violence (Monahan, 1992), a relationship that has been observed in psychiatric inpatient settings, prisons, and ..... aggression (Verona, Patrick, & Lang, 2002).
Social Anhedonia 1
Published in final form in Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 868-873. Journal article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.06.019
Social Anhedonia and Aggressive Behavior Jennifer R. Fanninga Mitchell E. Bermanb Casey R. Guillotc
a
Clinical Neurosciences Division of the National Center for PTSD/Yale School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry b
Mississippi State University, Department of Psychology
c
The University of Southern Mississippi, Department of Psychology
Keywords: Aggression; Social Anhedonia; Psychosis Proneness; Schizotypy; Schizophrenia
Social Anhedonia 2
Abstract The inability to derive pleasure from social relationships, or social anhedonia, is associated with both psychopathology and impaired social functioning. Much of the research on social anhedonia (SA) has focused on its role in psychosis proneness (or schizotypy), which is the predisposition toward psychosis. Recent research suggests that SA may be related to aggression, but it is unclear whether this association is explained by the overlap between SA and positive aspects of schizotypy, namely perceptual aberrations (PA) and magical ideation (MI). The purpose of this study was to determine if SA uniquely predicts aggression in a nonclinical sample using a multimodal approach to assess aggression. One hundred twenty undergraduates (60 men and 60 women) completed the Chapman psychosis proneness scales and self-report and behavioral measures of aggression. Results suggest that PA and MI were correlated with self-reported history of aggression, but that SA uniquely predicted provoked aggressive behavior observed in the laboratory. SA was also found to predict aggressive behavior over and above the effects of gender, anger and hostility. The results suggest that SA, and possibly low positive affect more broadly, may be associated with an increased risk of aggression in response to provocation.
Social Anhedonia 3
Social Anhedonia and Aggressive Behavior 1. Introduction Robust research supports a modest but replicable relationship between psychosis and violence (Monahan, 1992), a relationship that has been observed in psychiatric inpatient settings, prisons, and the general population (Swanson, Holzer, Ganju, & Jono, 1990; Taylor, et al., 1998). A recent meta-analysis found an overall estimated effect size (d) of .24 to .32 for this relationship, which translates to a 49-68% increase in the odds of violence associated with psychosis (Douglas, Guy, & Hart, 2009). Physical aggression has also been linked to subclinical manifestations of psychosis, such as isolated psychotic experiences (Mojtabai, 2006) and psychosis proneness (Fanning, Berman, Mohn, & McCloskey, 2011). The taxonicity versus dimensionality of schizotypy has been debated (Blanchard, Gangestad, Brown, & Horan, 2000; Haslam, Holland, & Kuppen, 2012; Lenzenweger & Korfine, 1992; Rawlings, Williams, Haslam, & Claridge, 2008); however, schizotypal features and attenuated psychotic experiences are clearly more prevalent in the general population than diagnosable psychotic disorder (van Os, Hanssen, Bijl, & Ravelli, 2000). Symptoms associated with psychotic disorders have been conceptualized as comprising three domains: positive, negative, and disorganized (Ratakonda, Gorman, Yale, & Amador, 1998). Prior research suggests a moderate effect of positive symptoms (i.e., delusions and hallucinations) and a smaller and less consistent effect of negative symptoms (e.g., affective blunting, anhedonia, and avolition) on violence risk (Bjørkly, 2002a, 2002b; Douglas, et al., 2009). Douglas et al. (2009) found a significant effect of negative symptoms on violence (OR = 1.32), but this figure belies considerable variability, as studies have found no relationship (Erkiran et al., 2006; Hodgins, Hiscoke, & Freese, 2003) or a negative relationship (Steinert,
Social Anhedonia 4
Wölfle, & Gebhardt, 2000) between negative symptoms and violence. A recent paper (Fanning et al., 2011) described the relationship between psychosis proneness, represented by perceptual aberrations (PA), magical ideation (MI), and social anhedonia (SA), and aggression, using structural equation modeling. Psychosis proneness (a latent construct) was significantly related to aggression, and this relationship was mediated through perception of threat. The authors also found significant correlations between measures of SA and aggression (including physically aggressive behavior); however, it is possible that SA was associated with aggression via its relations to PA and MI. It is thus unclear whether SA is predictive of aggression independently from the positive aspects of schizotypy (PA and MI). Although social anhedonia is a negative symptom of schizophrenia, it is not limited to the disorder. SA is also considered a risk factor for the development of psychotic disorder. Kwapil (1998) found that 24% of individuals with the highest SA scores (2 sds above the mean) developed a psychotic spectrum disorder at a 10 year follow-up, compared to 1% of participants with normal range SA scores. Diminished interest in people and relationships is also characteristic of disorders including depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), autism, and psychopathy. Among college students, SA is associated with having a restricted number of friends, lower rates of dating, and poorer relationship quality (Mishlove & Chapman, 1985). SA has also been linked to self-reported low positive affect (but not high negative affect) and a greater preference for being alone (Brown, Silvia, Myin-Germeys, & Kwapil, 2007). Although SA has largely been explored in relation to schizophrenia risk, most individuals with elevated SA scores do not go on to develop a psychotic disorder, though they tend to have persistent difficulties in functioning and social relationships (Kwapil, 1998).
