Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction

Group & Organization Management http://gom.sagepub.com

Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction: An Analysis of Interactive Effects Guangping Wang and Peggy D. Lee Group Organization Management 2009; 34; 271 originally published online Feb 23, 2009; DOI: 10.1177/1059601108330089 The online version of this article can be found at: http://gom.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/34/3/271

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Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction

Group & Organization Management Volume 34 Number 3 June 2009 271-296 © 2009 SAGE Publications 10.1177/1059601108330089 http://gom.sagepub.com hosted at http://online.sagepub.com

An Analysis of Interactive Effects Guangping Wang Peggy D. Lee Penn State University

This research investigates the interactive effects of the psychological empowerment dimensions on job satisfaction. Using data collected from employees of multiple organizations, the authors find intriguing three-way interactions among the dimensions. Choice has a weak but negative effect on job satisfaction when both competence and impact are high or low but has a strong positive effect when one of the two dimensions is low and the other is high. Impact has no effect on job satisfaction when choice and competence are both high or both low. The effect of impact is positive only when one of the two dimensions is high and the other is low. In addition, high levels of choice and competence reinforce the positive effect of meaning on job satisfaction. The results offer important insights for future theory development on psychological empowerment. Keywords: psychological empowerment; job satisfaction; three-way interaction

he concept of psychological empowerment has gained wide acceptance in both management theory and practice (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Donovan, 1994; Hall, 2008; Kanter, 1989; Spreitzer, 1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). A substantial body of research has accumulated during the past two decades refining the conceptual domain of psychological empowerment and investigating its antecedents and consequences. It is generally recognized that the construct consists of four dimensions— meaning, competence, choice, and impact (Spreitzer, 1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990)—and is related to various work behaviors, attitudes, and performance (Fulford & Enz, 1995; Hall, 2008; Koberg, Boss, Senjem, &

T

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Goodman, 1999; Spreitzer, 1995, 1996; Suzik, 1998). Several fundamental questions that have yet to be answered in empowerment research are related to the interactive effects of these dimensions on important job outcomes. For instance, do the dimensions influence job outcomes in an additive fashion? Do they affect job outcome independently, or are there synergistic or suppressive effects of these variables? Do the effects of some of the dimensions depend on the levels of the other dimensions? Additive effects suggest the influence of one dimension is independent of the other dimensions and each adds linear variance to measured outcomes. Interactive effects occur when the total effect of empowerment is greater or less than the sum of the individual dimensional effects (for a general discussion on interaction, see Aiken & West, 1992). Although interactive effects are often examined in organizational research (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1989; House, Shane, & Herold, 1996; Kravitz, Bludau, & Klineberg, 2008; Valentine, 1999; Wated, Sanchez, & Gomez, 2008), studies on psychological empowerment have addressed only additive effects. It is important to both management research and practice to understand potential dimensional interactions. The additive model suggests that more empowerment is always better if the individual dimensional effects are positive. Managerially, to enhance focal job outcomes, companies could simply increase empowerment on each and all of the individual dimensions. An interactive model, on the other hand, implies that the dimensions may interfere with each other and one dimension may either reinforce or suppress the effects of the other dimensions. When there is a reinforcing effect, the positive effect of one dimension will be greater in the presence of higher levels of the other dimensions. Alternatively, if there is a suppressive effect, the presence of a high level of one dimension might decrease the effect of another dimension (Daniels & Guppy, 1994; Karasek, 1979). Thus, theorists and practitioners will be challenged to identify the best combination of the empowerment dimensions to maximize the job outcomes. If management is to use empowerment effectively, it is important to understand potential interactions among the empowerment dimensions. Accordingly, the goal of this research is to examine the interactions among empowerment dimensions. We focus on job satisfaction as an outcome variable because it is an outcome of fundamental importance for organizational performance (Ng & Sorensen, 2008; Spreitzer, Kizilos, & Nason, 1997). Job performance, motivation, turnover, and organizational commitment have all been shown to be related to job satisfaction (Judge, 1993; Martin & Bennett, 1996; Williams & Anderson, 1991). In the following sections, we develop several interaction


Wang, Lee / Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction

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hypotheses and then report the results of an empirical study. We conclude with a discussion of theoretical and managerial implications.

