Jul 29, 2000 - system), software development (custom application development) and ...... Rapid Application Development (RAD) which became popular in recent years ...... Freelance architect ...... through a mobile phone while driving.
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Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................2 TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................3 LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................9 LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................11 FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................12 ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................................................14 1
ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTALISM AND INFORMATION ..................................16 1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION ...........................................16 1.2 QUESTIONING ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION........................................................22 1.3 THE ARGUMENT OF THIS THESIS .....................................................................................25 1.4 THE MAIN FLOW OF THIS STUDY .....................................................................................26 1.5 SOME NOTES ON THE STUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THIS THESIS..........................28
2
1.5.1
Defintions and the Lack of Them ......................................................................................28
1.5.2
Information and Communication Technology as a Major Delivery Medium ...................29
1.5.3
Modularity and Structure..................................................................................................29
INFORMATION, ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND THE PUBLIC .....................................................................................................................30 2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AS THE OBJECT OF INVESTIGATION................30 2.1.1
Defining Environmental Information................................................................................30
2.1.2
Capta, Data, Information and Knowledge........................................................................32
2.1.3
A Fuzzy Definition ............................................................................................................34
2.1.4
The Core Of Environmental Information: Pressure-State-Response Model.....................35
2.1.5
The Spatial Element ..........................................................................................................36
2.1.6
The Temporal Dimension..................................................................................................37
2.1.7
Interconnected and Holistic..............................................................................................38
2.1.8
Science-Based Data Capture and Analysis.......................................................................38
2.1.9
Uncertainty and Accuracy ................................................................................................39
2.1.10 Size and Quantity Matters.................................................................................................39 2.1.11 Summary ...........................................................................................................................39 2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS.................................................................40 2.2.1
Formal and Semi-Formal Definitions for Environmental Information Systems ...............40
2.2.2
What is an Environmental Information System ?..............................................................41
2.2.2.1 Environmental Information Systems and UNEP/Earthwatch ..................................................... 42 2.2.2.2 Environmental Information Systems and the World Bank.......................................................... 44 2.2.2.3 National Environmental Information Systems............................................................................ 45 2.2.2.4 Sub-national Environmental Information Systems ..................................................................... 45 2.2.2.5 Management Tool for Regional Projects .................................................................................... 46 2.2.2.6 Municipal/Metropolitan Environmental Information Systems ................................................... 47 2.2.2.7 An Answer to ISO 14000 ........................................................................................................... 47 2.2.2.8 Environmental Information Systems and Industry...................................................................... 49
2.2.3
Typology of Environmental Information Systems .............................................................49
2.2.4
Operational and Organisational Aspects of Environmental Information.........................51
2.2.4.1 Public Sector Environment ......................................................................................................... 51 2.2.4.2 Lack of Money - the Cost of Environmental Information Systems ............................................ 51 2.2.4.3 Lack of Expertise........................................................................................................................ 52 2.2.4.4 Scale, Jurisdiction and Environmental Information.................................................................... 52 2.2.4.5 Information Sharing.................................................................................................................... 53 2.2.4.6 Managing information ................................................................................................................ 53 2.2.4.7 GIS Related Issues...................................................................................................................... 54 2.2.4.8 Information and Information Technology “Fetishism”............................................................... 55
2.3 PUBLIC ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION ..............................................56 2.4 ZOOMING IN ON PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ..................59 2.5 DELIVERING ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION TO THE PUBLIC.............................61 2.5.1
Public Environmental Information Systems and the Digital Divide .................................62
2.5.2
Environmentalism in the Information Age ........................................................................65
2.5.3
Modes of Communication and Information and Communication Technology .................66
2.6 SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................68 3
UNDERSTANDING REQUIREMENTS AND NEEDS FROM PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS .................................................................70 3.1 HOW TO INVESTIGATE PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS? ....70 3.1.1
Software Engineering and Information Systems Studies ..................................................72
3.1.2