Social Anhedonia 5
In this study we sought to investigate the relationship of SA to aggression in a nonclinical sample, including 1) whether the relationship between SA and aggression is accounted for by overlap with measures of positive schizotypy and 2) whether SA uniquely contributes to the prediction of aggression over and above the effects of other theoretically important variables, anger and hostility.
2. Methods 2.1. Participants One hundred fifty-nine volunteers were recruited from undergraduate psychology classes in exchange for course credit for a study on "personality and motor-skills." Prospective participants were screened using a health questionnaire and were excluded if they reported (1) current mood disorder, (2) history of psychotic or bipolar disorder, or (3) current use of psychotropic medication. Thirty-nine participants were excluded because of technical problems or evidence of random responding on questionnaires. The final sample consisted of 60 men and 60 women (mean age = 20.0 years, SD = 3.0). Most participants self-identified as White (51%) or Black (46%), followed by Hispanic (3%) and "other" (less than 1%).
2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Psychosis Proneness Measures The Chapman psychosis proneness (PP) scales were developed for use in a non-clinical population to identify individuals who may be predisposed to develop psychosis. The scales assess subclinical manifestations of symptoms associated with psychosis, including: perceptual aberrations, magical ideation, and social anhedonia. The Perceptual Aberration Scale (PAS;
Social Anhedonia 6
Chapman, Chapman, & Raulin, 1978) is a 35-item true-false scale assessing distorted perceptions (e.g., hallucination-like experiences). Higher scores are associated with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, family history of psychosis, schizotypal symptoms, and psychotic-like experiences at follow-up (Chapman, Chapman, Kwapil, Eckblad, & Zinser, 1994). Alpha for this sample was .76. The Magical Ideation Scale (MIS; Eckblad & Chapman, 1983) is a 30-item truefalse scale assessing illogical or "magical" thinking (e.g., subclinical delusion-like beliefs), including ideas of reference and supernatural beliefs. Both the PAS and MIS reflect subclinical manifestations of positive psychotic symptoms, and scores on the two scales are highly correlated (r = .68 to .70; Chapman, Chapman, & Miller, 1982). High MIS scores predict later psychosis, schizophrenia spectrum disorder diagnosis, and psychotic-like experiences (Chapman, et al., 1994; Gooding, Tallent, & Matts, 2005). Alpha for this sample was .77. The Revised Social Anhedonia Scale (SAS; Mishlove & Chapman, 1985) is a 40-item true-false scale measuring "schizoid indifference to other people, but not social anxiety" (Chapman et al., 1994, p. 172). Individuals with high scores on the SAS have been shown to have poorer social adjustment and more psychotic-like experiences at follow-up (Mishlove & Chapman, 1985). Alpha for this sample was .87.
