ (Caterino, 1990; Fradd and Wilen, 1990; Langdon, 1988; Lynch, 1992). They utilize valid, normed test translations with norms developed for clearly described populations (American Educational Research Association et al., 1985; Figueroa, 1990). Illustrative statement: In the case of translated tests, psychologists do not assume that the psychometric properties of original versions and translated versions of a test are comparable. The reliability and validity of the original and translated versions of a test may not be the same. A concept that is basic in one language may become more advanced in another language. Consequently, the difficulty level of test items changes due to the test translation (American Educational Research Association et al., 1985; Figueroa, 1990; National Association of School Psychologists, 1992).
Academic, therapeutic, and consultative interventions Psychologists working in the schools are aware of the cultural values reflected in the curriculum, communication styles and instructional activities in the classroom and the potential facilitative or detrimental effects that these approaches may have on the learning of culturally diverse students (Banks, 1994; Gersten et al., 1994). (a)
Psychologists are knowledgeable about research regarding the impact of cultural, ethnic and linguistic factors on the academic achievement of culturally and linguistically diverse students (Martinez, 1985; Shade, 1989; Trueba, 1991).
(b)
Psychologists understand the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse children in terms of curriculum and instruction. 253
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Illustrative statement: In US schools, learning is frequently assigned to 50-minute blocks where students compete for grades, individual recognition and participation in extracurricular activities. A learning environment based on these values can appear foreign to a child from a culture which emphasizes humility, cooperation and a holistic conception of time. Psychologists understand the role that language plays in the educational and psychosocial development of linguistically and ethnically diverse groups (Garcia, 1991).
Psychologists understand the influence of culture on the therapeutic process and develop multicultural competence in their role as counselors with children and youth from culturally diverse backgrounds. (a)
(b)
(c)
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Psychologists develop expertise in multicultural counseling. They are able to discern the influence of culture on social-emotional status relative to other factors such as family dynamics or unique personality characteristics. They show flexibility in adapting to the individual’s cultural style. They are aware of different levels of acculturation, avoid stereotyping, and show respect for individual differences as well as commonalities in human experiences (Esquivel and Keitel, 1990). Psychologists demonstrate an awareness of an individual’s worldviews and sociopolitical experiences including the negative effects of racism, oppression and stereotyping. They are aware of the impact life experiences, cultural heritage and historical background have on culturally diverse individuals. Psychologists respect an individual’s beliefs, values, and native languages (Atkinson et al., 1993). Psychologists consider the involvement of trained bilingual interpreters, community consultants, extended family members and other paraprofessionals as resources in counseling intervention. Illustrative statement: In some instances it is important to include a significant family member in an intervention plan or obtain clarification regarding a cultural custom from a community member (Paniagua, 1994). Psychologists implement culturally sensitive approaches that are acceptable to and have demonstrated effectiveness with culturally diverse children and their families (Barnett et al., 1995). They avoid using techniques that are inconsistent with the cultural-personal values or preferred styles of the student. They attempt to incorporate cultural customs such as folk methods into intervention design (Costantino et al., 1986). Illustrative statement: Often children from Native American cultures 254
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prefer not to be singled out or praised as individuals, separate from the group. A culturally sensitive intervention might aim to develop self-esteem based on group participation. A group modality is consistent with the collectivist orientation of many culturally diverse groups (Edwards and Edwards, 1984). Psychologists are knowledgeable about racial and ethnic identity development in children and adolescents (Baruth and Manning, 1991; Helms, 1995; Phinney, 1993; Phinney et al., 1990). Illustrative statement: As culturally diverse adolescents develop cognitively and become more sensitive to feedback from the social environment, they become aware that they are often targets of discrimination and inequality which can complicate their efforts to develop a sense of cultural belonging or to become biculturally competent.