Conceptual Background and Hypotheses Psychological Empowerment Psychological empowerment is defined as a set of motivational cognitions shaped by a work environment and reflecting an individual’s active orientation to his or her work role (Spreitzer, 1995). Building on the work of Conger and Kanungo (1988), Thomas and Velthouse (1990) argued that four cognitive assessments represent a comprehensive task-specific evaluation and interpretation that determines intrinsic task motivation, hence, psychological empowerment. These four assessments are meaning, competence, choice, and impact. Briefly, meaning refers to the value of a task goal or purpose, judged in relation to an individual’s own ideals or standards. It reflects intrinsic interest in a task and involves a fit between work role requirements and one’s beliefs and values (Brief & Nord, 1990; Hackman & Oldham, 1980). The congruence between personal value and work role expectations contributes to the belief that work is an end in itself. Competence stems from Bandura’s (1986) work on self-efficacy and is the degree to which an employee feels he or she is able to perform tasks with skill (Gist, 1987; Thomas & Tymon, 1994). Social cognitive theory and empirical evidence from diverse fields suggest that competence has strong direct effects on performance (Bandura, 1986; Gecas, 1989; Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Harackiewicz, Sansone, & Manderlink, 1985; Locke, 1991; Locke, Frederick, Lee, & Bobko, 1984; Ozer & Bandura, 1990; Wang & Netemeyer, 2002). Choice is the sense of autonomy in initiating and regulating work and reflects the degree of self-determination in work behaviors and processes (Bell & Staw, 1989; Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989; Spector, 1986). Choice is a key component of intrinsic motivation, leading to learning, interest, and resilience in the face of adversity (Deci et al., 1989; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Impact is the degree to which an individual feels that he or she can influence strategic, administrative, or operating outcomes at work (Ashforth, 1989). Impact is associated with high performance and an absence of withdrawal from difficult situations (Ashforth, 1990). Individuals who believe that they can affect the system in which they are embedded and influence organizational outcomes tend to be more motivated (Spreitzer et al., 1997).


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Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is “a pleasurable or positive emotional state” that is “a function of the perceived relationship between what one wants from a job and what one perceives it is offering” (Locke, 1976, p. 1300). The job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1980) proposes that critical psychological states such as experienced meaningfulness, feelings of responsibility, and knowledge of work results influence job satisfaction. Although Thomas and Velthouse (1990) and Conger and Kanungo (1988) did not explicitly include job satisfaction in their models of empowerment, Thomas and Tymon (1994) argued that empowerment is more likely to manifest at higher levels of job satisfaction. They further argued that assessments of empowerment generate intrinsic rewards and thus should be positively related to job satisfaction. Empirical support varies regarding the relationships between the individual empowerment dimensions and job satisfaction. Most available evidence is related to additive effects and is in the form of simple correlations. First, there seems to be strong evidence of a positive association between meaning and job satisfaction (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Spreitzer et al., 1997; Thomas & Tymon, 1994). According to Herzberg (1966), an important determinant of job satisfaction is personal meaning. Kanter (1983) suggests that perceived meaningfulness results in greater commitment and concentration of energy. Job satisfaction results from fulfillment of desired work values (Locke, 1976). Lack of meaning in the workplace has been linked to apathy and job dissatisfaction (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Second, researchers have suggested that choice is a psychological need and that meeting this need results in job satisfaction (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Greenberger, Strausser, Cummings, & Dunham, 1989; Parker, 1993). Studies by Liden, Wayne, Sparrowe, and Bradway (1993) and Thomas and Tymon (1994) show that higher levels of personal control are related to job satisfaction. These results are consistent with Spector’s (1986) seminal review, in which he presented evidence for a positive association between job autonomy and job satisfaction. Third, with regard to the impact–satisfaction relationship, strong and consistent evidence is yet to emerge. Ashforth (1989, 1990) suggested that perceived lack of opportunity to have an impact on the organization might be related to job satisfaction, and Thomas and Tymon (1994) reported a positive relationship between impact and job satisfaction, but Spreitzer et al.’s (1997) study did not support the hypothesized effect of perceived impact on satisfaction.



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Finally, the literature has yet to establish a consistent link between competence and satisfaction. Carless (2004) reported that competence was negatively related to job satisfaction, whereas Spreitzer et al. (1997) reported that competence is positively related to job satisfaction among subordinates but not among supervisors. Other research has reported no relationship between these variables (Holdsworth & Cartwright, 2003; Siegall & Gardner, 2000; Thomas & Tymon, 1994). In summary, the published research suggests a positive correlation between job satisfaction and two of the dimensions (i.e., meaning and choice), but the record is less consistent regarding the relationship between satisfaction and the other two dimensions (i.e., impact and competence). There is, however, little consideration for the possibility of interaction among the four dimensions in affecting job satisfaction, which could partially account for the inconsistent and sometimes contradictory findings with regard to impact and competence.

Interaction Among Dimensions The literature on empowerment, job design, stress, person–environment fit, status inconsistency, and mental health suggests possible interactions among empowerment dimensions. Although individually each of the dimensions of meaning, competence, choice, and impact may induce job satisfaction as the current empowerment research indicates, a combination of different levels of the empowerment dimensions may interact in a complicated fashion that could lead to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Spreitzer (1995; Spreitzer et al., 1997) argued that the four dimensions of empowerment combine to form a gestalt. A dictionary definition of a gestalt reads “any of the integrated structure or patterns that make up all experience and have specific properties which can neither be derived from the elements of the whole nor considered simply as the sum of these elements” (Neufeldt & Guralnik, 1997, p. 567). Although Spreitzer was not explicit as to whether the four dimensions affect job outcomes additively or interactively, the notion of gestalt implies that overall experience is not simply the sum of all individual elements. A lower or higher level of one dimension might change the overall constellation and the whole experience might be affected disproportionately. In fact, various research streams suggest possible interactive effects among psychological empowerment dimensions. A number of researchers including French, Caplan, and Van Harrison (1982), Csikszentmihalyi (1975), and Warr (1987) have advocated the idea


