Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
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Radiocarbon chronology of terminal Pleistocene to middle Holocene human occupation in the Middle Cauca Valley, Colombia s Loaiza b, c, Carlos Lo pez d, Ruth Dickau a, *, Francisco Javier Aceituno b, Nicola Martha Cano d, Leonor Herrera e, Carlos Restrepo f, Anthony J. Ranere c a
Department of Archaeology, University of Exeter, Laver Bldg., North Park Rd., Exeter EX4 4QE, UK Grupo Medioambiente y Sociedad, Laboratorio de Arqueología, Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67 No 53-108, AA 1226 Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia c Department of Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA d rica y Patrimonio Cultural, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Tecnolo gica de Pereira, Pereira, Risaralda, Laboratorio de Ecología Histo Colombia e gico Aerocaf Proyecto de Rescate Arqueolo e, Calle 8 # 5-04, Palestina, Caldas, Colombia f Manzana 47-Casa 14 Villa del Prado, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 6 January 2015
Archaeological research over the past two decades in the Middle Cauca region of central Colombia has documented numerous preceramic sites dating from the terminal Pleistocene to middle Holocene, along with substantial artifactual and archaeobotanical evidence for early plant use and food production. We present a radiocarbon chronology of 26 sites, including dates previously available only in unpublished reports, and 36 new AMS dates from 11 sites. This chronology solidly establishes the preceramic (before 3600 14C BP) human occupation in the Middle Cauca. The earliest date clearly associated with cultural evidence of occupation is 10,619 ± 66 14C BP at the site of Cuba. Four sites show occupation before 10,000 14 C BP, but between 10,000 and 9000 14C BP, this number increases to eleven sites. Thereafter, despite evidence of episodic volcanic activity, there is a relatively constant and continuous sequence of human occupation in the region, although small localized population movements may have occurred. The fertility of periodically renewed andisols likely attracted settlement and continued occupation of the region by people practicing early plant cultivation, based on the archaeobotanical evidence for the early adoption and use of domesticates. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: 14 C dating Preceramic occupations Early Holocene Middle Holocene Volcanism Colombia
1. Introduction The Middle Cauca archaeological region is situated in the Northern Andes of Colombia, extending from the Department of Caldas in the north to the Department of Valle de Cauca in the south, with the Cauca River as its central axis (Fig. 1). Geographically, it is a very heterogeneous region that includes the lowlands of the Cauca River valley, the eastern slopes of the Cordillera
* Corresponding author. Present address: HD Analytical Solutions, Inc., 952 Oxford St. W., London, Ontario N6H 1V3, Canada. E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (R. Dickau),
[email protected] pez), (F.J. Aceituno),
[email protected] (N. Loaiza),
[email protected] (C. Lo
[email protected] (M. Cano),
[email protected] (L. Herrera),
[email protected] (C. Restrepo),
[email protected] (A.J. Ranere). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.12.025 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Occidental, and the western slopes of the Cordillera Central (locally nico). The Calima Valley is also known as the Macizo Volca considered part of the Middle Cauca archaeological region even though it sits on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental. In this paper, we focus on the eastern part of the Middle Cauca, in the piedmont between the Cauca River and the highlands of the Cordillera Central, where recent archaeological investigations have concentrated. Over the past two decades, numerous preceramic sites dating from the terminal Pleistocene to the middle Holocene have been identified through archaeological research in the Middle Cauca ~ o et al., 1997; Rojas and Tabares, region (e.g. INTEGRAL, 1997; Patin 2000; Tabares and Rojas, 2000; Rodríguez, 2002; Cano, 2004, 2008; Tabares, 2004; Cardale de Schrimpff et al., 2005; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007; Restrepo, 2012, 2013a,b). We use the term
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R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
Fig. 1. Map of the Middle Cauca region showing site locations.
preceramic to refer to all cultural periods prior to the appearance of the first ceramics in the Middle Cauca region around 3600 14C BP ~ o, 1996; (Bray, 1989; Bruhns, 1994; Cano, 1995, 2004; Patin INTEGRAL, 1997; Restrepo, 2006, 2012; Jaramillo, 2008; Herrera et al., 2011). Lithic assemblages remained remarkably similar from ca. 10,000e3600 14C BP (hereafter BP; calibrated dates given as cal B.C. or cal A.D.) (INTEGRAL, 1997; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). These preceramic assemblages consist of simple stone tools on flakes, flaked and/or polished stone hoes (azadas), handstones, and milling stone bases. Bifacial projectile points and formal tools are rare (but see Bruhns, 1976; INTEGRAL, 1997; Herrera et al., 2011; pez and Cano, 2012; Restrepo, 2012). The large number of plant Lo
processing tools points to an early focus on plants that is not shared with patterns witnessed in the neighboring Middle Magdalena Plateau (Correal and Van der Hammen, 1977; Valley and the Bogota pez, 2008a,b; Lo pez and Cano, Correal, 1986; Nieuwenhuis, 2002; Lo 2012). The importance of plant resources during the preceramic period has been confirmed through the recovery of archaeobotanical evidence of economic plants, including several domesticates, by 7000 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007, 2015; Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011; Aceituno et al., 2013). The presence of domesticates indicates the early adoption of plant cultivation and horticultural practices in the region, reflecting patterns observed elsewhere in
R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
the humid lowland Neotropics (Piperno and Pearsall, 1998; Piperno, 2011). The Cauca Valley appears to have been an important route of early crop dispersals between Central and South America during the early to middle Holocene (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). This paper presents a radiocarbon chronology of the preceramic period in the Middle Cauca region, from the terminal Pleistocene to the middle Holocene, based on sites excavated between the Cauca River and the Cordillera Central. This chronology forms an essential foundation from which to investigate changes in settlement patterns and subsistence strategies during this critical period, including the potential impacts of volcanism and other environmental factors. As this is the first work that comprehensively integrates early sites located in the Middle Cauca, the analysis presented below is based primarily on the location of sites and radiocarbon dates.
