Qualitative Research Methods for Second Language Education

Qualitative Research Methods for Second Language Education

Qualitative Research Methods for Second Language Education: A Coursebook

By

Nugrahenny T. Zacharias

Qualitative Research Methods for Second Language Education: A Coursebook, by Nugrahenny T. Zacharias This book first published 2012 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2012 by Nugrahenny T. Zacharias All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-3505-6, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3505-3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... vii Preface ........................................................................................................ ix Chapter One................................................................................................. 1 What is Research? 1.1 What is research? 1.2 Why do research? 1.3 What are the types of research? Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 19 What is the Component of a Qualitative Research Report? 2.1 Topic of Inquiry (ToI) 2.2 Research Question 2.3 Literature Review 2.4 Methodology 5.5 Limitations of the Study 2.6. Conclusion 2.7 References Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 47 The Research Question 3.1 What is a research question? 3.2 Four Broad Orientations in Research 3.3 Is the research question in a qualitative study different from the one in a quantitative study? 3.4 What are the different kinds of research questions? 3.6 What are the kinds of research questions in a qualitative study? 3.7 How to refine your research questions?

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Table of Contents

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 65 Open-ended Questionnaires 4.1 What is an open-ended questionnaire? 4.2 What are the benefits of an open-ended questionnaire? 4.3 What are the criteria of a good open-ended questionnaire item? 4.3 What do I do after I finish constructing the questionnaire items? 4.4 The final display of the questionnaire: What should I pay attention to? 4.5 “I already got the data. Then, what?”: The procedure for analyzing the data 4.6 “After I have found the themes, what then?” 4.7 “How can I make my coding processes easier?” Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 97 Interviews 5.1 What is an interview? 5.2 What are the different types of interview? 5.3 What are the criteria of a good interview question? 5.4 What are the different types of interview questions? 5.5 What is the structure of an interview? 5.6 How do i capture interview data? 5.7 What do I need to pay attention TO when conducting an interview? 5.8 What kinds of transcription should I choose? 5.9 How can I analyze interview data? 5.10 When should I stop analyzing the data? Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 133 Observation 6.1 What is the purpose of conducting an observation? 6.2 What are the different types of observation? 6.3 What do I need to know to develop organizational categories for observation? 6.4 What can be the focus of classroom observation? 6.4 What do I need to prepare to conduct an observation? 6.5 How do i record my observational data? 6.6 How do I analyze my observational data?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Several people have knowingly and unknowingly contributed to the writing and development of this book. My husband who continuously has “pushed” me to be a btter teacher. My father who has read parts of this book and was so enthusiastic encouraging me to get the book published. My colleague and dear friend, Ibu Rossie Kameo, who proof-read the book, sometimes in a very short time, to get it ready for my Research Methods class. Ibu Victoria Usadya who was willing to use the book in her class and provided me with valuable feedback. Along with some colleagues, she has given me supports through the inevitable ups and down of a project like this one. Above all, I would like to dedicate this book to my students in my Research Methods class. In designing the activities, I have benefited from seeing and witnessing how my students interacted with the book in the classroom. They even have pointed out the parts of the book that needed improvement. I found their suggestions fruitful to make the book even more reader-friendly. All mistakes and errors in this book are entirely mine.

PREFACE

Qualitative Research Methods for Second Language Education: A Coursebook is a ready-made coursebook for both students and teachers in the second language department. The book stems from my desire to make a practical yet complete resource book for learning qualitative research methods. It is meant to provide basic knowledge for those who start learning about research or have zero knowledge on research. The book is a result of one-year try out in the Research Methods class in a pre-service teacher education program at the Faculty of Language and Literature, Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia. Students in the class have described the book as easy reading and helped them to gain preliminary understanding of research. As I personally believe that one learns about research by doing research rather than talking about research, the explanation in this book is accompanied with learning activities. The activities provide practice and can be used as a media for further discussion of a given topic. Based on my experience, they also are very helpful in informing teachers on topics that need further reinforcement. All students from upper-intermediate upwards will be able to work with the activities written in the book. Although it is intended for a pre-service teacher education program, the book can also be used in any second language education programs. It is my belief that explanation and activities in the book will be able to assist teachers everywhere in helping and motivate students in learning as well as gaining preliminary understanding of qualitative research. Nugrahenny T. Zacharias April 16, 2011

CHAPTER ONE WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Activity 1.1 1.

