Publishing Research in China: History, Characteristics, and Challenges
Yun Wu
Lu Wei
College of Media & International Culture Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China e-mail:
[email protected]
College of Media & International Culture Zhejiang University Hangzhou, China e-mail:
[email protected] Corresponding author publishing fund [5], supply chain and logistics [6], publishing education [7], and the industry in general [8]. Against this backdrop, the goal of this paper is to present a structured overview of Chinese publishing research in its full historical depth and thematic breadth. It first introduces a brief history of publishing science in China, and then identifies main characteristics and key areas of research. Finally, the paper discusses the challenges facing publishing researchers in China.
Abstract—Chinese publishing science has its own theoretical origins and unique characteristics. Since 1970s, publishing as a science has grown up rapidly in China. This paper presents a structured overview of Chinese publishing research in its full historical depth and thematic breadth. It first introduces a brief history of publishing science in China, and then identifies the main characteristics and key areas of research. Consistent with the divide in social research, the debate between positivistic and naturalistic paradigms has also characterized the development of global publishing science. The interpretivist paradigm of Chinese publishing research leads to unique research subjects and methods. The subjects, on the one hand, are more focused on meta-theory. Theory building and integration has been the main goal in the past three decades. The methods, on the other hand, have been generally qualitative, including historical, interpretive, and critical analysis. Current key research areas include theoretical construction of publishing science, history of publishing, cultural studies of publishing, publishing economics, digital publishing and copyright. This paper also discusses the challenges facing publishing researchers in China and their possible solutions.
II.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHINESE PUBLISHING RESEARCH
A. The Prescience Phase Here, we use Kuhn’s term to label the primitive stage of Chinese publishing research. This phase covers the historical period from ancient China to 1978 when China’s reform and opening-up policy began. China is well known for its cultural and philosophical classics. Deeply embedded in rich Chinese culture, publishing studies have a long history. Textual Criticism, authored by documentalists Cheng Qianfan and Xu Youfu, summarized four dimensions of traditional Chinese publishing studies: edition, bibliography, emendation and collection. The goal of traditional publishing studies, correspondingly, is to collect, sort, collate, and retrieve historical documents. Modern publishing studies did not emerge until 1930s during the period of the Republic of China (ROC). In 1933, Yang Jialuo used the term ‘publishing science’ for the first time in his edited Publication Yearbook, and proposed the establishment of the science of publishing. He is arguably the first person in the world who formalized the concept of publishing science. There were no monographs entitled ‘publishing science’ in this period. Rather, books were focused on the history of publishing, print, newspapers and journals, as well as practical and theoretical discussions of publishing work. Examples include Origins of Chinese Printing Plate (Sun Yuxiu, 1908, Commercial Press), A Brief History of Newspaper in Shanghai (Yao Gonghe, 1917, Commercial Press), History of Chinese Press (Ge Gongzhen, 1927, Commercial Press), History of Chinese Books (Chen Binhe and Zha Mengji, 1935, Commercial Press), A Brief History of Chinese Publishing (Yang Shouqing, 1946,
Keywords-publishing research, China, academic history, paradigms, characteristics
I. INTRODUCTION The emergence and development of publishing science in China are distinct from most social sciences. Chinese modern social sciences, in general, were imported, transplanted, and borrowed from the West. Typical examples are sociology, psychology, and communication. In contrast, Chinese publishing science has its own theoretical origins and is therefore independent from Western influence, at least in its initial stage. Such academic status leaves more room for the growth of publishing research and attaches unique Chinese characteristics to this discipline. Since 1970s, publishing as a science has grown up rapidly. In addition to a great number of journals, monographs and academic associations, publishing has become an important program in Chinese universities. To date, however, few articles provide a systematic overview of the current state of publishing research in China. Previous studies focused primarily on Chinese publishing industry, such as university presses [1], open access publishing [2], academic journals [3], peer-review practice [4], scholarly
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publishing science has become a pillar of Chinese modern social science. Apart from the mainstream publishing research, scholars from other disciplines began to examine publishing activities and processes from the perspectives of literature, culture and sociology. For instance, some researchers reviewed the publishing thoughts of writers such as Lu Xun and Mao Dun. Some investigated the relationships between publishing organizations and literature writing. These alternative explorations provided publishing research with a good supplement. To summarize, the birth of publishing science in China was a response to the rapid development of publishing industry, and was pushed forward by the government, profession, and academia. Different from other social sciences, however, Chinese publishing science is characterized by its independency from the control of Western academic discourse. The next section of the paper will pin point the unique attributes of Chinese publishing research and survey the central areas in the current research.