2. Regional setting and environment The Middle Cauca region encompasses the terrain drained by the middle course of the Cauca River from the city of Manizales in the north to the city of Cali in the south, between the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of the Northern Andes. Within this larger region, the majority of preceramic archaeological sites have been found in the piedmont zone extending from the Cauca River floodplain at ~900 m asl (meters above sea level) to the base of the Central Cordillera at ~2100 m asl, within southern Caldas Department, eastern Risaralda Department, and northern Quindío Department (Fig. 1). This area lays in the shadow the highest mountains in the Northern Andes: the snow-covered volcanic peaks of Ruíz, Huila, Tolima, Quindío, and Santa Isabel of the Central Cordillera, which rise over 5000 m asl. The geology of the western slopes of the Central Cordillera is primarily the result of volcanic activity and subsequent erosion over the past four million years. Intense tectonic and volcanic activity during the Paleogene and Neogene melted massive alpine ice sheets, creating enormous mudflows and sedimentation in the Cauca valley (Tilst, 2006), including the large PereiraeArmenia volcanoclastic fan (Guarín et al., 2004; Guarín, 2008). Around 20,000 years ago, volcanic activity changed to principally explosive eruptions that produced large amounts of ash. In at least five to seven mega-events (averaging one every 3000e4000 years), the whole region was covered by volcanic ash falls of more than one meter thick (Tilst, 2006). More recent eruptions during the early and middle Holocene (10,000e3600 BP) continued to deposit thick ash layers in parts of the region (Herd, ndez, 1997; Orozco, 2001; 1982; Thouret et al., 1985, 1995; Me ndez et al., 2002). Because of the amount of volcanic ash Me accumulated in the Middle Cauca over the last 10,000 years, early preceramic deposits are usually deeply buried (~70e160 cm) (Orozco, 2001; Tilst, 2006). Compacted ash created the presentday rounded relief of the foothills, dissected by small rivers and streams eroding through the soft sediments. Surface soils are mainly well-drained, deep andisols that are moderately eroded. They are acidic (pH 5.2e6.1), but fertile, supporting extensive modern cultivation of coffee and other crops (Guhl, 1975; INTEGRAL, 1997; IGAC, 1998). In some regions, the volcanic sediments have weathered to a red clay, which overlies sandstones, clays, marls, and conglomerates from the Neogene mudflows (Acevedo, 1964). Floodplains are a mix of fluvial and colluvial volcanic sediments.
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The region receives 1000e3000 mm of rain annually with two periods of drier weather in JanuaryeFebruary and JulyeAugust. Due to prevailing winds, weather patterns, and topography, the highest rainfall occurs along the piedmont where the most of the archaeological sites are located (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007); between 1200 and 1600 m asl, annual rainfall is 2500e3000 mm (Oster, 1979). Temperatures average 18e24 C with little seasonal variation. The natural vegetation for the region in the absence of human interference would be premontane wet forest in the piedmont and tropical dry (deciduous) forest in the lower elevations along the Cauca River (Holdridge, 1967; Espinal, 1990; IGAC, 1998). The vertical distribution of life zones would have had an impact on resource accessibility, especially during the climatic instability of the PleistoceneeHolocene transition (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Pollen column samples from the premontane sites of El Jazmín, Campoalegre, and Guayabito suggest that during the terminal Pleistocene (>10,000 BP), the climate was cooler and drier than today, based on high frequencies of Podocarpus, Junglans nigra, Quercus, Alnus, and Cyathacea (Jaramillo and Mejía, 2000a, 2000b; Aceituno, 2001). The transition to the early Holocene (10,000e7500 BP) was marked by an increase in pollen taxa indicative of warmer temperatures and higher humidity. By 9000 BP, climatic conditions were relatively similar to the present, although altitudinal vegetation zones were 100e200 m lower (Salomons, 1989:166) indicating slightly cooler conditions. At the super-regional scale, the beginning of the early Holocene was characterized by an increase in temperature and humidity (Melief, 1985, 1989; Marchant et al., 2002). Paleoclimatic evidence from the Parque de los Nevados shows that the start of the middle Holocene (7500e6500 BP) marked a warmer period with higher temperatures than today (Melief, 1985; Salomons, 1989; Thouret et al., 1995). This warmer period, known as the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum, has also been documented in palaeoclimatic records from other parts of the country (Kuhry et al., 1983; Hooghiemstra and van der Hammen, 1993; Thouret et al., 1995; Berrío et al., 2001; Marchant et al., 2001). Around 6200e6000 BP, changes in vegetation biomes indicates that there was a short period of cooling known as the Santa Isabel (Melief, 1985; Salomons, 1989; Thouret et al., 1995), which continued until 5000 BP (Marchant et al., 2001). Between 4000 and 3000 BP, there was a shift to wetter climatic conditions which continued until 1000 BP. Between 1000 and 500 BP there was a drier period in the region (Marchant et al., 2001).
3. Radiocarbon chronology of the Middle Cauca region We describe 26 sites with dated preceramic deposits from the Middle Cauca region (Fig. 1). Many of these sites also have significant ceramic occupations (post 3600 BP), but these occupations are not discussed in this paper. In order to examine the preceramic history, particularly with regards to settlement patterns, landscape interactions, and resource use, we compiled radiocarbon dates from previously published literature, professional consulting reports, and unpublished manuscripts (Table 1). Dates from unknown provenience, or those for which we could not track down the original citation were not included. We also present 36 new AMS dates obtained during our recent excavations in the region (in bold in Table 1). Calibrations are calculated to two sigma using Calib 7.0 (Struiver et al., 2005).