2.2.2. Self-Report Aggression Measures Aggression is a behavior that is intended to harm another individual against their will (Berkowitz, 1993). Two self-report measures of aggression were used in this study. The Life History of Aggression scale (LHA), Aggression subscale (Coccaro, Berman, & Kavoussi, 1997) was used to assess the frequency and severity of aggression since adolescence. Five items assessed the frequency of various aggressive behaviors from "never happened" (0) to "happened
Social Anhedonia 7
so many times I couldn't give a number" (5). Alpha for this sample was .78. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ; Buss & Perry, 1992) is a 29-item measure of aggressive disposition in which participants rate a series of statements on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from "Extremely unlike me" to "Extremely like me." Alphas for the four factor analytically derived subscales (physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility) ranged from .70 to .82. 2.2.3. Behavioral Aggression The Taylor Reaction-time Task (TRT; Taylor, 1967) is a well-validated laboratorycontrolled task assessing physical aggression. Robust research over several decades supports the task's validity (Anderson & Bushman, 1997; Giancola & Chermack, 1998). During the task the participant exchanges shocks with a fictitious opponent purportedly seated in an adjacent room in the context of a "reaction time competition." Participants are seated at a computer monitor on which the task stimuli are presented. Two electrodes are attached to the first and second fingers of the participant's non-dominant hand. A shock threshold procedure is completed prior to the task to determine the participant's pain threshold. The procedure is repeated via intercom with the bogus opponent to enhance the deception. During the task, the participant and opponent compete in a series of 28 reaction time trials. Prior to each trial, the participant and ostensible opponent select a shock ranging from 0 to 10 or 20 using a keyboard. The participant is informed that on each trial the person with the slower reaction time will receive the shock set by the other person. The 10 shock is equivalent to the shock tolerance threshold, the 9 shock is 95% of the pain threshold, 8 is 90%, and so on down to the 1 shock (50% of threshold). The 0 choice is associated with no shock and is included to provide a non-aggressive response option. The 20 shock is described to participants as a severe shock that is "twice your previously determined
Social Anhedonia 8
pain threshold." This shock is purportedly "extremely painful and may cause minor tissue damage that will heal quickly." Each reaction time trial consists of instructions on the computer screen to "Press and hold down the spacebar," "Wait," and "Release!" Feedback after the trial indicates who won the trial (e.g., "You won!" or "You lost!"). On both win and loss trials information is presented on the computer screen as to what shock level was set by the opponent ("Your opponent set an 8 shock"). On loss trials, the participant is given a 1 second shock of the intensity set by the "opponent." On win trials no shock is administered. Over the course of the task the opponent becomes increasingly provocative by selecting higher shocks and attempts to administer a 20 shock about three-quarters of the way through the task. The participant always wins this trial and therefore does not receive the "extreme" shock. However, he or she is nevertheless aware of the opponent's attempt to administer this "extreme" shock. In previous studies the mean shock and the number of 20 shocks chosen by the participant across trials have served as the index of aggression. For this study we focused on the number of 20 shocks as the use of this shock reflects a clear intent to harm the opponent and is therefore most consistent with the definition of aggression (Berman, McCloskey, Fanning, Schumacher, & Coccaro, 2009).
2.3. Procedure On arrival at the laboratory all participants provided informed consent. Participants completed the questionnaires and TRT in modified counter-balanced order. The study methods and procedure were approved by the university Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects.
Social Anhedonia 9
2.4. Statistical Analysis First, we examined correlations between the PP scales and aggression measures. To examine the unique relations between each PP measure and aggression we computed the residualized correlation between each aggression measure and each PP scale, controlling for the other PP scales. Next, the relationship between SA and aggression was examined in separate regression analyses for self-reported aggression history (LHA, Aggression subscale) and behavioral aggression (TRT number of 20s selected), after controlling for gender. To examine whether SA contributes unique variance to the prediction of aggression, we included the other PP scales as well as BPAQ scores for anger and hostility in the models. All variables were centered. Gender was entered in a first step and all other variables were entered in a second step. Alpha of .05 was used to assess statistical significance.