Shanghai Yongxiang Press), etc. A few professional journals, such as Chinese Publishing Monthly (1932-1936), were published in this era. Publishing research continued after the birth of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Similar to the ROC era, practical discussions and historical reviews of publishing industry were two of the major focuses. Of particular significance is The Historical Materials of Chinese Modern Publishing series edited by Zhang Jinglu from 1953 to 1959, which was republished by Shanghai Bookstore Press in 2003. This series is one of the most important references to today’s publishing research, especially historical publishing research in China. Additionally, a small number of foreign publishing research works were translated and introduced to Chinese readers by SDX Joint Publishing Company, Commercial Press, and Renmin University of China Press. Some influential translations include The Organization and Management of Book Industry, and A Life for Books from former Soviet Union, and The Invention of Printing in China and It Spread Westward [9] from the United States. Nevertheless, no systematic research that examines the publishing process was written and published by Chinese scholars before 1978. This indicates that Chinese modern publishing research had already germinated but was still in its infancy.
III.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINESE PUBLISHING RESEARCH
A. The Nature of Research Consistent with the divide in social research, the debate between positivistic and naturalistic paradigms has also characterized the development of global publishing science. The focus of the debate is embodied in two major questions: (1) what is the nature of reality (ontology); (2) what is the best way to study the social world (epistemology). In their influential text on the dichotomous paradigms in social research, Burrell and Morgan described some extreme views for each camp [11]. Ontologically, the extremes were specified as whether a ‘true’, objective reality can be found (objectivism), or if these apparent ‘truths’ are just created by individual cognition and social transmission of these ideas (subjectivism). Epistemologically, the debate was whether the knower and known are independent and knowledge about the social world can be proved or disproved (positivism), or the inquirer and the “object” of inquiry interact to influence one another and knowledge is just a subjective point of view about the world (relativism). Correspondingly, methodology, the way of thinking about and studying social reality, was bipolarized into the socalled quantitative and qualitative categories. Globally, publishing research could roughly be divided into two categories: positivism vs. interpretivism. Because of long relativist traditions, the publishing science in China, Japan, and South Korea is more oriented to interpretivism, whereas American publishing research, informed by positivist philosophy, is more toward realism. The interpretivist paradigm of Chinese publishing research leads to unique research subjects and methods. The subject of Chinese publishing research is more focused on meta-theory. Theory building and integration has been the main goal of Chinese publishing research in the past three decades. This is also the most productive field. There have been dozens of books entitled ‘publishing
B. The Normal Science Phase Chinese publishing research entered into its ‘normal science’ stage in late 1970s. Publishing as a science emerged when researchers try to enlarge the central paradigm through intensive ‘puzzle-solving’ motivated by the rising publishing industry. Chinese government explicitly pointed out the importance of publishing research in The Decisions on Improving the Publishing Work issued by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the State Council of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in June, 1983. Pushed by the government, industry, and universities, publishing research quickly became a nationwide fever. Prestigious schools launched publishing science programs. Institute of Chinese Publishing Science was established in Beijing as a leading national research institute. Academic and professional associations of different levels were founded. Scientific journals, such as Publishing Research, Publishing Journal, Chinese Publishing, and Acta Editologica, were created in China. From 1981 to 2003, the number of works on publishing research reached two hundred and fifty four, account for 96.5 percent of all works in this field since 1949 [10]. Many works contributed to the ontology and epistemology of publishing science in China and attempted to build a theoretical framework with Chinese characteristics. As a symbol of academic status, publishing science was listed as a second level discipline under the first level journalism and communication by the Ministry of Education in China. Besides undergraduate majors, schools like Peking University, Wuhan University, and Nanjing University also set up master program and doctoral program in publishing science either under library and information science or under journalism and communication. Albeit young, the