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R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
Table 1 Preceramic radiocarbon dates from the Middle Cauca region. Calibrated date Yrs BC (2s)
d13C
Method Sample type
References
10,757e11,220 9446e9657 9439e9533 8635e9126 7795e7937 8202e8535 4581e5038 7272e7570 9136e9532 10,224e10,492 10,520e11,069 9545e9892 9533e9886 8208e8262 9544e9887 515e645 10,505e11,170 9535e9886
24.0 25.5 25.9 26.1 27.5 N/A N/A 25.0 25.0 ¡26.3 ¡28.8 ¡26.2 ¡26.7 N/A ¡25.9 ¡25.7 N/A 26.7
AMS Cnvtl. AMS Cnvtl. Cnvtl. Cnvtl. Cnvtl. AMS Cnvtl. AMS AMS AMS AMS Cnvtl. AMS AMS Cnvtl. AMS
Herrera et al., 2011 Herrera et al., 2011 Herrera et al., 2011 Herrera et al., 2011 Herrera et al., 2011 INTEGRAL, 1997 INTEGRAL, 1997 Rodríguez, 1997: 94 INTEGRAL, 1997
5825 ± 70 4715 ± 45
6454e6789 5321e5583
N/A 27.4
Cnvtl. AMS
Charcoal charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal/ sediment Charcoal Charcoal
Ua-24495
5625 ± 50
6302e6496
28.5
AMS
Charcoal
16, Strat V 17 (105e110) 18 (112e117)
Beta-95602 AA98946 Ua-24496
7590 ± 60 7528 ± 51 7080 ± 50
8219e8541 8203e8414 7796e8000
25.0 Cnvtl. ¡27.3 AMS 28.3 AMS
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
D1 N/A D1
19 (115e120) 21, Strat VI 21 (125e130)
AA98947 Beta-95061 Ua-24497
8660 ± 55 9020 ± 60 10,120 ± 70
9528e9856 ¡26.9 AMS 9919e10,271 25.0 Cnvtl. 11,396e12,027 26.5 AMS
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
N/A N/A 1 (Pit)
N/A N/A 1
8, Strat III Strat V 7 (55e60)
Beta-95063 Beta-95064 Ua-24498
4180 ± 70 4526e4854 7990 ± 100 8589e9125 8095 ± 55 8777e9248
25.0 25.0 27.5
La Pochola La Pochola
1 1
B2 B1
8 (50e55) 12 (70e75)
AA98943 LTL4221A
5922 ± 51 6743 ± 45
6650e6884 7515e7674
¡25.1 AMS 23.5 AMS
Charcoal Charcoal
La Pochola
1
A4/B4
15 (85e90)
LTL4222A
6903 ± 45
7659e7842
23.8
AMS
Charcoal
La Pochola La Pochola La Pochola La Pochola San Germ an
1 1 1 1 1
B1/B2 A3/B3 B4 B3/B4 1
17 (95e100) 18 (100e105) 20 (110e115) 21 (115e120) 9 (75e80)
LTL5436A LTL4223A AA98952 LTL4224A CSIC1987
10,159e10,269 10,297e10,668 15,384e15,980 16,092e16,549 8790e9089
26.1 26.8 ¡25.0 22.0 25.9
AMS AMS AMS AMS Cnvtl.
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
La Romelia La Chillona UTP Bosque Deportes ~ ita La Montan ~ ita La Montan Nuevo Sol Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba Cuba *Cuba UTP Jardín nico Bota La Mikela La Mikela
2 1 1
B A B1
8 (90e100) 7 (80e90) 20 (95e100)
Beta-325215 Beta-325216 AA98954
8375e8536 9027e9277 4852e5269
25.0 AMS 26.6 AMS ¡26.1 AMS
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
1 2 I Exc-1998 20 18 11 19 20 22 19 17 19 U1-1998 10E 20 10E 10 1
A A D several
13 (70e80) 7 (90e100) (70e80) (45e55) 11 (50e55) 13 (60e65) 15 (70e75) 16 (75e80) 19 (90e95) 20 (95e100) 21 (100e105) 21 (100e105) 28 (135e140) 27e28 (130e140) 28 (135e140) 31 (152) 33 (160e163) (164) 12 (110e120)
Beta- 151344 Beta-325214 Beta-306257 Beta-123078 AA102505 AA102502 AA102501 AA102503 AA102497 AA103316 AA102500 AA102499 AA102504 Beta-121972 AA102496 AA102498 AA102510 AA102508 AA98955
6355e6021 10,251e10,544 9556e9901 4289e5306 7713e7945 6448e6714 7704e7955 6504e6776 7697e7936 8192e8372 6505e6795 7707e7939 6638e6880 10,746e11,320 11,137e11,395 7738e7962 12,424e12,708 7271e7457 10,270e10,649
28.2 25.7 25.6 25.0 ¡26.0 ¡26.6 ¡26.8 ¡25.9 ¡25.7 ¡25.4 ¡25.2 ¡22.7 ¡26.6 25.0 ¡26.4 ¡24.4 ¡29.7 ¡25.6 ¡25.2
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Sediment Charcoal
4 (35e40) 8 (60e65)
AA98936 AA98937
3930e4247 5331e5605
¡26.2 AMS ¡26.8 AMS
Site
Block
El Mirador El Recreo Cancha El Recreo Cancha El Recreo Cancha El Perro Campoalegre Campoalegre Los Arrayanes El Antojo Invías 3 Invías 3 La Selva La Selva La Selva La Selva *La Selva La Selva La Selva
14
Level (depth cm)
Lab code
Monitoreo 117 C-15 (several) C-15 C1-21/C2-21 C-15 Feature D-18 Cut 10 Pit 1 1 1 N/A 1 N/A 1 1 1 1 1 1 LS12 N/A 1 1 1 2 LS11 N/A 1 C1 (floor)
C3 (100e110) (109e147) (150) (171e211) (123e143) N/A N/A (66e77) 17 7 (45e50) 8 (50e55) 7 (55e60) 8 (60e65) 8e9 (60e70) 9 (65e70) 10 (70e75) 10e11 (70e80) 12 (80e85)
AA102509 Beta-285871 Beta-290954 Beta-283582 Beta-317784 Beta-87730 Beta-87729 Beta-104559 Beta-93154 AA98950 AA98951 AA98942 AA98943 Beta-87189 AA98944 AA98945 Beta-87188 Ua-24499
9663 8550 8470 8030 6990 7600 4270 6520 8380 9155 9451 8712 8674 7685 8704 553 9490 8680
*La Selva El Jazmín
LS8 3
N/A B1
13 (80e90) 12 (80e85)
Beta-87508 Ua-24494
El Jazmín
3
A1eB1
14 (90e96)
El Jazmín El Jazmín El Jazmín
N/A 3 3
N/A C1 Floor
El Jazmín El Jazmín El Jazmín
3 N/A 3
Guayabito Guayabito La Pochola
E2 0N1W
Quad.