3. Results Mean scores and standard deviations for study variables are shown in Table 1 for men, women, and overall. Men and women did not differ significantly on the PP measures; however, men reported more extensive personal histories of aggression and more physical aggressiveness in general, consistent with previous research (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). On the TRT, men were more behaviorally aggressive than women, using the severe (20) shock option on average three times over the course of the task compared to women's one. Intercorrelations among aggression measures are shown in Table 2. Correlations between measures of PP and aggression are displayed on the left side of Table 3. As in previous studies PA and MI were highly correlated with each other (r = .66, p < .001) and moderately correlated with SA (r = .29 and .30, ps < .01). The positive schizotypy
Social Anhedonia 10
scales correlated in the moderate range with most self-report aggression measures (.21 to .41) but were not associated with verbal aggression or with behavioral aggression on the TRT. SA correlated with all measures of aggression including behavioral aggression. Partial correlations between the PP and aggression measures (controlling for the other PP scales) can be seen on the right side of Table 3. The PAS maintained a small to moderate correlation (r = .23, p < .05) with self-reported life history of aggression and with self-reported physical aggressiveness (BPAQ) at the level of a trend (r = .17, p < .06). Otherwise, residualizing the PAS and MIS attenuated their correlations with aggression measures, which may be due in part to the high degree of overlap between these two positive schizotypy scales. For the SAS, associations with self-reported life history of aggression, physical aggressiveness, and anger were reduced to non-significance by controlling for the PAS and MIS, but associations with verbal aggression, hostility, and behavioral aggression remained significant. In the multiple regression analysis for Life History of Aggression (LHA), both steps of the model were significant (R2Step1 = .14, F(1, 118) = 19.22, p < 0.001; R2Step2 = .34, F(6, 113) = 9.63, p < 0.001; Table 4). The variables entered in the second step significantly improved the model (R2= 0.20, F(5, 113) = 6.77, p < 0.001) over and above the effects of gender alone. Male gender ( = -0.32, t = -4.02, p = 0.001) and anger ( = 0.37, t = 4.17, p = 0.001) were significant predictors of past aggression. Perceptual aberrations, which had been associated with self-reported aggression in bivariate correlations was associated only at the level of a trend ( = 0.20, t = 1.84, p = 0.069). The model predicting behavioral aggression (TRT 20s) was also significant, (R2Step1 = .05, F(1, 118) = 5.57, p < 0.05; R2Step2 = .15, F(6, 113) = 3.43, p < 0.01). R2 change was significant (R2 = 0.11, F(5, 113) = 2.91, p < 0.05). Gender was significant in the final model ( = -0.20, t = -2.17, p < 0.05), as were anger ( = 0.24, t = 2.40, p < 0.05) and social
Social Anhedonia 11
anhedonia (SAS; = 0.20, t = 2.06, p < 0.05). Although SA was correlated moderately with hostility (r = .43) and also with anger (r = .22), SA predicted aggressive behavior over and above the effects of these two variables.
4. Discussion We found that social anhedonia (SA) was associated with prospectively observed aggressive behavior even when controlling for overlap with positive schizotypy dimensions. Of the three PP scales, SA was the only measure associated with behavioral aggression in both bivariate and partial correlations. SA was associated with self-reported life history of aggression and self-reported physical aggressiveness in bivariate correlations, but not after controlling for positive schizotypy, suggesting that the relationship of SA to life history of aggression may be accounted for by its overlap with positive schizotypy dimensions. One explanation for this pattern of findings may be that the tendency of socially anhedonic individuals to withdraw from social contact results in fewer opportunities to be provoked into aggression, leading SA to appear to be a protective against aggression. However, the results also suggest that, when provoked, individuals high in SA are more likely to respond aggressively. Furthermore, while SA correlated with both anger and hostility in bivariate correlations, the effect of SA over and above these variables in predicting aggression indicates that these constructs do not fully explain the relationship between SA and aggression. Prior research suggests that the increased prevalence of aggression in schizophrenia is related to positive psychotic symptomatology. Our findings that PAS and MIS were associated with self-reported life history of aggression in bivariate correlations are consistent with this literature. However, PAS and MIS were not associated with aggressive responding to
Social Anhedonia 12