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In Western countries, the word ‘publishing’ is more oriented to making something public. Tong described three perspectives one can use to understand the concept of publishing: technology-oriented, organization-oriented, and economy-oriented [13]. He indicated that the connotation of publishing continuously changes, along with the transition of social circumstances and the development of science and technology. The nature, system, and status of publishing science are central issues in this area as well. Regarding the nature of studies, for example, Wang argued that Chinese redactology 1 and publishing science are essentially communication science with Chinese characteristics, which is deeply embedded in traditional Chinese culture and informed by rich oriental philosophy [14]. Some researchers conducted systematic analyses of the elements of publishing science from an ecological perspective, and discussed the status of publishing science in relation to other social sciences. Kong advanced that the construction of disciplinary system is the primary subject in the development of publishing science [15]. Tian and Huang considered it necessary to seek further understanding of publication, publishing and their unique attributes, in order to probe the attributes of publishing science [16]. There is an ongoing consensus that the essential attributes of publishing are editorial, accumulative, cultural and communicating. All human being’s publishing activities, behaviors, phenomena, thoughts, consciousnesses and culture are the subjects of publishing research. They constitute the broad range of publishing science. Researchers also borrowed theories and perspectives from other social sciences to explore the principles, patterns and processes of publishing. In his Publishing Communications, for instance, Li explicated the fundamental principles of publishing from a communication perspective, and distinguished some logical starting points of publishing research [17]. Likewise, Wu commented on the motivations, limitations and future trends of economic research of publishing [18]. He suggested that the economic perspective of publishing research be broadened, and the research methods of publishing economy be improved. Cang analyzed the social working mechanism of publishing and the correlation between publishing industry and social environments, from a perspective of cultural sociology [19]. 2) History of publishing. History is another popular topic in Chinese publishing research. The publication of A General History of Chinese Publishing in 2008 is widely recognized as a milestone in this field. This series, which has nine volumes, was initiated in 1996. It not only provides a comprehensive introduction of Chinese publishing history, but produces a solid reference to the construction of Chinese publishing science. In addition to this all-inclusive research enterprise, other
science’ or the like published since late 1970s. These works attempted to, at the meta-level, set up the theoretical framework for and discuss some fundamental issues of publishing science, such as the nature, content, method, and goal of publishing research. Within this paradigm, thoughts and ideas are more important than empirical data, and cultural traditions carry more weight than exploratory investigations. The methods used by Chinese publishing researchers have been generally qualitative. Historical, interpretive, and critical analysis are most common methods appeared in Chinese publishing research. Originated from relativist epistemology, these qualitative research methods help Chinese researchers to understand the social context holistically, to interpret meanings of things in the publishing world, and to critique the values associated with themselves and the people they are studying. The meta-level research subject outlined above also contributes to this qualitative approach to publishing research in China. It is important to note, however, that there is a positivist tendency in the current Chinese publishing research. An increasing number of studies begin to shift their focuses from meta-level analysis to meso-level or micro-level research. At meso-level, specific branches of publishing sciences, such as distribution, marketing and technology become popular topics of publishing research. At microlevel, various phenomena and relationships in the publishing world, like author’s and reader’s reception, perception, and evaluation of publications, receive particular attention from Chinese publishing researchers. Correspondingly, quantitative research methods, including survey and content analysis have been adopted by Chinese scholars to describe the reality and produce generalized knowledge. In addition, as new problems continuously arise from the booming publishing industry, applied publishing research becomes a good supplement to theoretical examination. For instance, more and more commercial services, such as Beijing OpenBook, were created to serve to the consulting and marketing needs of retailers, distributors and publishers in Chinese book market. B. Current Key Research Areas A survey of recent publishing research through China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database and Apabi eBook database reveals six core areas of research in the past three years. 1) Theoretical construction of publishing science. As mentioned earlier, a major characteristic of Chinese publishing research is its focus on meta-theory. Such focus not only ruled the initial stage but continues to dominate current publishing research in China. The concept of publishing, for example, is of consistent interest among Chinese researchers. Hu compared the conceptual definition of publishing between China and Western countries, and concluded that the term ‘publishing’ has a different connotation from its Western counterpart due to diverse linguistic environments and historical backgrounds [12]. In China, the term ‘chu ban’ (publishing) has two meanings. One is printing, and the other is distributing after printing.
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In China, ‘Redactology’ infers studies on redaction, thoughts and history of editing, and regular patterns in editing activities. This term was created first by Lin, Sui-fang, a well-known publisher of China. Refer to Lin, S.F. & Weng, Y.Q. 1996. Correspondence on terminizing ‘Redactology’. Editors’ Friend, 16(2), 18-20 [in Chinese]; Jiang, Z.H. Dictionary of Interdisciplinary Studies. Beijing, People’s Press, 1990 [in Chinese].