350-352E
B2
C Date
9047 9312 13,098 13,540 8136
± 83 ± 60 ± 40 ± 80 ± 30 ± 90 ± 70 ± 90 ± 90 ± 57 ± 58 ± 60 ± 61 ± 110 ± 56 ± 37 ± 110 ± 60
± 45 ± 55 ± 75 ± 60 ± 65
7630 ± 40 8200 ± 40 4393 ± 44 7300 9230 8740 4220 7007 5780 7014 5844 6990 7466 5863 7001 5911 9730 9826 7032 10619 6460 9284
± 70 ± 50 ± 50 ± 180 ± 53 ± 49 ± 63 ± 50 ± 57 ± 43 ± 55 ± 53 ± 49 ± 100 ± 63 ± 54 ± 66 ± 51 ± 58
3746 ± 49 4794 ± 45
Cnvtl. Cnvtl. AMS
AMS AMS AMS Cnvtl. AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS Cnvtl. AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
Charcoal Charcoal
INCIVA, 1995e1996
INCIVA,1995e1996 Aceituno y Loaiza, 2007 INCIVA, 1995e1996 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007 INTEGRAL, 1997 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007 INTEGRAL, 1997 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007 INTEGRAL, 1997 INTEGRAL, 1997 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007 Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011 Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011 Aceituno, 2010 Aceituno, 2010 Aceituno, 2010 Aceituno y Loaiza, 2007 Restrepo, 2013a Restrepo, 2013a
CISAN, 2001 Restrepo, 2013a Restrepo, 2013a Cano, 2004
Cano, 2004
R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
47
Table 1 (continued ) Level (depth cm)
Lab code
14
(70e80) 9 (70e80) 14 (90e95) 22 (105e110) (100e110) 29 7 (75e85) 8 (90e100) 3 (45e50) 8 (90e100) 7 (75e85) 10
Beta-145285 AA98938 AA98939 AA98940 AA103318 Beta-181065 LTL4267A LTL4845A AA102607 Beta-325213 Beta-325217 Beta-146612
5850 7208 10,376 2582 3886 4270 9542 9333 5517 10,130 9230 7400
Salento 24
15
Beta-146613
Salento 21
N/A (190e220)
Site
Block
La Mikela La Mikela La Mikela *La Mikela *La Mikela *La Mikela La Trinidad I La Trinidad II El Guatín El Guatín Genova Salento 24
0N1W E 1N1W E2 E 0N2W 1 2 1 1 1
Chaguala
Quad.
B A A
road cut
Calibrated date Yrs BC (2s)
d13C
Method Sample type
References
6508e6783 7943e8164 11,990e12,525 2499e2772 4160e4420 4654e4917 10,699e11,096 10,298e10,708 6213e6407 11,408e12,023 10,261e10,510 8046e8364
25.0 ¡27.2 ¡26.4 ¡26.1 ¡28.6 26.0 22.9 22.9 ¡29.6 25.9 25.7 N/A
Cnvtl. AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS AMS Cnvtl.
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
Cano, 2004
9680 ± 100 10,733e11,245 N/A
Cnvtl.
Charcoal
Beta-146609
8430 ± 100 9135e9552
N/A
Cnvtl.
Charcoal
AA103317
7427 ± 40
¡24.7 AMS
C Date
± 50 ± 58 ± 70 ± 40 ± 39 ± 40 ± 50 ± 65 ± 49 ± 50 ± 40 ± 70
8178e8343
Restrepo, 2013a Restrepo, 2013a Restrepo, 2013a Restrepo, 2013a Rojas and Tabares, 2000 Rojas and Tabares, 2000 Rojas and Tabares, 2000
Charcoal
Notes: Samples in bold are new unpublished dates from the Middle Cauca Archaeology Project. Samples marked with an asterisk (*) are rejected dates (see text). “Cnvtl.” ¼ Conventional date, “AMS” ¼ Accelerated Mass Spectrometry date. Calibrations calculated to 2s using Calib 7.0 (Struiver et al., 2005).
3.1. El Mirador (AP 11) (1575 m asl, >2000 m2) El Mirador is located in the Municipality of Palestina, Department of Caldas, on the northern-most summit in a range of hills River valley. To the north and south, rising above the Chinchina these hills are bordered by tributaries of the Sirena creek. Several stone hoes (azadas) were found during surface collecting. During excavation, an anthrosol was identified 2.5 m below surface, containing charcoal, broken (split) stones, a grinding stone, and unused flakes. A chert projectile point was recovered from the erosional surface of the anthrosol during post-construction survey (Herrera et al., 2009, 2011). An AMS assay on charcoal dates the anthrosol to 9663 ± 83 BP.
remaining anthrosol, excavations uncovered a pit feature filled with charcoal, a sample of which dated to 6990 ± 30 BP. Directly above the pit was a concentration of coarse broken or crushed stone (sandstone and quartz), and a hoe and lithic debitage were recovered nearby (Herrera and Moreno, 2011:10e15). 3.4. Campoalegre (1400 m asl) The site of Campoalegre is located in the municipality of , Department of Caldas, on a mid-level terrace east of the Chinchina Campoalegre River. The preceramic deposits are represented by Strata IV, dated to 4270 ± 70 BP, and Strata IVa, dated to 7600 ± 90 BP. In both layers, the lithic assemblage is composed of handstones, hoes, and flake tools (INTEGRAL, 1997:30e33).
3.2. El Recreo Cancha (AP 39) (1585 m asl, 2500 m2) This site is located on a flattened hilltop in the same range of hills as the El Mirador site, approximately 1 km to the south. Preceramic deposits at the site are represented by a sequence of anthrosols, beginning >1.5 m deep. Horizon Ab6, associated with a date of 8470 ± 40 BP, contained small amounts of lithic material and organic matter. Artifact density increases in Horizon Ab5, associated with a date of 8550 ± 60 BP, and then decreases in Horizon Ab4, dating to 8030 ± 80 BP. The majority of lithics recovered from these levels are split stones, but there are also fragments of tools, debitage, hoes, milling stone bases, cobble handstones, and a fragment of a quartz projectile point (Herrera et al., 2011). Among the macrobotanical remains identified were seeds from a type of bana (Annona sp.), blackberry or mora (Rubus sp.), soursop or guana legume (Fabaceae), avocado (Persea americana), palm (Arecaceae) wood, and a small unidentified tuber or root (Morcote et al., 2010).