Write three words that you associate with the term ‘research’.

Figure 1: Word association for ‘research’

2.

No 1. 2. 3.

Work in a group of 3-4 students, and compare your list. Identify three similarities & differences you observe between your list and your friends’ lists. Write them in the following table. Similarities

Differences

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Chapter One

3.

As a group can you find a way to classify these words? Make a note of three possible categories. Write your categories in the table below. In the third column ‘Examples of words,’ you need to write examples of words that belong to your category. No 1 gives an example of ‘categories’ and example of words that belong to negative perception.

No 1.

Categories Negative perception

Examples of words Frustrated; down; sad, confused

2. 3. 4.

4.

Answer the following question with regard to your categorization process:

5. a. b. c.

Did you attempt to categorize all your words? If you did, was that attempt successful? If not, why not? What were some of the problems you faced when doing the categorization process? List all the words, if any, that did not belong to your categorization. Why do you think it is hard to categorize them?

Activity 1.2 Now compare your group’s word list with the list of words taken from the University of Hawaii students below: Endless Convincing Findings Unpredictable Publish Never perfect Time consuming

Sometimes painful Experiments Consistent Analysis Statistics Boring Experts (Adapted from Brown & Rodgers, 2002, pp. 27-28)

What is Research?

3

Combine your group’s word association with those of the Hawaiian students. Can you add the words produced by the Hawaiian students to your categories? If not, what other categories can you think of? Activities 1.1 and 1.2 give you general experience of what qualitative research feels like. As you do the two activities, you can see how categorizing data is not a straightforward process. You have to constantly read and reread your data to find suitable categories. From the activities, there are two important points that you need to remember in analyzing qualitative data: First, the category you develop from the data needs to be self-explanatory. This means other people need to be able to understand why you developed particular categories or themes from your data. For example, the words below are the words my students came up with when they were asked to pick three words related to the word ‘research’ (Activity 1): Experiments

Experts

Quantitative

Instruments

Observation

Background of the study Topic

Problems

Research questions Subjects

Literature Reviews Data Collection Interviews

Analysis

Method

Qualitative

Findings Model article Prominent Scholars Resources

When I asked them to develop categories for these words, they came up with the categories written in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 : Examples of fuzzy categorization No 1.

Categories Ideas

2.

In-process research

3.

Findings

Examples of words topic; model article; prominent scholars; subject literature review; data collection; interview; research questions; background of the study; observation; method Resources; analysis; findings

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Chapter One

Although these categories might be clear for the students, they are not selfexplanatory to a general audience or people who might not be involved in the categorization process. This means other people might need to ask the students who came up with these categories to explain why, for example, ‘Resources’ belongs to FINDINGS and ‘subject’ is grouped under IDEAS. Remember, when reporting research, you, the researcher, are not always physically present with the data, so the category developed needs to be understandable to a general audience. Examples of a more self-explanatory categorization can be seen in Table 1.2 . Table 1.2 : Examples of self-explanatory categorization No 1.

Categories Kinds of research

Examples of words quantitative, qualitative

2.

Methods of data collection

observation, interview

3.

Components in a research report

literature review, findings, analysis, background of the study, research questions

Second, when analyzing the data qualitatively, do not attempt to categorize/analyze all the data you gathered. Although you need to read all the data gathered so that your categorization can emerge from it, attempting to categorize all the data is unnecessary, if not impossible. This is because not all the data is directly related to your research question and/or study purpose. So, how do you know which data to use and which ones to leave out? What I most often do is to develop categories that directly answer the research question or address the study purpose in some way. Then, attempt to group your data and leave out the data that do not support or relate to the categorization. Certainly, this process is not a one-time deal but involves a process of trying out different categories and fitting the data into them.

What is Research?

5

Activity 1.3 Complete the short survey in Appendix A at the end of this section.