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markets and monopoly markets. Given the current situation of China and other countries, publishing markets generally fall into two categories: monopolistic competition markets and collusive oligopoly markets. Sun and Cui discussed market supply and demand, prices, and capital management in their analysis of Chinese publishing corporations [31]. Other researchers debated on the issues of industry chain, oligopoly and competition, policies and regulations, structures and systems at the industry level. Current economic studies of Chinese publishing are motivated by and connected to the development of publishing industry. Hot topics like the failure of Bertelsmann in China, the rise of paper price, and the ‘invasion’ of Google and Microsoft into publishing industry all became focuses of applied economic research. This reflects the micro-level research orientation. 5) Digital publishing. Digital publishing is currently one of the hottest research areas in China. Research agenda include the characteristics, business models, and developing strategies of various forms of digital publishing, such as online publishing, mobile phone publishing, and other electronic publishing. In 20072008 Chinese Digital Publishing Industry Annual Report, Hao analyzed the international and domestic environments, current situation, scale, regional layout, problems, trends and countermeasures of Chinese digital publishing industry [32]. Zhao investigated the development of online publishing in China and its social impact from the perspectives of multiple disciplines, such as economics, ethics and politics [33]. Ou pointed out that digital publishing has changed the speed and modes of knowledge and information acquisition [34]. The content, patterns, trade, service and management of digital publishing are all critical research agenda for future publishing science. Sun argued that digital publishing research should shift its focus from content to the media [35]. Geng illustrated the role of portal sites in digital publishing with a case study of Sohu.com [36]. Luo described the publication, utilization and evaluation of science and technology literature on the Internet [37]. When 3G service was licensed by the Chinese government in 2008, cell phone publishing received much scholarly attention. For instance, Hao and colleagues examined the scale of cell phone publishing and predicted some future trends [38]. Wang analyzed the problems in the formation of cell phone publishing industry chain and suggested some possible solutions [39]. He commented on the role of mobile phone in periodical publications [40]. Academic conferences were also organized to facilitate the research of digital publishing. In 2007, “The Conference on Chinese Digital Publishing Industry and Education” was held by the Chinese Redactology Society (a national academic organization in China) and Shanxi Normal University. The second “International Conference on Publishing Industry and Education in the Digital Age” was co-organized by Pace University (USA), Wuhan University, and Publishing Research Center at General Administration of Press and Publication (GAPP) of PRC in 2008. The themes and topics at these conferences reflect some top
scholars scrutinize Chinese publishing history from more specific aspects. For instance, Wang and Meng discussed the origin of Chinese publishing history with the case of the duplication of oracle bone inscriptions [20]. Liu clarified the subject, scope, and chronological classification of publishing history [21]. Zhao Zhijian [22] reviewed the editing and publishing thoughts of ancient Chinese thinkers Sima Qian. Du observed the challenges posed by media morphosis to historical research of publishing [23]. Feng described the history of STM publishing [24]. Bao investigated the history of publishing in Mongolian in Qing dynasty [25]. Some academic journals, such as Publishing Research and Publishing Journal set up regular sections for historical research. There is also a journal exclusively dedicated to publishing history, which is titled The Historical Materials of Publishing. Since republished in 2001, this journal has become a significant outlet for the historical research of Chinese publishing. 3) Cultural studies of publishing. Cultural studies are a traditional focus of Chinese publishing research. Profoundly shaped by traditional Chinese culture, Chinese publishing science has always been centered on cultural issues. Recently, this line of research was focused on cultural values of publishing, cultural thoughts of editing, and cultural studies of periodicals. As one of the ‘Publishing Culture Series’ published by China Books Press, Hao’s Cultural Rationality of Publishing explicated some of the key values hold by Chinese publishers [26]. And he argued that more social responsibility should be advocated in contemporary China’s publishing industry. Zhang illuminated cultural thoughts of editing and explained how Chinese culture shapes editorial practices [27]. He demonstrated that the essence of editing was a cultural selection and production, in which publishing interacts with human civilization. With regard to periodical culture, Li examined the literature journals in the context of contemporary Chinese culture [28]. Xu, using symbolic theory of cultural studies, investigated the historical background, production process, content, and influences of Chinese fashion magazines on daily lives of ‘white collar’ professionals [29]. Compared to early cultural studies of Chinese publishing, current studies are more open to theoretical perspectives and research methodologies. 4) Publishing economics. Publishing economics is a relatively new field in publishing science. Proposed by Chao and Yu in 1980s, publishing economics has been remarkably flourishing in China. Central topics of current economic studies of publishing include but are not limited to basic principles of publishing economy, economy of scale and economy of scope in the publishing industry, publishing market and price, and new profit models. For example, Wu elucidated the dynamics, limitations and future trends of publishing economy in China, with a particular focus on the features, measures, problems and solutions of economy of scale and economy of scope [30]. He claimed that in a specific industry, there might be three markets coexisted: monopolistic competition markets, collusive oligopoly