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of optimal levels of job content. That is, employees have a preferred level of certain job characteristics. In particular, Warr’s vitamin model of job characteristics and mental health suggests that extreme (i.e., overly high or low) levels of job characteristics are harmful. The vitamin model is based on an analogy with the fact that vitamins are required for physical health up to certain level; after attainment of that level, increased vitamin intake can be harmful. Consider job autonomy (i.e., choice), for instance. When autonomy level is too low, employees have little choice or freedom and are constrained to such a degree that they feel suffocated. However, when autonomy is too high, employees can feel a lack of direction or that they have too much responsibility, causing them to experience role stress. The same can be said for impact, another empowerment dimension. When a person’s job has low impact, the employee can feel demotivated because he or she believes that his or her job has no significance to the organization. A job that the employee perceives as having an impact incommensurate with the employee’s role can be overwhelming and intimidating. Researchers on job stress have investigated the buffering effect of job design on the stress process quite extensively. In particular, Karasek’s (1979) job strain model postulates that psychological strain results from the joint effects of work demands and decision-making latitude. The negative effect of job demand is greatest when decision latitude (choice) is minimal, and it decreases as choice increases. Daniels and Guppy (1994) found complex three-way interactions among job autonomy, locus of control, and stressors on workers’ psychological well-being. The person–environment fit model builds on the notion that job characteristics have their primary influence through the equivalence or discrepancy between preferred and perceived environmental levels (Edwards & Cooper, 1990). When the person and the job fit well with each other, both productivity and psychological well-being improve. Discrepancies in either direction (i.e., preferred level being greater or less than perceived level) have negative influences on employees’ well-being. Among the empowerment dimensions, only meaning directly addresses the correspondence between the person and the job, that is, the fit between the job role requirements and the employee’s beliefs and values (Brief & Nord, 1990; Hackman & Oldham, 1980). We can thus expect meaning to be positively associated with job satisfaction regardless of the levels of the other dimensions, based on the person–environment fit model. Unlike meaning, competence encompasses not only perceived congruence between skills required and skills possessed but also perceived positive



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discrepancy between the two when skills possessed exceed skills required. A competent person may be just right for the job or overqualified. When overqualification occurs, dissatisfaction may result. Impact and choice are perceived job characteristics that are not necessarily related to person–job fit. A person may or may not desire a high level of impact and may or may not be happy with a low choice job that has little responsibility and decisionmaking latitude. Extremely high levels of impact and choice can present overwhelmingly high role expectations that induce role stress and role ambiguity to some but may sound challenging and exciting to others. More seriously, unfit situations may rise when the various job dimensions and characteristics present conflicting expectations, which cause stress, uncertainty, perceived status inconsistency, and frustration (Bacharach, Bamberger, & Mundell, 1993; Edwards & Cooper, 1990; Harrison, 1978). In the context of psychological empowerment, unfit situations may occur at different constellations of the four dimensions. First, from a job design standpoint, choice may be viewed as a job demand because of the magnitude of decisions that have to be made, as a reward to the employee because of the intrinsic need associated with being able to make one’s own decisions, and/or a necessary enabling condition for certain jobs to get the job done (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Parker, 1993). When competence is low and impact is also low, high choice may constitute a conflicting situation that leads to the perception of an excessive demand (because of low competence) that offers little intrinsic reward (because of low impact), and thus high choice may be just as undesirable as low choice when both competence and impact are low. Alternatively, when competence is high and impact is high as well, high choice may be viewed as a necessary enabling condition, thus the effect of choice on satisfaction may be null. When competence is high but impact is low, high choice is likely to be perceived as a compensation or reward for one’s overqualification, a balancing factor for an otherwise unfit situation. Likewise, when competence is low but impact is high, high choice may indicate high job demand, but this demand can be viewed in a positive light as rewarding because of high job impact. Thus, it is possible that the choice–satisfaction relationship is positive when competence is high but impact low or when competence is low but impact high. Therefore, we hypothesize, Hypothesis 1: The choice–satisfaction relationship will depend on the levels of competence and impact such that the relationship is positive only when one of them is high and the other is low but is null when both competence and impact are high or low.