Psychologists working in the schools are skilled in developing a multicultural consultation model which reflects an understanding of cultural values and implications for working with culturally diverse families. They share this knowledge with others by providing in-services, multicultural training and program development for culturally diverse youth (Cole and Siegel, 1990). (a)
(b)
(c)
Psychologists demonstrate culturally sensitive verbal and nonverbal communication skills. They are aware of how their own cultural background and biases influence their ability to communicate effectively with culturally diverse students, school personnel and family members (Ivey, 1994; Sue et al., 1992). Psychologists are skilled in problem identification, problem solving and in developing plans for intervening that are acceptable to the consultee and student and reflect the student’s beliefs and value system. Psychologists have knowledge of minority family structures, hierarchies, values and beliefs. They are knowledgeable about the community characteristics and resources in the community as well as the family. As such, psychologists become actively involved with culturally diverse individuals and groups in the community to enhance their perspective of diversity beyond the academic realm (Manning, 1995). Illustrative statement: Some traditional Asian and Hispanic cultures structure social interactions hierarchically and prescribe gender roles within the hierarchy. Thus, interaction may be most productive if initiated with the father, as the head of the family, rather than with the mother to whom calls may be most generally made to arrange meetings regarding the student. 255
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Psychologists who work in schools create strong community networks with culturally knowledgeable practitioners, including indigenous care-givers, for consultation and referral. They are aware of institutional barriers that may prevent minority group members from utilizing referral resources and are prepared to advocate if necessary (Atkinson and Juntunen, 1994).
Psychologists are aware of the stressors that place immigrant and culturally diverse children and their families at risk and are able to identify preventive factors as a basis for developing interventions. (a)
(b)
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(d)
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Psychologists have an understanding of the relocation and migration process and its effect on the social-emotional adjustment of children and families. In considering a child’s adjustment, experiences in the native country, during the flight period and during the early resettlement stages are taken into account. Illustrative statement: Although migration does not automatically result in distress, many children experience trauma related to war, loss of family members and cultural shock upon their arrival in the new setting. Psychologists have an understanding of the process of acquiring a second culture and its impact on the development and adjustment of children and their families. They consider issues such as the relation between culture and developmental norms, discrepancies between the child’s culturally-based behaviors and school expectations, the formation of ethnic identity or biculturalism, intergenerational conflicts based on differences in acculturative level between youth and parents, and the role of language and second language development on social adjustment (Baruth and Manning, 1991). Psychologists have an understanding of the impact of poverty on the physical and mental health of children and their families. Illustrative statement: Children of low socioeconomic background experience malnutrition, lead poisoning and asthma at a higher incidence than do children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds (Kozol, 1996). These physical maladies may, in turn, affect their mood and energy level. Psychologists are aware of differential responses to medical interventions based on ethnicity and their effects on behavior and adjustment (Gibbs and Huang, 1989). Psychologists have an understanding of the specific coping skills and support systems available to culturally diverse children and families. They emphasize a model of intervention that stresses prevention by attempting to build on and enhance strengths (Canino and Spurlock, 1994). 256
Rogers et al.: Providing Psychological Services Illustrative statement: The extended family is often a source of support for culturally diverse children. It is important to recognize the value and potential contributions of these family members when conceptualizing intervention models.
Working with interpreters Psychologists advocate for appropriate bilingual psychological services for non-English-language background and bilingual children. As such, they recognize that linguistically and culturally diverse children are best served by psychologists who have cross-cultural training and who are proficient in the language(s) of the non-English-language background child. In the event that interpreters must be used, psychologists have knowledge and skills in providing psychological services through interpreters. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
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Psychologists seek the services of interpreters only when necessary and when other alternatives have been sought out but are not available. Psychologists work with trained interpreters who are familiar with the student’s culture and regional area of origin. When trained interpreters are not available, psychologists provide training to qualified paraprofessionals who are familiar with the student’s culture and are highly competent in the student’s language (American Educational Research Association et al., 1985). Psychologists have knowledge of the skills needed by qualified interpreters (e.g. skills in language-related competencies, using various translation techniques, professional and ethical conduct, working in school environments) (Anderson, 1970; Lopez, 1993). Psychologists are aware of problems inherent in the process of translation (e.g. the developmental level of concepts may change from one language to another) (Frishberg, 1990). They understand the limitations encountered in using interpreters and take them into consideration in evaluating the quality of services delivered through interpreters. Psychologists have knowledge of the psychological impact of using interpreters during assessment and intervention activities (Stansfield, 1980). They understand that the presence of an interpreter has a significant influence on the dynamics of the relationship between the psychologist, the student and the interpreter. Psychologists have knowledge and skills in interviewing and assessing individuals through interpreters. They follow appropriate and recommended guidelines for the use of interpreters in assessment and intervention activities to ensure quality services for non257
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English-language background and bilingual students (Langdon, 1985). Psychologists examine data obtained through interpreters with extreme caution and acknowledge the limitations of such data. Assessment results obtained through interpreters are described as such and are reported qualitatively.