1.1 What is research? Perhaps, this is one of the most important, yet difficult questions to address. Despite the complexity of the question, understanding ‘what research is’ is vital because, to some extent, it gives preliminary understanding of what is expected from you as a researcher. Despite the importance of defining what research is, not many books define ‘what research is’. This can lead to the assumption that defining “what research is” is not necessary, “problematic,” (McKay, 2006) or even impossible. For that reason, many authors resort to discussing instead the nature of good research or even the elements constituting good research. Below are a few definitions I collected from different sources aiming to explore the definition of research. Research is: (a) … simply gathering the information you need to answer and help you solve the problem (Booth, Colomb, & Williams, 1995, p. 6). (b) … the process of going up alleys to see if they are blind (Marston Bates, 1906-1974). (c) … an exploration of experience of one kind or another sometimes formal and technical, but not necessarily so (Brown & Rodgers, 2002, p. 3). (d) … what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing (Wernher Magnus Maxmillan Von Braun, 1912-1977). (e) …the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data (Mouly, 1978). (f) If you steal from one author, it’s plagiarism; if you steal from many, it’s research (Wilson Mizner, 1976-1933). The above definitions show that the term ‘research’ may take on a range of meanings and can be applied to a variety of contexts. For our purposes, however, I will limit its usage to the use of research in the academic world or, more precisely, in second language teacher education.

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Chapter One

Activity 1.4 Read the definitions of research above and then complete the table below regarding the characteristics of research. Definition (A) has been done for you. No

Nature

(A)

Gathering information

Result Solving the problem

Components • Information • Question • Solution

Role of researcher • Information gatherer • Problem solver

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(F)

From this activity, we can learn a few important concepts related to research. First, people often agree and disagree in their views and understandings of research. Second, the similarities and differences of the way people understand and conceptualize research may turn out to be interesting.

1.2 Why do research? Activity 1.5 Share with your friends: 1. When was the last time you did research? 2. Why did you do the research?

What is Research?

7

There are several reasons why people do research: Gaining Knowledge In daily life most people conduct research to gain knowledge. I remember before I went to Thailand to pursue my MA., I did a lot of research because I had no clue what living in Thailand was like, the kind of food people ate there, and most importantly, to find the living cost. I researched Thailand by putting keywords such as “Thailand,” “living cost,” “transportation,” and “food” in a yahoo search. In addition to searching for information about Thailand through the Internet, I also asked people who had been to Thailand. Also, I chatted with people who were living in Thailand at that time. Through this research, I felt I became more familiar with Thailand. Conducting research to gain knowledge is most often conducted by newcomers or “new members” (Wenger, 1998) who are entering a new context (e.g. workplace, culture, area, etc.). To some extent, the research gives a security blanket and opens a passage to enter that new territory. Finding the Effectiveness of Doing an Activity McKay (2006) asserts that for teachers, research can contribute to more effective teaching not by offering definitive answers to pedagogical dilemmas and questions. Rather, by suggesting new ways of looking at something. As Johnson (1992) notes: The importance of research is not so much that it supplies definitive answers to questions such as “What is the best way to learn a language?” or “which is the most effective method of L2 teaching?” It does not. Rather, research can help us gain a richer understanding of the many interrelated factors involved in learning. It can help us see how the ways we organize learning environments can promote or inhibit growth (p.5).

In other words, the contribution of research to teaching is not by giving a prescriptive formula or recipe for effective teaching that the teacher must follow. But, the process of research will give teachers understanding of the topic being researched and based on that understanding will help teachers in developing their teaching competence. Evaluating Existing Knowledge The most common reason for doing research is to evaluate existing knowledge. This can be in the forms of replicating a study or just following the same methodology but with different participants or in a

8

Chapter One

different context of the study. The purpose of this kind of study is to explore if the same findings will also emerge in a different context. This kind of research is encouraged for beginning researchers. Activity 1.6 Read the following students’ narratives on the last research they did. Try to categorize them according to the purpose of doing research just discussed. If you cannot, is there other possible reason for doing research from student narratives below? 1.

I did research last semester in the Introduction to Language Education class. The purpose of my research is to explore the teaching methods in an English class in SD Negeri 06, Jalan Kartini 26, Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia. I got the data from observing a classroom. I also had a chance to conduct short interviews with the students. I found that the teacher used a deductive method in the English class. First, the teacher gave examples using pictures (about family). Then, the teacher explained the pictures one by one and ask the students to imitate them.

Purpose of research:

2.