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Following the choice–satisfaction relationship, we examined impact, which may be viewed as an intrinsic reward, a responsibility, a demand, and/or a status indicator. On one hand, when there is little choice on the job and the employee feels incompetent for the job, one can hardly imagine the impact may have any positive effect on satisfaction, as any possible positive motivational effect of impact could be overshadowed by the lack of choice and competence. On the other hand, when choice and competence are both high and the employee has the ability and skill to do the job as he or she sees fit, a corresponding level of impact on the larger scope should be expected as a package that comes with the job to avoid perceptions of status inconsistency (Bacharach et al., 1993), operating much as a hygiene factor in the motivation–hygiene theory (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). As such, the marginal effect of perceived impact may be minimal. We therefore expect impact not to be related to satisfaction when choice and competence are both low or both high. However, when choice is low but competence is high, there is an imbalance or status inconsistency in the person–job situation. Impact can be a pivotal factor that influences job satisfaction. Low impact will be detrimental as it exacerbates the imbalanced situation, the employee’s feeling of overqualification will be stronger, and the employee will have a hard time justifying the situation. High impact, on the other hand, may operate as a reward that compensates the unfit situation, brings a balancing factor, and signals a justifiable reason for the job. Another imbalanced or nonfit person–job situation arises when choice is high but competence is low. In this case, the employee is stretching his or her ability to handle the decision-making demands associated with high choice. The job may be perceived as too demanding for the employee. If this is accompanied by low impact, the experience can be characterized as too much effort with too little reward. However, if the perceive level of impact is high, the employee may feel that it is worthwhile to manage the high job demand. Thus, we hypothesize, Hypothesis 2: The impact–satisfaction relationship will depend on the levels of competence and choice such that the relationship is positive only when one of them is high and the other is low but is null when both competence and choice are high or low.

Finally, as discussed earlier, because meaning reflects the fit between the employee and the job, we expect the overall meaning–satisfaction relationship to be positive regardless of the levels of the other dimensions.



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However, the relationship strength may vary depending on other empowerment dimensions. When the other three dimensions are high, the effect of meaning may be reinforced by a more balanced situation. When some dimensions are low but others are high, the imbalanced situation may suppress the positive influence of meaning. For instance, when competence is high but choice and impact are low, there is a strong feeling of overqualification, which may offset the positive effect of meaning to certain degree. When choice is high but competence is low, the job demand may be perceived as overwhelming and thus may decrease the positive influence of meaning (Karasek, 1979). As such, we hypothesize, Hypothesis 3: The meaning–satisfaction relationship will be positive overall but will be stronger when other empowerment dimensions are all high than when some of the other dimensions are low.

Method Sample and Data Collection Survey questionnaires were distributed to the employees in local forprofit organizations (service, retail and distribution, research, and manufacturing) through part-time MBA students of a state university in the northeastern United States. A total of 510 surveys from employees were returned in postage-paid envelopes directly to the researchers’ university address. We randomly selected 30 (6%) of the respondents and telephoned them to validate that they actually responded, and all of them were true respondents. A total of 21 responses were discarded because of excessive missing data, resulting in 485 useable responses. The one third of responses that were returned first and one third returned last were compared on key study variables, and no significant differences were detected via t tests. About half of the respondents (52%) were male, and 76% of them were between 20 and 49. Approximately 70% of the sample received at least some college education, whereas 14% received graduate education. Slightly fewer than half (44%) were supervisors. The sample represented more than 300 manufacturing and service firms from diverse industries that included software (22%), automobile (20%), banking (13%), construction (13%), communications (10%), restaurants (8%), accounting (6%), retailing (3%), and others (5%). The sizes of the companies also varied greatly, with 50% of the companies employing 300 or fewer employees.


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Table 1 Construct Measures and Corrected Item to Total Correlations

Measurement Items Meaning 1. The work I do is very important to me. 2. My job activities are personally meaningful to me. 3. The work I do is not very meaningful to me personally. (R) Competence 1. I do not have enough confidence in my ability to do my job. (R) 2. I am self-assured about my capabilities to perform my work activities. 3. I have mastered the skills necessary for my job. Choice 1. I do not have enough autonomy in determining how I do my job. (R) 2. I can decide on my own how to go about doing my work. 3. I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job. Impact 1. My impact on what happens in my department is large. 2. I have a great deal of control over what happens in my organization. 3. I have significant influence over what happens in my organization. Job satisfaction 1. I feel fairly happy with my present line of work. 2. All things considered (i.e., pay, promotion, supervisors, coworkers, etc.), I am very satisfied with my line of work. 3. I feel a great sense of personal fulfillment from my line of work.

Completely Standardized Factor Loadings

.89 .84 .43 .47 .75 .74 Dropped .79 .86

.59 .93 .91 .79 .82 .89

Note: R = reverse-coded item.

Measures Psychological empowerment was measured with the 12 items adapted from Spreitzer (1995) on 5-point Likert scales (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). To minimize response set bias, three of the items (Meaning No. 3, Competence No. 1, and Choice No. 1) were modified to be reverse worded. One item (Choice No. 1) was deleted in the final analysis because of the fact that its factor loading was too low (.31). Job satisfaction was assessed with three items from Netemeyer, Boles, McKee, and McMurrian (1997). The items asked the respondents the degree to which they were happy, satisfied, and felt a sense of personal fulfillment with their present line of work. The items were anchored on 5-point Likert-type



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scales (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The measurement items for key constructs are presented in Table 1. We also included a number of covariates in the survey to control for extraneous variances in such a cross-sectional study. Perceived organizational support (Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997), organizational climate for innovation (Scott & Bruce, 1994), and innovative personality (Hurt, Joseph, & Cook, 1977) have been shown to be relevant to empowerment as well as job satisfaction. The scales all achieved satisfactory reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .74 to .86). In addition, demographic information such as gender, age, education, supervisory status, and employment status (full-time or part-time) was also collected.