provocation. On the contrary, we found that a negative symptom, SA, was associated with aggressive responding to provocation. A different account of the role of schizophrenia symptoms in aggression may be that some negative symptoms enhance aggression while others mitigate aggression. Indeed, prior research has found that poor rapport (a negative symptom) is positively associated with aggression (Arango, Calcedo Barba, González-Salvador, & Calcedo Ordóñez, 1999), while avolition and apathy are negatively associated with aggression (Erkiran, et al., 2006). To date, SA has largely been studied in the context of schizophrenia risk. However, in college students without a psychotic disorder SA may represent a more general expression of interpersonal dysfunction and proneness to psychopathology. State and trait disturbances in social relatedness are characteristic of a range of disorders, including depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, autistic spectrum disorders, schizoid personality disorder, and psychopathy. The relationship between these disorders and aggression ranges from weak or non-existent (e.g., schizoid personality disorder; Berman, Fallon, & Coccaro, 1998) to strong (psychopathy; Salekin, Rogers, & Sewell, 1996), suggesting that the effects of SA on aggression are likely moderated by the presence of other symptoms and features. Another implication of this study is the role it may suggest for low positive affect in provoking aggressive behavior. Negative affect is a well-known antecedent of aggressive behavior (Berkowitz, 1990) and both state and trait negative affect have been linked to aggression (Verona, Patrick, & Lang, 2002). Less clear is how low positive affect may impact aggressive behavior. Some earlier research suggests that positive state affect mitigates aggression (White, 1979; Yoon & Park, 1997), but overall few studies have been conducted in this area. The relationship between low positive affect and aggression may be significant, however, given that
Social Anhedonia 13
positive and negative affect are generally viewed as separate (albeit related) constructs (Egloff, 1998; Schmukle, Egloff, & Burns, 2002) and that low positive affect is associated with a range of psychiatric disorders. Beyond its role in psychopathology, there are a number of reasons why social anhedonia may increase the propensity for aggression even in psychiatrically healthy individuals. Aggression associated with SA may derive from lack of social skill. Physical anhedonia has been linked to lower social skill (role-played) in college students (Haberman, Chapman, Numbers, & McFall, 1979; Numbers & Chapman, 1982), but less is known about SA and social skills in healthy individuals. Lack of motivation to preserve relationships may also contribute. For individuals high in SA, who derive little pleasure from social interactions, the prospect of damaging social relationships may not deter aggressive behavior. Most people experience social rejection as distressing. Research has shown that rejection is associated with increased aggressiveness and self-injurious behavior and decreased prosocial behavior (Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & Stucke, 2001; Twenge et al., 2007), and recent media reports have brought increased attention to the negative effects of bullying. One might expect individuals who do not enjoy close relationships to be immune to such provocation; however, the results of this study suggest perhaps they are not. As such, it may be beneficial for individuals who conduct violence risk assessments (e.g., school staff, hospital, staff and correctional employees) to consider the possible effects of provocation on individuals who may otherwise seem indifferent to social relationships. This study has several limitations worth noting. First, due to the use of a nonclinical sample, caution should be taken in generalizing the findings to clinical disorders. Although suggestive, the relationships highlighted here bear further examination in clinical samples.
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Second, while we speculate that the association of SA and aggression may reflect a broader association between low positive affect and aggression, this question also bears further study. Future studies would benefit from examining the unique effects of distinct negative symptoms on aggression as well as the separate effects of positive and negative affect on aggression. In sum, social anhedonia appears to increase aggressive responding to provocation in young adults. The reasons for this relationship warrant further exploration.
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Haslam, N., Holland, E., & Kuppens, P. (2012). Categories versus dimensions in personality and psychopathology: A quantitative review of taxometric research. Psychological Medicine, A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences, 42(5), 903-920. Hodgins, S., Hiscoke, U. L., & Freese, R. (2003). The Antecedents of Aggressive Behavior Among Men with Schizophrenia: A Prospective Investigation of Patients in Community Treatment. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21(4), 523-546. Kwapil, T. R. (1998). Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophreniaspectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(4), 558-565. Lenzenweger, M. F., & Korfine, L. (1992). Confirming the latent structure and base rate of schizotypy: A taxometric analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 567-571. Mishlove, M., & Chapman, L. J. (1985). Social anhedonia in the prediction of psychosis proneness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94(3), 384-396. Mojtabai, R. (2006). Psychotic-like experiences and interpersonal violence in the general population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(3), 183-190. Monahan, J. (1992). Mental disorder and violent behavior: Perceptions and evidence. American Psychologist, 47(4), 511-521. Monroe, C. M., Van Rybroek, G. J., & Maier, G. J. (1988). Decompressing aggressive inpatients: Breaking the aggression cycle to enhance positive outcome. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 6(4), 543-557. Numbers, J. S. & Chapman, L. J. (1982). Social deficits in hypothetically psychosis-prone college women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(4), 255-260.