3.5. Los Arrayanes (2400 m asl) Los Arrayanes is the highest altitude site discussed in this paper, located in the municipality of Villamaría, Department of Caldas, on a colluvial terrace of the Cordillera Central. Initial occupation of the site is represented by preceramic lithic assemblage recovered 121e189 cm b.s., which is similar to other sites in the region and includes handstones, edge-ground cobbles, anvils, grinding bases, flakes, scrapers, and a fragment of hoe (Rodríguez, 1997:116e119). After a period of abandonment (112e121 cm b.s.), the site was reoccupied, based on material recovered between 112 and 60 cm b.s. A date of 6520 ± 90 BP was obtained from Horizon Ab3 (90e60 cm) associated with the end of this occupation. A third preceramic occupation was identified in the upper levels of the site (Rodríguez, 1997). 3.6. El Antojo (1440 m asl, 1200 m2)
3.3. El Perro (AP 107) (1570 m asl, 15 m2) El Perro is located on a ridge that descends east from El Recreo Cancha site located some 150 m upslope. The ridge has been greatly impacted by recent tectonic activity, along with modern agricultural and construction activities, so that the remnants of an identified anthrosol are limited to a small undisturbed area. The original extent of this anthrosol, buried under 1 m of volcanic ash, may have been much greater, given that the terrace is ~2700 m2. Within the
El Antojo, located on top of a hill on the west side of the Campoalegre River, includes an unprecedented quartz workshop (INTEGRAL, 1997). This site appears to be the source of the few n quartz artifacts found at nearby sites like El Jazmín and San Germa (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Along with significant amounts of quartz debitage, a quartz bifacially-flaked preform was recovered, along with a notched hoe similar to those found at other sites in the region (Tabares, 2004). A date of 8380 ± 90 BP on charcoal was
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obtained from Level 17 (INTEGRAL, 1997), but initial occupation of the site occurred earlier, based on cultural material recovered in levels below this date. Despite the presence of the hoe, this site appears to have primarily been a workshop, rather than a domestic campsite like the majority of other sites. 3.7. Invías 3 (1582 m asl, 650 m2) This site is located on top of a hill on the west side of the Campoalegre River, approximately 300 m west of the site of El Antojo. Much of the original extent of the site has been disturbed by modern construction, but within a small undisturbed area, excavation revealed a stratified preceramic deposit 30e60 cm below surface, containing handstones, two milling stone bases, one hoe, irregular cores, and flakes, including quartz flakes. Two AMS dates from Invías 3 show an intensive early Holocene occupation, between 9451 ± 58 BP (Level 8) and 9155 ± 57 BP (Level 7). 3.8. La Selva (1600 m asl, 10,000 m2) This site is located on a high terrace of colluvial deposits on the eastern slope of the Mil Ochenta ridge, just north of the town of Marsella in the Department of Risaralda, with a broad view of the Cauca River valley (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Excavations recovered buried preceramic levels containing handstones, milling stone bases, hoes, and debitage, primarily of basalt with some andesite. Despite its location near the El Antojo quartz workshop, no quartz artifacts were recovered. Initial dating of the site in 1995 indicated occupation between 9500 and 7700 BP (INCIVA, 1995e1996; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). However, there was evidence of stratigraphic disturbance in the lowest levels, where a date of 5825 ± 70 BP (Level 13) was obtained below dates of 8680 ± 60 BP (Level 12) and 9490 ± 110 BP (Level 10e11). This earlier date was therefore rejected. Level 8e9 dated to 7685 ± 110 BP. We obtained four new AMS dates in 2013 on charcoal. Three of these cluster tightly around 8700 BP (Level 7, 8712 ± 60 BP; Level 8, 8674 ± 61 BP; Level 9, 8704 ± 56 BP) and are generally within the range expected based on stratigraphy. However, a new charcoal sample from Level 10 yielded a very late date of 553 ± 37 BP and again indicates some sort of disturbance or modern intrusion, and is therefore rejected. Despite the apparent stratigraphic disturbance, all dates taken together show that the most intense period of occupation of the site occurred between 8700 and 7700 BP with a likely initial occupation by 9500 BP. Recent starch analysis of tool residues show the use of Dioscorea sp., Phaseolus sp., and cf. Manihot sp. by 8700 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014), supporting Aceituno and Loaiza's (2007) original interpretation of the site as a residential campsite. 3.9. El Jazmín (1650 m asl, 2000 m2) The site is located on a hill just east of the San Eugenio River (INTEGRAL, 1997; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007) approximately 4 km north of the town of Santa Rosa de Cabal, Department of Risaralda. Excavations uncovered a stratified preceramic deposit 70e140 cm below surface, which contained handstones, grinding stone bases, notched hoes, flake tools, and debitage. This deposit dated from 10,120 ± 70 BP to 4715 ± 45 BP, based on six original radiocarbon dates (Rodríguez, 2002; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Two new AMS dates obtained for El Jazmín e 8660 ± 55 BP from Level 19 and 7528 ± 51 BP from Level 17 e fit reasonably well with the original chronology. There may have been some slight mixing within Levels 16e18, but the dates from these levels are all within 500 years of each other. In general, the chronological sequence is consistent with the site stratigraphy. The dates and associated cultural
material indicate several major phases of occupation: initial colonization from 10,120 ± 70 BP to 8660 ± 55 BP, an intensive period of occupation from 7590 ± 60 to 7080 ± 50 BP based on the density of cultural material, and a later phase from 5625 ± 50 to 4715 ± 45 BP. Pollen analysis at the site shows forest disturbance by 7000 BP, and the presence of Zea mays and Xanthosoma sp. between 7000 and 5000 BP. Starch grains from tools confirm the availability of maize by 7000 BP, and show that Manihot sp., Dioscorea sp., and Phaseolus sp. were used even earlier, by 7600 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). 3.10. Guayabito (1623 m asl, 820 m2) This site is situated on a small colluvial terrace overlooking the San Eugenio River, approximately 200 m south of El Jazmín. The preceramic deposits were divided into three Strata: III, IV, and V. Stratum III, dating to 4180 ± 80 BP, shows the most intense occupation of the site, with an artifact assemblage of grinding stones, hoes, and flakes. Pollen of Zea and Manihot were identified in this level (Aceituno, 2002). Stratum V produced a charcoal date of 7990 þ 100 BP but this stratum and stratum VI above it contained no lithic artifacts (INTEGRAL, 1997). 3.11. La Pochola (1677 m asl, 1500 m2) La Pochola is located on a rounded terrace of fluvial-volcanic origin west of the San Eugenio River, 1.4 km southwest of El Jazmín and Guayabito. The original excavations of the site recovered a preceramic lithic assemblage composed of handstones, grinding bases, flaked tools and debitage from levels (18e7) dating between 9312 ± 55 BP and 6743 ± 45 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007; Aceituno, 2010; Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011). A date of 13,540 ± 60 BP was obtained from Level 21, but was not associated with any cultural material and is therefore presumably before initial occupation of the site (Aceituno, 2010). A date from Level 7 of 8095 ± 55 BP was out of stratigraphic sequence; however, it was associated with a pit feature and therefore represents a disturbed context. Two new dates were obtained from La Pochola to supplement the previous five from the original excavation. The first date of 13,098 ± 75 BP (Level 20) is consistent with the previously early date obtained from Level 21 just below, and likewise was not associated with cultural material. The second new date, 5922 ± 51 BP (Level 8), extends the known preceramic occupation of the site and is consistent with late preceramic dates from other sites in the region, such as El Jazmín, La Mikela, and Cuba. The distribution of dates and cultural material suggests that there were at least two major phases of occupation: initial colonization of the site 9312 ± 55 BP to 9047 ± 45 BP, and a second, more intensive occupation (based on artifact density) 8095 ± 55 BP to 5922 ± 51 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). This pattern of settlement is similar to that of nearby El Jazmín (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Starch analysis of preceramic tools at the site shows the presence of Phaseolus sp., Dioscorea sp., and Z. mays by 6700 BP (Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). n (1649 m asl, 800 m2) 3.12. San Germa n is located on a hilltop of fluvial-volcanic The site of San Germa origin west of the San Eugenio River, less than 1 km south of La Pochola. Excavation yielded a localized concentration of artifacts, including grinding tools, debitage, and a few flaked tools, from a 25 cm thick preceramic deposit. A single radiocarbon date of 8136 ± 65 BP on charcoal was obtained from this deposit (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007, 2014).