Analysis and Results Confirmatory factor analysis was first conducted to ensure satisfactory psychometric property of the key measures. We then computed a summated scale for each construct and used hierarchical multiple regression (Aiken & West, 1992) to test our hypotheses.

Measurement and Dimensionality We first estimated a confirmatory factor model that included 15 manifest indicators for 5 key latent constructs (job satisfaction, meaning, competence, choice, and impact). The model was evaluated with model fit, discriminant validity of the constructs, and internal consistency among the construct measures. Model fit was evaluated using the chi-square statistic, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Values of .90 and above have been recommended for CFI and TLI, and values of .08 and less have been suggested for RMSEA (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Hu & Bentler, 1995). The fit indices for the measurement model were χ2 = 256.65 (df = 80), CFI = .96, TLI = .94, and RMSEA = .072. Although the model fit appeared satisfactory, an examination of the factor loading structure revealed that the reverse-worded empowerment items suffered from relatively low factor loadings. The first item in the choice dimension was especially low at .31. The item was subsequently dropped, and a new measurement model with 14 manifest indicators and 5 latent constructs was estimated. The fit indices were slightly better than the previous model: χ2 = 200.16 (df = 67), CFI = .97, TLI = .95, and


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Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, Internal Consistency, and Correlations M 1. Satisfaction 2. Meaning 3. Competence 4. Choice 5. Impact 6. Age 7. POS 8. OCI

3.61 3.79 4.33 3.91 3.22 2.57 3.58 3.03

SD Alpha AVE 1.06 0.92 0.70 0.95 1.07 0.87 1.00 0.99

.88 .70 .65 .81 .83 — .86 .74

.70 .56 .44 .67 .68 — .70 .61

1 — .55*** .07 .34*** .41*** .25*** .48*** .31***

2

3

— .13*** — .28*** .25*** .37*** .06 .17*** .10** .23*** –.05 .17*** .05

4

5

6

7

8

— 0.43*** — .17*** .14*** — .24*** .39*** .02 — .25*** .20*** –.01 .37*** —

Note: AVE = average variance extracted; POS = perceived organizational support; OCI = organizational climate for innovation. **p < .05. ***p < .01.

RMSEA = .068. All but three items had completely standardized factor loadings greater than .70 (see Table 1). Further testing was conducted to ensure that psychological empowerment was best represented by four dimensions as separate constructs. We tested a series of models that specified one-factor, two-factor, three-factor, four-factor, and second-order four-factor structures. The four-factor model fit significantly better than any other specifications. The four-factor model had a chi-square of 117.35 with df = 38. The second-order four-factor model had the second best fit (χ2 = 143.03, df = 40), but the chi-square difference from that of the four-factor model was significant (∆χ2 = 25.68, df = 2, p < .01). The chi-square values for the 6 three-factor models ranged from 341.71 to 489.35 with df = 41; the one-factor model had the worst fit (χ2 = 1006.86, df = 44). Thus, we conclude that the four-factor model fits the data best. Table 2 contains the correlations among the model constructs, construct means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates. As measures of internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .65 to .88, and the average variance extracted estimates (AVE) ranged from .44 to .70. Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the square of the correlation (phi-square) between two constructs and their average AVE. Evidence supporting the constructs’ discriminant validity is present when phi-square is less than the average AVE (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The criterion has been considered the most stringent test of discriminant validity and was met for all possible pairs of constructs. These results indicate an acceptable fit for the measurement model.



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Table 3 Regression Results (Standardized Coefficients) Independent Variable Age POS OCI Meaning Competency Choice Impact Meaning × choice Meaning × impact Competency × choice × impact Meaning × competency × choice R2

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

24*** .43*** .16***

.15*** .31*** .10*** .38*** –.01 .08** .07*

.15*** .31*** .10*** .35*** –.01 .13*** .08* –.06* –.11***

.15*** .32*** .10*** .35*** .04 .07* .11*** –.07* –.10*** –.13*** .07* .52

.32

.48

.50

Note: N = 489. POS = perceived organizational support; OCI = organizational climate for innovation. *p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01.