I did research just a week ago. It was about how to thicken my lumpy hair. I did it at home. I collected the data using secondary data collection, I google-searched articles related to my problem. As a result of my ‘study,’ my hair did not seem lumpy anymore. It looked naturally thicken.

Purpose of research:

3.

My research was about the influence of culture on education. My research took place in a rural area in Central Java. I also collected secondary data because it was impossible to collect primary data collection in a limited time. I gathered information from many written sources like books, journals, e-books, and articles. My finding shows that culture had big influence on education.

Purpose of research:

What is Research?

4.

9

My last research was about deciding which shampoo that I should use for my hair loss. I collected secondary data by going to supermarkets in Salatiga and read information at the back of shampoo’s bottles. Also, my friend’s experience about dealing her hair loss. Then, I decided to try shampoo A because as my friend’s suggested, it contains nutrition that my hair needs.

Purpose of research:

5.

The last time I did my research was someday before SIASAT (a registration system at the university). I wanted to know the lecturers who are kind and objective, so that I could feel comfortable during my 6th semester. I asked my friends from all “angkatan” (year level). Surprisingly, they gave me different answers. For example, some friends told me that Mr. A was kind, but others said that he was always unfair in scoring and so on. By doing that, I can conclude which lecturers are actually the best for me.

Purpose of research:

1.3 What are the types of research? Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research One of the most common ways to classify research is by categorizing them according to the data (gathered and analyzed). According to the data gathered, research can be classified into two kinds: quantitative and qualitative research. To put it simply, quantitative research deals with numbers whereas qualitative research deals with words. In quantitative study, data is usually analyzed using computer software (e.g. t-test) and presented in numerical forms (by using percentage, for example). Quantitative studies usually start with a (written) hypothesis that needs to be “tested” by conducting the research. In contrast, qualitative studies start with the assumption that the research topic must be understood “holistically” (McKay, 2006, p. 6). This is done by taking into account a variety of factors that might affect the participants.

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Chapter One

Table 1.3 below gives a summary of the differences between qualitative and quantitative drawn from different sources (Bryman, 2001; McKay, 2006). Table 1.3: Qualitative vs. quantitative research No 1.

Purpose

2.

The research question

3.

Participants

4. 5.

Length of study Data display

6. 7.

Language Data analysis

Qualitative To understand a phenomenon or individuals On-going, dynamic (can change) and can be changed Tend to be a small number, even one person. Long-term Participants’ words and stories (narratives). Descriptive Interpretative analysis by categorizing data according to, for example, emerging themes.

Quantitative To generalize, to predict, and to show a causal relationship Static: fixed, decided prior to collecting the data. Large number

Short-term Using numerical figures, percentage and/or table Technical Statistical analysis

Activity 1.7 Read the purpose of research below and decide whether it tends to be qualitative or quantitative. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

To compare students’ writing competence between those using computers and those using paper-and-pencil. To explore students’ understanding of the word ‘culture.’ To explore the effects of using music in teaching writing. To understand the ways students use the mother tongue in writing. To see the effectiveness of peer feedback on the students’ revision process.

What is Research?

11

Primary vs. Secondary Research Brown and Rodgers (2002) explain that primary research is a study based on “original data” (p.10). Original data here mean the researchers collect the data themselves, for example, by using interviews, questionnaires, observations, and students’ journals. Secondary research, by contrast, is research based on secondary data such as books, articles, and information obtained from the Internet. In other words, you are using the data collected by other people. Secondary research is very common in the field of literature or when you are going to write literature review for your primary research. Activity 1.8 Classify the research report titles into primary (P) and/or secondary (S) by putting a check mark (√) into the appropriate column. No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Research report titles Doing second language research. Learners’ constructions of identities and imagined communities. Is there language acquisition after 40? Older learners speak up. Autobiography and learner diversity. The craft of research.

P

S

Appendix C provides a summary of the different types of research. Basic vs. Applied Research For McKay (2006), the purpose of basic research is to “acquire knowledge for the sake of knowledge” (p.4). The main goal of such research is to gain fuller understanding of the world. Examples of basic research are studies that seek to understand the order that second language learners acquire and develop grammatical competence. Applied research, by contrast, aims to find strategies to overcome realworld problems. It deals mainly with human and societal problems. Examples of such research is research that focuses on finding the factors contributing to students’ reluctance in participating in a classroom, the most effective strategies in giving feedback, and the most effective strategies in using group work.