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3.13. La Romelia (1480 m.s.n.m. 1500 m2) La Romelia is located in the municipality of Dosquebradas, on the slope of a terrace located between two flattened hilltops east of La Chillona Creek. During excavations, the preceramic occupation of the site was identified 50e130 cm below surface, containing lithic material and charcoal. In Horizon Ap (Levels 7e9), a paleosol was detected which yielded a large amount of lithic tools, debitage, and charcoal. Within this paleosol, a charcoal sample from Level 8 (90e100 cm) was dated to 7630 ± 40 BP (Restrepo, 2008, 2013a). 3.14. La Chillona (1550 m asl, 350 m2) La Chillona is located on the northern edge of a terrace of volcanic origin overlooking La Chillona Creek, approximately 500 m east of La Romelia. Excavation recovered a significant assemblage of lithic material 5e70 cm deep, including tabular milling stone bases, debitage, and rounded stones. A carbon sample from just below the preceramic deposit at 80 cm dated to 8200 ± 40 BP, representing the initial occupation of the site (Restrepo, 2008, 2013a). 3.15. UTP Bosque Deportes (66PER016) (1470 m asl, ~3000 m2) This site, located in a forested area north of the main sports field gica de Pereira (UTP), is situated on a of the Universidad Tecnolo northern remnant of the PereiraeArmenia geologic fan. The site was discovered during an archaeological survey within the campus when cultural materials, including edge-ground cobbles indicative of preceramic occupation, were recovered eroding out of a cut bank and in modern pit disturbances. Excavations of a small test unit revealed preceramic lithics and charcoal in stratigraphic levels between 55 and 120 cm b.s. A carbon sample associated with a cobble tool at 96 cm dated to 4393 ± 44 BP, showing the site was occupied near the end of the preceramic period. ~ ita (1230 m asl, 120 m2) 3.16. La Montan ~ ita is located in the Condina District of the city of La Montan Pereira, in the barrio of Cuba, on the shoulder of a terrace near the top of a large hill bounded to the south by the Naranjal stream. Modern construction activity uncovered an accumulation of lithic fragments, remnants of a preceramic campsite. Excavations recovered additional lithics, as well as an avocado (P. americana) pit. A charcoal sample from 90 to 100 cm b.s. showed that the site was occupied by at least 9230 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a). A second date of 7300 ± 70 BP from 70 to 80 cm b.s. in a nearby unit shows continued human activity at the site (CISAN, 2001). 3.17. Nuevo Sol (1291 m asl, 900 m2) This site is located on the Nuevo Sol coffee farm, east of the highway. It is situated on the edge of a hilltop terrace Pereira-Alcala bounded by an intermittent stream. Removal of 50 cm of topsoil by construction equipment revealed a lithic scatter in the southeast part of the terrace. Subsequent archaeological excavation uncovered preceramic lithic material and charcoal below this exposed surface. A charcoal sample from Level 7 (70e80 cm below the exposed surface) dated to 8740 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a). 3.18. Cuba (66PER001) (1280 m asl, 10,000 m2) Cuba is located on a low terrace of eroded volcanic ash deposits, at the juncture of two small streams, Cundina and El Oso, within the city limits of Pereira. It was first identified and excavated in 1998e2001 by Cano (Cano, 1998, 2001, 2004, 2008; Cano et al.,
49
2001, 2013), with new excavations conducted in 2012. Preceramic deposits occur 50e170 cm below surface, with a lithic assemblage that includes handstones, milling stone bases, hoes, flake tools, irregular cores, bipolar cores, debitage, hammerstones, and a number of pebble and cobble manuports. An anthrosol was clearly visible at the base of the main excavation block around 160e165 cm below surface. A date of 9730 ± 100 BP in 2001 from the original excavations and two new dates of 10,619 ± 66 and 9826 ± 63 BP associated with this anthrosol confirm the early occupation of the site. This anthrosol appears to be very localized, as no dates of similar antiquity were found in any of the other test pits excavated several meters away. A fourth date of 6460 ± 51 BP at 164 cm b.s. within the anthrosol is too young, likely due to the fact that it was a date on sediment rather than charcoal and is therefore rejected. The next occupation of the site occurred between 7000 and 5780 BP based on a series of nine new dates, and was spatially more widespread. However, several of these dates are out of sequence, or are too young, suggesting they may have been affected by disturbance or bioturbation. During this second occupation, the tight clustering of dates across significant depths (up to 100 cm) suggests that either