System Design Modi Operandi and Geographical and Environmental Information Systems..............................................................................................................................76
3.1.3
The Adequacy of System Analysis Modi Operandi ForTthis Thesis .................................76
3.1.4
Alternative Modi Operandi to Public Environmental Information Systems Investigation ....................................................................................................................................... 78
3.2 TAKING A STEP BACK: TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY ....................................................82 3.2.1
Technology and Society ....................................................................................................83
3.2.2
Implications to Information System Design ......................................................................85
3.2.3
Choosing a Framework for Public Environmental Information Systems Design .............86
3.3 SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED ...............................................................88 3.3.1
Soft Systems Methodology Process - Mode 1 and 2..........................................................88
3.3.2
Soft Systems Methodology Techniques and Methods........................................................93
3.3.2.1
Rich Picture ........................................................................................................................... 93
3.3.2.2
Root Definitions..................................................................................................................... 94
3.3.2.3
Conceptual Models ................................................................................................................ 95
3.3.2.4
Comparison............................................................................................................................ 95
3.3.3
The Essence of Soft Systems Methodology........................................................................96
3.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY STUDY OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS DESIGN .................................................96 3.5 LONDON ENVIRONMENT ONLINE (LEO) SURVEY ........................................................98 3.5.1
Introduction and Background ...........................................................................................98
3.5.2
User Requirement Studies and Web based Surveys ..........................................................99
3.5.3
LEO Website and the Questionnaire.............................................................................. 100
3.6 UCL BROWNFIELD RESEARCH NETWORK ...................................................................102 3.6.1
Introduction and Background .........................................................................................102
3.6.2
Data Collection...............................................................................................................104
3.6.2.1 Textual Data Collection and Multimedia.................................................................................. 105
3.6.3
Recruitment: Composition of the Group.........................................................................106
3.6.4
Recruitment Methodology...............................................................................................106
3.6.5
The Workshop: Organisation and Running ...................................................................107
3.6.6
Context: Public Participation GIS..................................................................................108
3.7 COMPARATIVE STUDY ......................................................................................................111 3.8 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................113 4
THE SCOPE OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS .................114 4.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................114 4.2 LONDON ENVIRONMENT ONLINE SURVEY .................................................................115 4.2.1
Overview .........................................................................................................................115
4.2.2
Web-Server Analysis .......................................................................................................115
4.2.3
Survey Results.................................................................................................................116
4.2.3.1
Demography – Who Answered the Questionnaire? ............................................................. 116
4.2.3.1.1
Gender and Age .............................................................................................................. 116
4.2.3.1.2
Occupation ...................................................................................................................... 117
4.2.3.1.3
Geographical Distribution............................................................................................... 118
4.2.3.2
Environmental Issues ........................................................................................................... 118
4.2.3.3
Types of Interactions ........................................................................................................... 122
4.2.3.4
Sources of Environmental Information ................................................................................ 123
4.2.3.5
Access to the Internet and Patterns of Access...................................................................... 124
4.2.3.6
Text Answers ....................................................................................................................... 126
4.2.4
4.2.3.6.1
Reasons for Interest in Environmental Issues ................................................................. 126
4.2.3.6.2
Uses of Environmental Information ................................................................................ 128
4.2.3.6.3
Perceptions of Internet-Based Environmental Information System ................................ 129
Discussion.......................................................................................................................130
4.2.4.1
The Survey Population......................................................................................................... 131
4.2.4.1.1
Access to the Internet and Literacy in Using it. .............................................................. 131
4.2.4.1.2
Interest and Awareness of Environmental Issues ............................................................ 131
4.2.4.2
What are the Information Needs? ........................................................................................ 132
4.2.4.3
What are the Current Sources of Environmental Information? ............................................ 133
4.2.4.4
Why is Environmental Information Needed?....................................................................... 134
4.2.4.5
Using the Internet as a Delivery Medium ............................................................................ 135
4.2.5
Summary .........................................................................................................................135
4.3 UCL BROWNFIELD RESEARCH NETWORK WORKSHOP ............................................136 4.3.1