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Table 1 Means and standard deviations for study measures
Overall (n = 120)
Men (n = 60)
Women (n = 60)
Difference
M
(SD)
M
(SD)
M
(SD)
ta
P AS
3.75
3.33
4.27
3.23
3.23
3.38
1.71
MIS
7.33
4.39
7.33
4.25
7.33
4.55
0.00
SAS
10.20
6.67
11.32
7.41
9.09
5.69
1.85
LHA Aggression
8.11
4.76
9.88
4.72
6.33
4.14
4.38***
BPAQ Physical
21.20
6.85
23.73
7.07
18.67
5.61
4.35***
BPAQ Verbal
13.32
4.11
13.77
4.33
12.87
3.86
1.20
BPAQ Hostility
16.76
6.15
17.10
5.95
16.42
6.37
0.61
BPAQ Anger
14.52
4.43
14.78
4.71
14.27
4.16
0.64
BPAQ Total
65.80
15.69
69.38
15.39
62.22
15.29
2.56*
TRT Total 20 s
2.07
4.97
3.12
6.46
1.02
2.42
2.36*
* p < .05, *** p < .001; a df = 118; PAS = Perceptual Aberrations Scale, MIS = Magical Ideation Scale, SAS = Revised Social Anhedonia Scale, LHA = Life History of Aggression Scale, Aggression Subscale, BPAQ = Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire, TRT = Taylor ReactionTime Task, Number of extreme (20) shocks selected
Social Anhedonia
Table 2 Bivariate correlations among aggression measures
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. LHA Aggression 2. BPAQ Physical
0.63***
3. BPAQ Verbal
0.33***
0.33***
4. BPAQ Hostility
0.26**
0.27**
0.34***
5. BPAQ Anger
0.43***
0.44***
0.39***
0.48***
6. TRT Total 20 s
0.21*
0.17
0.28**
0.14
0.26**
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001; LHA = Life History of Aggression, BPAQ = Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire, TRT Total 20s = Taylor Reaction-Time Task, Number of extreme (20) shocks selected.
Social Anhedonia
Table 3 Correlations and partial correlations between psychosis proneness scales and aggression measures
PASa Residual
MISa Residual
SASa Residual
P AS
MIS
SAS
P AS
1.00
.66***
.29**
.74***
.00
0.00
MIS
.66***
1.00
.30**
.00
.74***
0.00
SAS
.29***
.30**
1.00
.00
.00
.95***
LHA Aggression
.32***
.21**
.20*
.23*
-.02
.12
BPAQ Physical
.32***
.27**
.22*
.17ƚ
.05
.12
BPAQ Verbal
.10
.10
.24**
.01
.01
.21*
BPAQ Hostility
.36***
.41***
.43***
.09
.17
.31**
BPAQ Anger
.26**
.30**
.22*
.07
.15
.12
BPAQ Total
.38***
.39***
.39***
.13
.14
.27**
TRT Total 20 s
.05
.13
.25**
-.08
.10
.23*
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001, † = p < .06; a Scores are residualized to control for the other psychosis proneness scales; PAS = Perceptual Aberrations Scale, MIS = Magical Ideation Scale, SAS = Revised Social Anhedonia Scale, LHA = Life History of Aggression Scale, Aggression Subscale, BPAQ = Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire, TAP = Taylor Reaction-Time Task, Number of extreme (20) shocks selected
Social Anhedonia
Table 4 Regression of psychosis proneness scales, anger, and hostility onto self-reported and behavioral aggression, controlling for gender
LHA Aggression R2
Step 1
t
.14
Gender Step 2
Total 20 s p