deposition events (e.g. ashfall or fluvial) occurred regularly and frequently, or this zone experienced significant amounts of post-depositional mixing. A date of 4220 ± 180 BP marks the end of the preceramic period at the site. nico (66PER090) (1460 m asl, ~10,000 m2) 3.19. UTP Jardín Bota Like the UTP Bosque Deportes site to the north, this site is located on a remnant of the PereiraeArmenia volcanoclastic fan (Guarín et al., 2004), within the Botanical Garden of the UTP campus. Archaeological materials including handstones, cores, flakes, and ceramics were found eroding out of a cut bank during survey, prompting the excavation of a 1 2 m unit to a depth of 120 cm b.s. (Cano et al., 2013). A preceramic occupation with lithic material and charcoal was identified 70e130 cm b.s. A sample of carbon from the B Horizon (110e120 cm b.s.), associated with lithic artifacts and fire-cracked rock, was AMS dated to 9284 ± 58 BP. 3.20. La Mikela (66PER007) (1386 m asl, 9000 m2) La Mikela is located on a terrace composed of volcanic ash deposits, 25 m above the Consota River, 300 m west of a salt spring, southeast of the city of Pereira (Cano, 2001, 2004, 2008; Cano et al., 2001, 2013). The preceramic levels occur 60e120 cm b.s., with an artifact assemblage that includes handstones, milling stone bases, hoes, irregular cores, bipolar cores, hammerstones, used flakes, and cobble manuports. Three dates from below Level 14, including two new AMS dates, are too young and are considered intrusive due to bioturbation. Part of the site showed significant amounts of bioturbation, mostly from insects and roots. However, five dates on charcoal from Level 14 (90e95 cm) to Level 4 (35e40 cm), including four new AMS dates, are in stratigraphic order, and show that the preceramic occupation of the site occurred from 10,376 ± 70 BP to 3746 ± 49 BP. 3.21. La Trinidad I and II (1417 m asl, 450 m2) These sites, located near Barrio Montelíbano just south of the city of Pereira, are located on a large elongated terrace with steep slopes, bounded on one side by the headwaters of an intermittent stream. At La Trinidad I on the northern side of the terrace, cultural material including a hoe, flakes, and fire-cracked rocks were recovered 50e160 cm. A charcoal sample from Level 7 (75e85 cm) dated to 9542 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2010, 2013a). At La Trinidad II, several meters away on the south side of the terrace, a date of
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Mikela, AA98936 Guayabito, Beta-95063 Cuba, Beta-123078 Campoalegre, Beta-87729 Bosque Deportes, AA98954 Jazmín, Ua24494 Mikela, AA98937 Guatín, AA102607 Jazmín, Ua-24495 Cuba, AA102502 Selva, Beta-87508 Cuba, AA102503
Site, Lab No.
Mikela, Beta-145285 Cuba, AA102500 Cuba, AA102504 Pochola, AA98943 Arrayanes, Beta-104559 Pochola, LTL4221A Pochola, LTL4222A Cuba, AA102497 Perro, Beta-317784 Cuba, AA102499 Cuba, AA102505 Cuba, AA102501 Cuba, AA102498 Jazmín, Ua-24496 Mikela, AA98938 Montañita, N/A Salento 24, Beta-146612 Chaguala, AA103317 Cuba, AA103316 Jazmín, AA98946 Jazmín, Beta-95602 Campoalegre, Beta-87730 Romelia, Beta-325215 Selva, Beta-87189
Years Uncal BP
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Guayabito, Beta-95064 Recreo Cancha, Beta-283582 Pochola, Ua-24498 San Germán, CSIC1987 Chillona, Beta-325216 Antojo, Beta-93154 Salento 21, Beta-146609 Recreo Cancha, Beta-290954 Recreo Cancha, Beta-285871 Jazmín, AA98947 Selva, AA98943 Selva, Ua-24499 Selva, AA98944
Site, Lab No.
Selva, AA98942 Nuevo Sol, Beta-306257 Jazmín, Beta-95061 Pochola, LTL5436A Invias 3, AA98950 Genova, Beta-325217 Montañita, Beta-325214 Jardin Botanico, AA98955 Pochola, LTL4223A Trinidad II, LTL4845A Invias 3, AA98951 Selva, Beta-87188 Trinidad I, LTL4267A Mirador, AA102509 Salento 24, Beta-146613 Cuba, Beta-121972 Cuba, AA102496 Jazmín, Ua-24497 Guatín, Beta-325213 Mikela, AA98939 Cuba, AA102510
Years Uncal BP Fig. 2. a: Graph of the uncalibrated preceramic radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites and volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region, 7800e3000 BP. b: Graph of the uncalibrated preceramic radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites and volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region, 11,000e7800 BP. Uncalibrated archaeological dates with their error ranges (horizontal black lines) are arranged in chronological order and identified by their site and radiocarbon laboratory code. Vertical grey lines represent dated volcanic ndez (1997), Me ndez et al. (2002), events and grey shading represents error ranges of these events, or broad ranges of activity. Volcanic activity summarized from Herd (1982), Me Orozco (2001), Thouret et al. (1985, 1995), and the Smithsonian Inst. (2013). See Table 2.