Hypothesis Testing Given the satisfactory results for the measurement items, we computed a summated scale for each construct and tested the hypotheses via estimating a series of hierarchical regression models with job satisfaction as the dependent variable. Model 1 included the control variables only, that is, demographics (age, education, income, employment status [full-time or part-time], supervisory status, and firm size), perceived organizational support, innovative personality scale, and organizational climate for innovation. Only age, perceived organizational support, and organizational climate for innovation were statistically significant. Therefore, we included only these three variables in the subsequent models. Model 2 included the four empowerment dimensions (meaning, competence, choice, and impact) in addition to the three control variables. We then added two-way and three-way interaction terms to the model to form Models 3 and 4, respectively. The cross-product interaction terms were created after the empowerment dimension variables were mean centered. In Table 3, we report the results that include the significant interaction terms. Model 1 shows that age, perceived organizational support, and organizational climate for innovation all have a positive association with job satisfaction. The model explains 32% of the variance in job satisfaction. The next


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Figure 1 Plot of Competence and Impact Versus Choice Low Competence 0.3 Job Satisfaction

0.2 0.1 Low Impact High Impact

0 –0.1 –0.2 –0.3 Choice Panel A High Competence 0.3

Job Satisfaction

0.2 0.1 Low Impact High Impact

0 –0.1 –0.2 –0.3 Choice Panel B

model (Model 2) shows that three of the four empowerment dimensions are significantly and positively related to job satisfaction, but competence is not a significant predictor of job satisfaction. Overall, the results are consistent with the extant empirical findings and lend a general support to the notion that psychological empowerment contributes to positive work outcomes such as job satisfaction. Model 3 contains two significant two-way interaction terms: meaning by choice and meaning by impact. The final model, Model 4, consists of the 2



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Figure 2 Plot of Choice and Competence Versus Impact Low Choice 0.3 Job Satisfaction

0.2 0.1 0 –0.1 –0.2 –0.3 Impact Panel A

Low Competence High Competence

High Choice 0.3 Job Satisfaction

0.2 0.1 0 –0.1 –0.2 –0.3 Impact Panel B


two-way and 2 three-way interaction terms in addition to the main effect terms of the four dimensions and the control variables. The changes in the F statistic were all significant at the .01 level as additional terms were added from Model 1 to Model 4. Compared to the main effect model (Model 2), Model 4 explains 4% more variance in job satisfaction. Based on Cohen (1988), we calculated the effect size for interaction to be .08.


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Figure 3 Plot of Choice and Competence Versus Meaning Low Choice 0.6 Job Satisfaction

0.4 0.2 0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 –0.8 Meaning Panel A


High Choice

Job Satisfaction

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 −0.1 −0.2 −0.3 Meaning Panel B


Because Cohen suggests that interaction effect sizes are considered small at .02, medium at .15, and large at .35, the interaction effect size in this study is between small and medium. To facilitate interpretation, we plotted the regression slopes in Figures 1 to 3 based on coefficient estimates from Model 4. The high and low levels of the explanatory variables were set at one standard deviation above and below the mean (Cohen & Cohen, 1983).



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Hypothesis 1 proposes that the choice–satisfaction relationship is null when competence and impact are both high or both low but is positive when one is high and the other is low. Panel A of Figure 1 shows that when competence level is low, choice is positively related to job satisfaction only when impact is high. When impact is low, the choice–satisfaction relationship is slightly negative. That is, when employees have low perceived competence, a high level of choice (perceived as a job demand that leads to role stress) should be accompanied by a high level of impact (as a reward to compensate for the job demand) to generate a high level of job satisfaction. When impact is low, high autonomy will generate greater role stress and lead to lower job satisfaction. Panel B of Figure 1 shows that at a high competence level, the choice–satisfaction relationship is positive only when impact is low and is slightly negative when the impact is high. That is, when employees perceive themselves as highly competent, choice is more important when impact on larger scope is low. When perceived impact is high, a high level of choice becomes an enabling condition that is expected and has little effect on satisfaction. Although Panels A and B show slightly negative relationship under conditions of high competence and high impact and under low competence and low impact, the slopes are rather flat, and therefore support for Hypothesis 1 is evident. Hypothesis 2 posits that the impact–satisfaction relationship depends on the levels of competence and choice, such that the relationship is null when competence and choice are both high or low and is positive when one is low and the other is high. Panel A of Figure 2 suggests that at low choice level, the impact–satisfaction relationship is positive only when competence is high. When competence is low, impact has almost no relationship with satisfaction. Panel B of Figure 2 shows that at a high choice level, the impact–satisfaction relationship is positive only when competence is low. When competence is high, impact has almost no relationship with satisfaction. Thus, the results support Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 suggests that the positive meaning–satisfaction relationship is stronger when other dimensions are all high than when some of the dimensions are low. The two panels in Figure 3 show that the meaning– satisfaction relationship is always positive regardless the levels of choice and competence. However, this positive relationship is stronger when choice and competence are both low (Panel A) or both high (Panel B) than when one is high and the other is low. This suggests some support for Hypothesis 3 as far as choice and competence are concerned. It is interesting that the meaning–satisfaction relationship is also stronger when both choice and


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competence are low, possibly because meaning becomes the only bonding element between the job and the person when other dimensions are low.