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Chapter One

Activity 1.9 Classify the research purposes below into basic (B) research and/or applied research (A) by putting a check mark (√) into the appropriate column. No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Research report titles To understand students’ conceptualization of the term ‘culture.’ To find out the different ways of giving teacher written feedback. To understand the effect of race on students’ identity construction. To explore English teachers’ understanding of the concept ‘good writing.’ To know the effective ways to improve students’ reading comprehension.

B

A

References Block, D. (2007). Second language identities. London: Continuum. Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (1995). The craft of research. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Braine, G. (2006). A history of research on non-native speaker English teachers. In E. Llurda (Ed.), Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contributors to the profession (pp. 13-24). New York: Springer. Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Brown, J. D., & Rodgers, T. S. (2002). Doing second language research. New York: Oxford University Press. Bryman, A. (2001). Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2004). Language and identity. In A. Duranti & M. A. Malden (Eds.), A Companion to linguistic anthropology (pp. 369-394). Oxford: Blackwell. Buruma, I. (2003). The road to Babel. In S. G. Kellman (Ed.), Swicthing languages: Translingual writers reflect on their craft (pp. 9-24). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Canagarajah, S. (2004). Subversive identities, pedagogical safe houses, and critical learning. In B. Norton & K. Toohey (Eds.), Critical

What is Research?

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pedagogies and language learning (pp. 116-135). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1995). Teachers' professional knowledge landscapes. New York: Teachers College Press. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Clark, J. B. (2007). Discourse encounters through experiences at school: The notion of Italianita meets the construction of La Francite. In M. Mantero (Ed.), Identity and second language learning: Culture, inquiry, and dialogic activity in educational contexts (pp. 93-117). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Cook, V. (1992). Evidence of multicompetence. Language Learning, 42, 557-591. —. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 33, 185-209. —. (2001). Second language learning and language teaching (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. —. (2002). Background to the L2 user In V. Cook (Ed.), Portraits of the L2 user (pp. 1-28). Clevedon, OH: Multilingual Matters. Delanty, G. (2003). Community. London: Routledge. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Ha, P. L. (2008). Teaching English as an international language: Identity, resistance, negotiation. Clevedon, England Multilingual Matters Ltd. Ha, P. L., & Que, P. V. (2006). Vietnamese educational morality and the discursive construction of English language teacher identity. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 1, 136-151. Hall, S. (1996). Introduction: Who needs 'identity'? In S. Hall & P. D. Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural identity (pp. 1-17). London: Sage Publication. Hoffman, E. (1989). Lost in translation: A life in a new language. London: Penguin. Johnson, D. (1992). Approaches to research in second language learning. New York: Longman. Joseph, J. E. (2004). Language and identity: National, ethnic, and religious. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Critical language pedagogy: A postmethod perspective on English language teaching. World Englishes, 22, 539550. Li, X. (2007). Identity puzzles: Am I a course instructor or a nonnative speaker? In M. Mantero (Ed.), Identity and second language learning:

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Culture, inquiry, and dialogic activity in educational contexts (pp. 2344). Charlotte, NC: IAP-Information Age Publishing. Liu, J. (2001). Asian studens' classroom communication patterns in US universities: An emic perspective. London: Ablex Publishing. MacLure, M. (1993). Arguing for your self: Identity as an organising principle in teachers' jobs and lives. British Educational Research Journal, 19, 311-322. Mathews, G. (2000). Global culture/individual identity: Searching for a home in the cultural supermarket. London: Routledge. McKay, S. L. (2006). Researching second language classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. McNamara, T. (1997). What do we mean by social identity? Competing frameworks, competing discourses. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 561-567. Morita, N. (2000). Discourse socialization through oral classroom activities in a TESOL graduate program. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 279310. —. (2004). Negotiating participation and identity in second language academic communities. TESOL Quarterly, 38, 573-603. Mouly, G. J. (1978). Educational research: the art and science of investigation. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Norton, B. (1997). Language, identity, and the ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 409-429. —. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. New York: Longman. Pavlenko, A. (2003). "I never knew I was a bilingual": Reimagining teacher identities in TESOL. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 2, 251-268. Pavlenko, A., & Lantolf, J. (2000). Second language learning as participation and reconstruction of selves. In A. Pavlenko & J. Lantolf (Eds.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 155178). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Richards, K. (2006). Language and professional identity: Aspects of collaborative interaction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Saleh, M. B. H. (1982). Cross-cultural comparison in classroom interaction. In A. Chamberlain & T. Teodoro (Eds.), Studies in classroom interaction (RELC Occasional Papers 20). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Samimy, K., & Brutt-Griffler, J. (1999). To be a native or non-native speaker: Perceptions of 'non-native' students in a graduate TESOL program. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-native educators in English language teaching (pp. 122-144). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Seidlhofer, B. (1999). Double standards: Teacher education in the expanding circle. World Englishes, 18, 233-244. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27, 4-13. Toohey, K. (2000). Young children and language learning: Social relations and classroom practice. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics Annual Conference. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wong, J. (2007). East meets West, or does it really? In A. Besemeres & A. Wierzbicka (Eds.), Translating lives: Living with two languages and cultures (pp. 70-82). Queensland: University of Queensland Press. Young, R. F. (2008). English and Identity in Asia. Asiatic, 2(2), 1-13.