Overview .........................................................................................................................136
4.3.2
“Experiencing” GIS .......................................................................................................137
4.3.2.1
Local Knowledge as interpretive filter................................................................................. 140
4.3.2.2
Information that Participants Would Like to See ................................................................. 142
4.3.2.3
Difficulties with Software - Complexity.............................................................................. 143
4.3.2.4
Skills Needed to Operate the Computer and the GIS ........................................................... 145
4.3.2.5
Internet Access - Cost, Boundary, Skills.............................................................................. 147
4.3.2.6
Ownership and Cost of the Information and the System...................................................... 148
4.3.2.7
Accuracy and Currency........................................................................................................ 150
4.3.2.8
Interaction with GIS............................................................................................................. 150
4.3.2.9
Information Integration........................................................................................................ 152
4.3.2.10
Understanding and Interpreting Information........................................................................ 153
4.3.2.11
Future Developments ........................................................................................................... 155
4.3.3
Discussion.......................................................................................................................156
4.3.3.1
Local Knowledge................................................................................................................. 156
4.3.3.2
Information - Accurate and Accessible................................................................................ 158
4.3.3.3
Interactive Mapping and Exloratory GIS ............................................................................. 160
4.3.3.4
Skills .................................................................................................................................... 162
4.3.3.5
Exclusion ............................................................................................................................. 163
4.3.4
Summary .........................................................................................................................163
4.4 COMBINING THE EMPIRICAL STUDIES..........................................................................164 5
CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM .....................................................................................................................................166 5.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................166 5.2 UNDERSTANDING PEIS......................................................................................................166 5.2.1
The Context of Environmental Information (Picture 1) ..................................................168
5.2.2
Environmental Information Systems (Picture 2).............................................................170
5.2.3
Public Access to Environmental Information (Picture 3) ...............................................172
5.2.4
Web-based PEIS (Picture 4) ...........................................................................................174
5.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL MODELS ...........................................................................175 5.3.1
The Aarhus Model...........................................................................................................176
5.3.2
Special Interest Groups (NGOs) Model..........................................................................178
5.3.3
Media Model...................................................................................................................180
5.3.4
Professional / Environmental Authority Model ..............................................................182
5.3.5
Interested Citizen (NIMBY) Model .................................................................................183
5.3.6
Interested Citizen (Active) Model ...................................................................................184
5.3.7
Interested Citizen (General Interest) Model ...................................................................186
5.3.8
Other Possible Models....................................................................................................187
5.4 IS THERE A UNIVERSAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL? ........................................................188 5.5 DEVELOPING CRITERIA FOR COMAPRISON.................................................................189 5.6 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................190 6
EVALUATING THE STATE OF THE ART IN PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................191 6.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................192 6.2 THE UK AIR QUALITY INFORMATION ARCHIVE.........................................................203 6.2.1
Comparison With the Models..........................................................................................195
6.2.2
Criteria Evaluation .........................................................................................................196
6.3 FRIENDS OF THE EARTH FACTORY WATCH ................................................................197 6.3.1
Comparison With the Models..........................................................................................199
6.3.2
Criteria Evaluation .........................................................................................................201
6.4 THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?“ ...........................202 6.4.1
Comparison With the Models..........................................................................................206
6.4.2
Criteria Evaluation .........................................................................................................208
6.5 CATALYTIC DATA “HOMECHECK.CO.UK”...................................................................209 6.5.1
Comparison With the Models..........................................................................................211
6.5.2
Criteria Evaluation .........................................................................................................212
6.6 IDENTIFYING THE GAP......................................................................................................214 6.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................217 7
IMPROVING PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS A PROPOSAL............................................................................................................................218 7.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................218 7.2 PEIS WISH LIST ....................................................................................................................218 7.3 DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL GROUNDING FOR PEIS.............................................221 7.3.1