Discussion Summary and Theoretical Implications This study applies the vitamin model, the person–environment fit model, and the literature on job stress, job demand, and status inconsistency to the research on psychological empowerment and finds support for significant interactive effects. Although research on job design has long noticed the potential interaction between job characteristics and work context (Ferris & Gilmore, 1984) and between the job and the person (Edwards & Cooper, 1990), research on empowerment appears to have only examined linear and additive effects of psychological empowerment on job outcomes (e.g., Spreitzer et al., 1997; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Our theoretical analysis and empirical findings contribute to the literature by demonstrating the complicated relationship among empowerment dimensions and their interactive effects on a critical job outcome. Overall, the data offer substantial support for our three interaction hypotheses, thus improving our understanding of the dynamics of psychological empowerment. In this sense, the research not only offers empirical evidence for Spreitzer’s (1995) argument that the four dimensions combine to form a gestalt to influence employee well-being but also provides a sense what the gestalt looks like. The findings provide a fresh, more sophisticated perspective on empowerment and open new avenues for future research. In support of Hypothesis 1, we find that choice has a weak but negative effect on job satisfaction when both competence and impact are high or low but has a strong positive effect when one of the two dimensions of competence and impact is low and the other is high. Consistent with Hypothesis 2, we find impact has no effect on job satisfaction when choice and competence are both high or low. The effect of impact is positive only when one of the two dimensions is high and the other is low. Also, supporting Hypothesis 3 in general, our data suggest that high levels of choice and competence reinforce the positive effect of meaning on job satisfaction. It is evident that the dimensions may reinforce each other in affecting job outcomes. For instance, in a low competence situation, high perceived impact coupled with high choice is able to generate greater job satisfaction (Figure 1, Panel A). The combination of intrinsic reward (impact) and job demand



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(choice) seems to work nicely. Similarly, in a low choice setting, high competence coupled with high impact has a strong positive effect on job satisfaction (Figure 2, Panel A). In a high choice setting, high competence makes the positive effect of meaning on satisfaction even stronger (Figure 3, Panel B). Such findings may help explain why the literature is inconsistent on the effect of impact and competence on job outcomes (e.g., Carless, 2004; Holdsworth & Cartwright, 2003; Siegall & Gardner, 2000; Spreitzer et al., 1997; Thomas & Tymon, 1994), because the effects of these dimensions are most likely contingent on other empowerment dimensions and/or other job contexts. We also demonstrate that the empowerment dimensions may suppress each other. In a low competence and low impact situation, greater choice leads to less, rather than more, satisfaction (Figure 1, Panel A). Similarly, a combination of high competence and high impact suppresses the effect of choice on satisfaction; greater choice actually leads to slightly lower satisfaction (Figure 1, Panel B). When low choice is combined with low competence, impact has little effect on satisfaction (Figure 2, Panel A), as when high choice is accompanied by high competence (Figure 2, Panel B). The finding that a high level on one dimension can reduce the positive effect of another is alarming. Contrary to the accepted wisdom that psychological empowerment improves employees’ psychological well-being and other job outcomes (Chen & Chen, 2008; Hall, 2008; Spreitzer, 1995), this study echoes research on job stress (Karasek, 1979) and job content (Warr, 1987) and demonstrates that empowerment may sometimes be a source of stress that can even cause lower satisfaction through a complicated interplay among the four empowerment dimensions. Because choice, impact, and competence can be interpreted differently under varying situations, consideration of balance and counterbalance of the stress generators (e.g., choice as a job demand), reward (e.g., impact), and one’s perceived ability to handle the stress (e.g., competence as qualification or overqualification) seems more important than achieving a high level on any or all empowerment dimensions. The varying constellations of the levels of choice, competence, meaning, and impact shed the dimensions in different lights so that they lead to different perceptions of the job in terms of stress, demand, and intrinsic rewards, which will then affect job satisfaction. In sum, although the empowerment dimensions, when looked at separately, may in general have positive main effects on job satisfaction, individual dimensions interact with each other to enhance or reduce the influences of other dimensions on job outcomes. It appears the received view of the positive effect of psychological empowerment is overly simplistic and incomplete. Our research suggests that the distinct dimensions may be viewed as


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motivators, stressors, enablers, a part of the work context, and/or an evaluation of the job–person fit. The way one dimension affects job outcomes is not constant and additive but may be enhanced or suppressed by the levels of other dimensions or the combination of other dimensions. Thus, empowerment theorists must focus on identifying optimal combinations that represent balanced or fit situations in different work contexts, which are essential to employee well-being and other job outcomes.

Managerial Implications We observe that choice has a positive association with job satisfaction when the competence is low but impact is high (Figure 1, Panel A). When the competence and impact are both low, the choice–satisfaction relationship becomes slightly negative. Furthermore, when impact is low but competence is high, the choice–satisfaction relationship is also positive, but when both competence and impact are high the relationship is again slightly negative (Figure 1, Panel B). Managerially, when empowerment intervention efforts are geared toward increasing employees’ perceived choice level, such efforts should also focus on improving the felt competence if the impact of the job is perceived to be low or improving the perception of job impact if the perceived competence is low. When impact and competence are both low or high, it is probably not a good idea to focus on increasing the perceived level of choice, as choice has little effect, or even a negative effect, on satisfaction. Likewise, from Figure 2, when choice is low, empowerment programs should aim for the improvement of both competence and impact to generate greater job satisfaction, and when competence is low improvement in both choice and impact should be the dual means of increasing job satisfaction. When choice and competence are both low or high, intervention programs should not focus on impact, as perceived impact has little effect on job satisfaction. Instead, in these situations, improving the perceived job meaning would be the most helpful in boosting job satisfaction. As shown in Figure 3, the positive association between job meaning and job satisfaction is stronger when competence and choice are both low or both high. Nevertheless, job meaningfulness is the most important dimension among the four empowerment dimensions for job satisfaction, which has a positive effect on satisfaction regardless of other dimensional levels. Job training leading to greater felt competence should accompany increases in job choice or impact. If employees’ felt competence is not improved in low impact situations or if felt impact is not improved in low competence situations, increased perceived choice may create problems