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agenda in the current digital publishing research in China. 6) Copyright. Copyright research in the field of publishing consists of two components: copyright trade and copyright protection. Recent research in copyright trade focused on the measuring issues, the causes and solutions of the unbalanced copyright trade between China and Western countries, and the shrinking trade deficit and its future implications. As for copyright protection, research agenda focused on the length of copyright protection, fair use and digital copyright, and online copyright protection. Li outlined the history of copyright protection in modern China [41]. In his monograph, Li reviewed modern China’s copyright protection policy and legislation, and made detailed suggestions to improve copyright protection. Wang compared the copyright systems in China and other countries regarding the time-limit on copyright protection, fair use systems and statutory license systems [42]. Wang and Guibault [43] compared online copyright protection between China and Europe. Related to copyright protection, some legal studies were conducted around the publishing industry. Hao, for example, thoroughly surveyed the legal systems of Internet and cell phone publishing in China and other countries and made some suggestions to improve the digital copyright protection in China [44]. Some feasible measures include applying rational and effective content supervision, regulating online publishing activities, making a clear definition of the responsibilities of Internet Services Provider (ISP), and reinforcing international collaboration on digital copyright protection. IV.
B. Methodology Lack of scientific method is another challenge that hinders the generation of original publishing theory in China. Initial publishing research is more oriented to humanities that deal with the emendation of classic literatures based on ancient Chinese philosophy. As publishing research is turning to a modern social science, scientific research method becomes the first barrier Chinese researchers have to overcome. Learning a research method is easy. What is more important is that Chinese researchers should learn how to select a good perspective and approach to solve a specific theoretical or practical problem, according to the social background and environment. Researchers should carefully handle the relationships between subject and object, whole and part, qualitative and quantitative, experience and theory. It is also critical for Chinese publishing researchers not to embrace the positivist methodology at the expense of the interpretivist approach, which is the cultural tradition in China. Rather, these two paradigms should be balanced and supplemented with each other. C. Cross-fertilization As social sciences become increasingly multidisciplinary, the boundaries have been significantly blurred. How to learn and benefit from related social sciences, especially those full-fledged ones, is a challenge as well as an opportunity for publishing researchers. Well-established social sciences such as economics, sociology, and psychology can all be used to inform publishing research. The principles, frameworks and methods from these disciplines can be borrowed to publishing science and to develop new frontier subjects. Publishing economy, for example, is a good marriage between publishing science and economics. The theoretical resources from industrial economics, information economics, and political economy offer particularly rich soil for the growth of publishing economy.
CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE PUBLISHING RESEARCH
As Chinese publishing science grows in its normal science stage, it faces some challenges before reaching a mature state. This final section of the paper will discuss these challenges and their possible solutions. A. Identity Academic identity is the first challenge facing the publishing science in China. Although Chinese publishing research has a distinct focus on meta-theory, there is still a lack of core constructs and theories that distinguish publishing science from other social sciences. Chinese researchers did contribute to the debate of definition and status of publishing science, but they have not yet reached a consensus regarding what publishing science is, what problems to resolve, and how to do it. All these questions are central to the identity of publishing science in China and in the world. Currently, there is a trend in publishing research which is centered on the new issues and problems in the publishing industry. While this orientation is beneficial to the connection between academia and profession, it also makes publishing research more fragmented. To foster a healthier academic ecosystem, isolated “puzzle-solving” must be motivated and directed by theory building. And these core theories and constructs are the very means by which the publishing science forms its identity.
D. Integrating Industry, Education and Research A sustainable development model for the publishing science is a virtuous cycle of publishing industry, education, and research. As an applied social science, publishing research should be driven by the industry and the research findings be applied back to the industrial practices. Professional education in publishing should benefit from and contribute to this working relationship between industry and research. There is still considerable room to improve regarding the collaboration of research, education and industry and this should be of top priority for future Chinese publishing research. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research is supported by a research project sponsored by the National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science in China, grant number 08CXW007. REFERENCES
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