Research Psychologists are sensitive to the issues involved in conducting research with populations who, because of their minority status, may be considered to be vulnerable. They are also knowledgeable about the impact of their own value system and ethnic/cultural identity in conceptualizing research problems and designing research projects. (a)
(b) (c)
(d)
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Psychologists are informed about quantitative and qualitative research techniques and are skilled in conducting research designed to provide the most meaningful outcomes. Psychologists consider the social, linguistic and cultural context in which research takes place (Bowman, 1991). Psychologists work to eliminate bias when conducting research (Gould, 1993; Guthrie, 1976). Illustrative statement: Psychologists are sensitive to the sociopolitical implications of their research findings. They are responsible for correcting misinterpretations of their work. Psychologists insure that the informed consent of all research participants (students and their legal guardians/parents) is secured and has been elicited in the language the family is most comfortable with. Psychologists are skilled in program evaluation to determine the appropriateness and adequacy of instructional programs specifically aimed at racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse youngsters. Illustrative statement: Psychologists are skilled in evaluating the impact of an Afrocentric academic program on the participating African-American students in terms of their academic achievement, social development and racial identity development.
Concluding comments The recommendations for practice made in this article are intended to guide psychologists working in schools in delivering effective and appropriate services for racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse persons. They extend the work of the APA (1991) Guidelines by 258
Rogers et al.: Providing Psychological Services giving attention to issues and practices specific to work in schools with client populations including children, youth, their families, educators and the systems in which they operate. The illustrative statements are designed to provide readers with examples for applying the recommendations to practice within schools, and where appropriate, are supported by references to assist readers in locating additional resources in literature. The authors of these recommendations recognize that developing the knowledge base and skills needed to provide effective services for a broad range of diverse individuals is an ongoing process. Having a strong commitment to the provision of excellent psychological services to children and youth is necessary, but not sufficient. Given the immensely diverse nature of the populations within today’s schools, with new populations and groups continually entering the systems, psychologists must engage in ongoing professional development to acquire the new knowledge and competencies for effective practice in their work. The authors hope that these recommendations will provide psychologists with some benchmarks for continuing their professional evolution, evaluating the nature and cultural assumptions of their current practices, and inspiring new areas of professional growth and development. As psychologists develop the additional expertise for service delivery necessitated by highly diverse client populations, they are better positioned to provide effective services which promote the development and education of children and youth from a variety of racial, ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. When those providing services to clients are competent in their delivery of services for the specific background(s) of the client, the admirable goals of the profession are attained. Note This article was based on the collaborative work of the American Psychological Association (APA) Division 16 Task Force on Cross-Cultural School Psychology Competencies and accepted by the APA Division 16 Executive Council in January 1997. As members of a subcommittee of the Task Force, the principal contributers to the document wrote specific sections (e.g. Colette L. Ingraham and Alberto Bursztyn wrote the section on school culture, educational policy and institutional advocacy; Giselle Esquivel and Robyn Hess wrote academic, therapeutic and consultative interventions; Nelda Cajigas-Segredo and Sara G. Nahari wrote psychoeducational assessment and related issues; Emilia C. Lopez wrote working with interpreters; and Margaret R. Rogers wrote legal issues and ethics, and research) and gave feedback about the entire document. The final article reflects the collective writings of the entire subcommittee with additional feedback and revisions provided by the Task Force and Executive Council. Sincere appreciation and deepest gratitude are extended to the APA Division 16 Task Force members and the 1994–97 APA Division 16 Executive Council members for their helpfulness during the preparation of this work and their gracious support.
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