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such as role ambiguity and role stress that they do not feel to have the capability or motivation to handle. This could contribute to negative job outcomes such as lower job satisfaction. The moderating role of competence and impact in the choice–satisfaction relationship should be carefully monitored in practice, as should the role of competence and choice in the impact–satisfaction relationship. In sum, our findings suggest that empowerment programs should focus on reaching optimal levels on the individual dimensions to create a balanced combination that will result in the most positive outcomes. Although all four dimensions of empowerment are important, as Spreitzer et al. (1997) and many others have suggested, it is essential to achieve balanced combinations to create maximal job outcomes. The meaning dimension appears to have a consistently strong positive effect on satisfaction, which is also consistent with much of the extant research. As such, a program that emphasizes a high level of meaning should generally do well in terms of generating employee job satisfaction. However, at an average level of job meaning, a combination of too high levels of choice, competence, and impact may actually work against employee well-being (e.g., job satisfaction).

Limitations and Future Research Directions Our analysis on interactive effects is a significant addition to the existing empowerment literature, where only linear relationships and additive effects are documented. Like all research, however, this study has limitations. First, the use of cross-sectional data precludes any inference of causality. Although it makes theoretical sense to argue that psychological empowerment affects job satisfaction, the reverse could very well be true. Job satisfaction could make the individual feel that his or her job is meaningful and motivate him or her to learn and develop higher levels of skills and thus feel more empowered. As such, longitudinal studies such as that of Laschinger, Finegen, Shamian, and Wilk (2004) are highly encouraged. A second limitation concerns the possible common method variance (CMV) because all constructs were measured with a paper and pencil survey instrument on the same respondent at the same point of time. As it is difficult to identify the specific sources of CMV such as social desirability, positive or negative affectivity, and/or acquiescence, we relied on Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff’s (2003) recommendation to use a single common method factor approach to assess the extent of this problem. We used the latent method factor technique advanced by Williams and Anderson (1994) and compared two structural equation models that included a


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same-source factor in addition to the four predictor constructs (empowerment dimensions) and job satisfaction. The two comparison models were the constrained model with factor loadings of all indicator items on the same-source factor constrained to zero and the unconstrained model with loadings of all items on the same-source factor freely estimated. Although the unconstrained model fit better than the constrained model as indicated by a chi-square difference test, the path coefficient estimates from empowerment dimensions to job satisfaction were almost identical and mirrored those obtained from the regression model. As such, we conclude that CMV might not be a serious problem for our study. Nevertheless, future studies should strive to minimize the CMV by procedural as well as statistical remedies (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Third, because we collected data from multiple organizations, there could be intraorganizational random effects that have not been accounted for in our models. To assess the extent of this problem, we ran random intercept models via Hierarchical Linear Model 2 (HLM2) at Level 2 (organizational level) and found that although the intercept and some of the slopes were significantly different across organizations (χ2 ranged from 13.7 [p > .10, not significant] to 25.7 [p < .01], df = 10), based on the 11 cases that had sufficient data, the intraclass correlations were calculated to be less than .10, which is deemed rather small. The fixed effect coefficients were fairly identical to those obtained from the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) models. We conclude that although there may be some companylevel variances in the data, the majority of the variances are at the individual level. Last, this research focuses on the interaction effects on one job outcome variable, that is, job satisfaction. Future research should examine other workplace outcome variables such as performance, learning, team work, and creativity in relation to these dimensions. Antecedents of psychological empowerment should also be investigated. Simultaneous estimation of models that incorporate a comprehensive set of antecedents and outcomes will allow researchers to gain a fuller understanding of psychological empowerment in the workplace. In addition, situational variables that may potentially moderate the dimensional effects on outcome variables should be identified and investigated. Such research will not only enrich our theoretical understanding of psychological empowerment but also shed important light on managing workplace attitudes and behavior through meaningful empowerment programs and interventions.



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Guangping Wang, PhD, Louisiana State University, is an associate professor of marketing at The Pennsylvania State University. His research focus on personal selling effectiveness, sales management in business markets, customer relationship management, and organizational behavior. Peggy D. Lee, PhD, The George Washington University, is an assistant professor in the Management Division at Pennsylvania State University–Great Valley. Her research interests include supply chain integration and the application of social capital and social network theory to the buyer-supplier relationship.