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Appendix 1.1: Survey on students’ understanding of research Dear Students, This questionnaire is about your understanding and knowledge of research. I would be very grateful if you would kindly answer this questionnaire. Feel free to fill in the questionnaire in English or in ‘Bahasa Indonesia’. Once you have finished typing your answers don’t forget to save them. Many thanks. Nugrahenny T Zacharias

1.

How do you understand research?

Research is

2. What is the criteria of good research? A good research has the following criteria. First, Second,

3.

When was the last time you did research? Describe your research with regards to • What was it about?; • Where was it?; • What kinds of data you collected?; and • What was your findings?

4.

What is your attitude toward research?

Personal Particulars Concerning your own background, please fill in the following: 1. Sex: 2. Age: years 3. What year are you: 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 (circle accordingly)

What is Research?

Appendix 1.2: Broad categories of research

(Adapted from Brown, 2001)

17

CHAPTER TWO WHAT IS THE COMPONENT OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT?

Activity 2.1 In groups, try to think of four components that you often found in a qualitative research report.

Due to the complexities of defining what research is, a more common way to discuss research is by listing the components of research. An exploration of qualitative studies in the literature illustrates that research commonly consists of: 1. 2. 3. 4.

(Topics of Inquiry) Research questions Literature review Methodology/Research design, which consists of: a. Context of the study b. Participants c. Instruments of data collection d. Procedure of data collection e. Data analysis

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Chapter Two

5. 6. 7. 8.

(Limitation of the study) Findings Conclusion References

In the paragraphs that follow I will describe each component briefly.

2.1. (Topic of Inquiry (ToI)) Topic of inquiry is mostly implicit in a report of a study. That is the reason I put it in brackets. Even though the topic of inquiry is implicit, identifying a topic of inquiry of your research, or “area of inquiry” as McKay (2006) calls it, helps identify the theoretical framework for your study. A topic of inquiry can often be in the form of “key words” that many academic articles often cite on the first page. Examples of topics of inquiry are the following: Students’ use of mother tongue The use of audio visuals in teaching Teachers’ feedback Group work Pronunciation

Complimenting strategies Teaching materials Students’ silence Teacher positive feedback Nativeness in ELT

From the examples above, it can be seen that ToI can be either general or specific. For example, the ToI ‘teachers’ feedback’ is more general than ‘teacher positive feedback.’ However, you can also choose a more specific ToI such as ‘teacher positive written feedback.’ The different natures of the ToIs can be illustrated in Figure 1. The three concentric circles of the ToIs are drawn in broken lines instead of solid lines to show that the divide between the general and specific ToIs can sometimes be ‘fuzzy’ and not well-defined. In my experience, a specific ToI might serve as a catalyst and save a lot of energy in selecting reading materials that help your study. As vividly illustrated in Figure 1, a general ToI such as ‘teacher feedback’ covers a wider area than a more specific ToI such as ‘teacher positive feedback.’ This wide area also reflects the abundant reading materials that you need to cover. However, this does not mean that choosing a general ToI has no value. Perhaps, for beginning researchers, it will be more helpful to choose a