The Need for a Theoretical Grounding...........................................................................221
7.3.2
Is a Democratic Information System Possible? ..............................................................222
7.3.3
Systems That Are Built To Be Hacked ............................................................................223
7.4 THE THINGS WE CANNOT CHANGE … ..........................................................................226 7.5 … AND THOSE WE CAN .....................................................................................................227 7.5.1
Systems’ Functionality....................................................................................................228
7.5.2
Presentation Of Environmental Information ..................................................................230
7.5.3
Content............................................................................................................................231
7.5.4
Content / Presentation ....................................................................................................232
7.5.5
Other IssuesIn PEIS Design............................................................................................235
7.6 THE ROLE OF PEIS IN DELIBERATION ...........................................................................236 7.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................237
8
7.7.1
Aims Of Ideal PEIS .........................................................................................................237
7.7.2
Technical Aspects In PEIS Design..................................................................................238
7.7.3
Required Functionality ...................................................................................................238
7.7.4
Presentation, Content and Content/Presentation ...........................................................238
7.7.5
Organisational Aspects of Implementation.....................................................................239
CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................240 8.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH AND ITS FINDINGS....................................................240 8.2 THESIS CONTEXT ................................................................................................................242 8.3 METHODOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS...............................................................................245 8.4 CONCEPTUAL CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................246 8.5 FUTURE RESEARCH............................................................................................................247 8.6 THIS THESIS IN A WIDER CONTEXT (AND FINALLY …) ............................................248
BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................................................................................250 ANNEX I: LEO SURVEY .................................................................................................................262 ANNEX II: COLOUR PLATES .......................................................................................................267
List of Figures1 FIGURE 1.1 - RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ASSERTIONS .................................................................................23 FIGURE 2.1 - INFORMATION TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................33 FIGURE 2.2 - OECD PRESSURE-STATE-RESPONSE FRAMEWORK .............................................................35 FIGURE 2.3 - TIME LINE OF UNEP EIS....................................................................................................42 FIGURE 2.4 - GREAT LAKES EIS AREA ....................................................................................................46 FIGURE 2.5 - BERLIN UIS: MAIN COMPONENTS .......................................................................................48 FIGURE 2.6 - CONTINUUM OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS PRODUCTS ...........................................................50 FIGURE 2.7 - INTERNET USER GROWTH 1995-2005 .................................................................................64 FIGURE 3.1 - MULTIVIEW METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................................79 FIGURE 3.2 - TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY: MAIN THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS .....................................84 FIGURE 3.3 - THE SSM MODE 1 PROCESS ...............................................................................................89 FIGURE 3.4 - SSM ‘MODE 2’: INQUIRING/LEARNING CYCLE ...................................................................91 FIGURE 3.5 - THE PROCESS OF SSM .......................................................................................................92 FIGURE 3.6 – RICH PICTURE ....................................................................................................................94 FIGURE 3.7 - SSM AND THE STRUCTURE OF THIS STUDY .........................................................................98 FIGURE 3.8 - SAMPLE LEO PAGES.........................................................................................................101 FIGURE 3.9 - PPGIS AS PART OF GENERAL PARTICIPATIVE PROCESS .....................................................110 FIGURE 4.1 - AGE GROUPS AND GENDER AMONG LEO SURVEY RESPONDENTS .....................................117 FIGURE 4.2 - GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS .............................................................118 FIGURE 4.3 - PREFERRED UPDATE RATES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ................................................121 FIGURE 4.4 - A SNAPSHOT OF A MAP, AS WAS DISPLAYED DURING THE WORKSHOP ..............................140 FIGURE 4.5 - WANDSWORTH PLANNING WEBSITE .................................................................................144 FIGURE 5.1 - THE FOUR RICH PICTURES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS ......................................................167 FIGURE 5.2 - PICTURE 1 : THE CONTEXT OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (*)..................................168 FIGURE 5.3 - PICTURE 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (*)................................................169 FIGURE 5.4 - PICTURE 3 : PUBLIC ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (*) ...............................172 FIGURE 5.5 - PICTURE 4 : WEB-BASED PEIS (*) ...................................................................................174 FIGURE 5.6 - AARHUS CONCEPTUAL MODEL..........................................................................................178 FIGURE 5.7 - NGOS CONCEPTUAL MODEL .............................................................................................180 FIGURE 5.8 - MEDIA CONCEPTUAL MODEL ............................................................................................181 FIGURE 5.9 - ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY CONCEPTUAL MODEL ........................................................183 FIGURE 5.10 - NIMBY CONCEPTUAL MODEL ........................................................................................184 FIGURE 5.11 - ACTIVE CITIZEN CONCEPTUAL MODEL ............................................................................185 FIGURE 5.12 - GENERAL INTEREST CONCEPTUAL MODEL .....................................................................187
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FIGURE 5.13 - GENERAL PEIS CONCEPTUAL MODEL (*) ......................................................................189 FIGURE 6.1 - THE UK NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INFORMATION ARCHIVE HOME PAGE..........................192 FIGURE 6.2 - AIR POLLUTION FORECAST CHART, THE TWO IMAGES SHOW THE SCROLLED PAGE (*)......193 FIGURE 6.3 - LONDON BRIDGE PLACE INFORMATION PAGE...................................................................194 FIGURE 6.4 - OZONE INFORMATION FOR LONDON BRIDGE PLACE FOR 1999.........................................194 FIGURE 6.5 - FRIENDS OF THE EARTH UK HOME PAGE ..........................................................................197 FIGURE 6.6 - FOE FACTORY WATCH HOME PAGE ...................................................................................198 FIGURE 6.7 - INTERACTIVE MAPPING IN FOE FACTORY WATCH (*) ......................................................199 FIGURE 6.8 - THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY HOME PAGE ........................................................................202 FIGURE 6.9 - WHAT IN YOUR BACKYARD PAGE ON THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY WEBSITE ...................203 FIGURE 6.10 - ENVIRONMENT AGENCY INTERACTIVE MAPPING SITE (*)...............................................204 FIGURE 6.11 - HOMECHECK.CO.UK HOME PAGE ....................................................................................209 FIGURE 6.12 - HOMECHECK REPORT (*). ...............................................................................................210 FIGURE 6.13 - E-MAIL SENT FROM HOMECHECK TO USERS PROPERTY EXPERT ......................................210 FIGURE 7.1 - CONCEPTUAL DIVISION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS ELEMENTS ........................................220 FIGURE 7.2 - LINK BETWEEN THE GEOGRAPHICAL, STRATEGIC AND ARGUMENTATIVE REPRESENTATIONS
.......................................................................................................................228
FIGURE 7.3 - THE EPA HOME PAGE: (A) THE PREVIOUS DESIGN (B) THE DESIGN SINCE MAY 2000......233 FIGURE 7.4 - EPA WEBSITE POINT OF ENTRY FOR AUDIENCE GROUPS ...................................................234
L i s t o f Ta b l e s TABLE 2.1 - ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND EXAMPLES FOR MODES OF COMMUNICATION ...........68 TABLE 3.1 - DATA USED IN THE BROWNFIELD GIS ...............................................................................104 TABLE 4.1 - AGE GROUPS AND GENDER ................................................................................................117 TABLE 4.2 - INTEREST IN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...............................................................................119 TABLE 4.3 - UPDATE RATES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ....................................................................120 TABLE 4.4 - ISSUES THAT ARE MISSING FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................121 TABLE 4.5 - OPINIONS ABOUT THE CONTENT OF LEO ...........................................................................123 TABLE 4.6 - OPINIONS ABOUT THE LEO’S INTERFACE ..........................................................................123 TABLE 4.7 - SOURCES OF INFORMATION ................................................................................................124 TABLE 4.8 - POPULAR COMBINATIONS OF INFORMATION SOURCES .......................................................124 TABLE 4.9 - FREQUENCY OF INTERNET ACCESS.....................................................................................125 TABLE 4.10 - PLACE OF ACCESS TO THE INTERNET................................................................................125 TABLE 4.11 - FIVE MOST POPULAR COMBINATIONS OF INTERNET ACCESS PLACE ..................................125 TABLE 4.12 - “HANDS ON” SESSION GROUPS .........................................................................................137 TABLE 5.1 - CATWOE FOR AARHUS MODEL........................................................................................177 TABLE 5.2 - CATWOE FOR INTEREST GROUP MODEL ...........................................................................179 TABLE 5.3 - CATWOE FOR MEDIA MODEL ...........................................................................................181 TABLE 5.4 - CATWOE FOR PROFESSIONAL / RESEARCHER MODEL ......................................................182 TABLE 5.5 - CATWOE FOR NIMBY MODEL ........................................................................................183 TABLE 5.6 - CATWOE FOR ACTIVE CITIZEN MODEL ............................................................................184 TABLE 5.7 - CATWOE FOR GENERAL INTEREST MODEL.......................................................................186 TABLE 5.8 - CATWOE FOR GENERAL PEIS MODEL .............................................................................188 TABLE 6.1 - COMPARISON OF THE AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS ........................................................................................................................................195
TABLE 6.2 - COMPARISON OF THE AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK SITE WITH CRITERIA ............196 TABLE 6.3 - COMPARISON OF THE FOE FACTORY WATCH SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS ................199 TABLE 6.4 - COMPARISON OF THE FOE FACTORY WATCH WEBSITE WITH CRITERIA .............................201 TABLE 6.5 - COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?” SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS ..................................................................................................................206
TABLE 6.6 - COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?” SITE WITH CRITERIA .......................................................................................................................................208
TABLE 6.7 - COMPARISON OF THE “HOMECHECK.CO.UK” SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS .................211 TABLE 6.8 - COMPARISON OF THE “HOMECHECK” SITE WITH CRITERIA ................................................212 TABLE 6.9 – SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE CASE STUDIES .........................................................................214 TABLE 8.1 - KNOWLEDGE AREAS AND THESIS CHAPTERS ......................................................................243
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