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9333 ± 65 BP was obtained on a charcoal sample from 90 to 100 cm b.s., associated with lithic material (Restrepo, 2010, 2013a). 3.22. El Guatín (1440 m asl, 450 m2) This site is located southeast of Pereira, in the Vereda Guayabal District, on the side of a small terrace on the east bank of the Condina creek. The elongated terrace is bordered to the north and south by patches of forest, steep slopes, and small waterways that converge in front of the terrace and flow into the Condina creek. As such, the campsite was strategically situated for collecting natural resources (Restrepo, 2013a). Excavations in the central part of the terrace recovered cultural material between 45 and 100 cm b.s. In Level 8 (90e100 cm b.s.), at the bottom of the preceramic occupation ending at Horizon Ab, a sample of charcoal dated to 10,130 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a). A new AMS date on a sample of charcoal from Level 3 (45e50 cm b.s.) marks the end of the preceramic occupation of the site at 5517 ± 49 BP. 3.23. G enova (1520 m asl, 975 m2) This temporary campsite is located west of the Condina creek on nova Ranch, along the Variante Sur Road south of Pereira, in the Ge the Vereda Montelargo District. Like La Trinidad, it is situated on the south side of a large elongated terrace with steep slopes to the east and west. Excavations on the eastern flank of the terrace recovered lithic material and fire-cracked rock (Restrepo, 2006). A charcoal sample from Level 7 (70e80 cm) dates the occupation to 9230 ± 40 BP. 3.24. Salento 24 (2070 m asl) This site is situated on the top of an eroded knoll along the highway that runs between Pereira and the town of Salento, in the municipality of Salento, Quindío. A carbon sample from Horizon ABb2 (Level 15) dated to 9680 ± 100 BP represents the initial settlement of the site, associated with unused flakes and microdebitage. A second occupation level above this in Horizon Ab2 contained lithic flakes and a hoe. A third preceramic occupation level in Horizon ABb1 (Level 10) with flakes, micro-debitage, a scraper, rounded cobles, and fire-cracked rock was dated to 7400 ± 70 BP (Rojas and Tabares, 2000). 3.25. Salento 21 (2100 m asl) Salento 21 is located approximately 1.6 km from Salento 24 near the same highway, on the top of a hill near the community of San Antonio. The initial preceramic occupation of the site, dated 8430 ± 100 BP, was associated with domestic refuse, including a hearth, macrobotanical remains (seeds and a type of nut), burnt rocks, lithic debitage and used flakes (Rojas and Tabares, 2000). 3.26. Chaguala (1532 m asl, 1500 m2) This site is exposed in a road-cut of the Variante Calarc a-Pereira road, west of Armenia, Quindío, at the proximal end of the PereiraeArmenia volcanoclastic fan (Guarín et al., 2004). The exposed profile shows various tephra layers of varying thickness and composition, representing recurrent episodes of volcanic ash fall, accumulation, and preservation, with some strata more than 1 m thick. The site has not been systematically excavated, but lithic artifacts characteristic of the Middle Cauca preceramic period, including a bifacially flaked chopper/hoe, were found eroding out of an organically rich layer 230 cm b.s., 30 cm below a coarse sand layer believed to be lapilli associated with the eruption of Cerro
51
Machín (27 km away) in 3600 BP (Cano et al., 2013). However, a carbon sample from the buried organic layer dated to 7427 ± 40 BP, suggesting significant erosion of sediments between the deposition of the organic layer and the Cerro Machín eruption. 4. Discussion 4.1. New dates Through our recent archaeological field work in the region, we obtained 36 new AMS dates from 11 sites (in bold in Table 1). These additional dates help round out the occupational history or extend the known preceramic use of particular sites. Moreover, they help anchor the settlement chronology and establish a baseline for assessing cultural patterns and changes over time, such as the adoption of food production and its social and environmental consequences. Most of the new AMS dates fit well within existing site chronologies with some exceptions, likely the result of bioturbation and stratigraphic mixing. There was significant evidence of bioturbation at La Mikela and Cuba (primarily caused by insects, worms, and roots), visible up to 1 m below surface. Despite attempts to avoid sampling in disturbed areas, these sites produced some out-ofsequence dates that were rejected as intrusive (see Sections 3.18 and 3.20, and Table 1). Other sites, such as El Jazmín and La Pochola, showed some small-scale disturbances in the upper levels (mainly worms and roots), but these did not affect the preceramic chronological sequence. In most cases, wood charcoal was the material sampled for dating. Because of the humid environment of the region, it is unlikely that old wood effect was an issue. Wood and organic material rapidly decays in this region unless preserved through carbonization. Likewise, marine or freshwater reservoir effects are not issues with our samples. 4.2. Chronological distribution of dates Based on an examination of all accepted radiocarbon dates, the Middle Cauca region was inhabited throughout the entire preceramic period, from 10,600 to 3600 BP, with little evidence of any region-wide abandonment (Fig. 2). The earliest date clearly associated with cultural material is 10,619 ± 66 BP at the site of Cuba. Three other sites show evidence of human activity earlier than 10,000 BP: El Jazmín, La Mikela, and El Guatín. Between 10,000 and 9000 BP, the number of sites with evidence of human occupation nearly triples from four to eleven, with the addition of El Mirador, ~ ita, UTP Jardín Bota nico, La La Selva, Invías 3, La Pochola, La Montan nova, and Salento 24. Trinidad I and II, Ge Evaluating region-wide settlement patterns is challenging despite the number of sites and dates compiled. For many of the archaeological sites discussed, only one or two dates were obtained, and these were often focused on establishing earliest occupation of the site or time(s) of the most intense occupation. For this reason, apparent gaps in the regional sequence, particularly in the later part of the preceramic period, are more likely the result of sampling bias than actual absence of human activity. However, several sites were more extensively sampled and provide a sequence of dates through their entire preceramic occupation, particularly La Selva, El Jazmín, La Pochola, Cuba, and La Mikela. Examination of the chronologies of these sites allows some limited interpretations of local settlement patterns. As described in Section 2, the Middle Cauca region is situated within a highly active tectonic area, and the majority of the archaeological sites lie within the shadow of a major volcanic massif with nine active or dormant volcanoes (Cerro Bravo, Ruíz,
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Cisne, Huile, Santa Isabel, Santa Rosa, Quindío, Tolima, and Machín). Geomorphological study of the landscape and archaeological excavations through thick ash and mudflow layers clearly illustrate the major impacts that volcanic activity has had on site formation processes (INCIVA, 1995; Cano et al., 2001, 2013; Restrepo, 2006, 2013b; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007; Cano, 2008). This raises the question of what sort of impact this history of volcanic events had on the past human occupation of the region. Although the occupation of the region spans the entire preceramic, there are some small gaps within the overall regional radiocarbon chronology. The most significant of these (>500 radiocarbon years) are 6460e5922 BP (508 radiocarbon years) and 5517e4794 BP (723 radiocarbon years) (Fig. 2). However, as mentioned, these gaps are most likely the result of sampling biases rather than indicative of people abandoning the Middle Cauca region. These gaps do not coincide with known volcanic activity, documented through geomineralogical analyses and tephndez et al., 2002) (Table 2). In fact, when dates of rachronology (Me major volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity are compared with dates of human occupation, these often coincide (Fig. 2); people continued living and working in this landscape, despite the eposidic eruptions, ash falls, and lava flows. Table 2 History of volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region 11,500e3000 BP. Uncal Yrs BP
Volcanic event
Reference
3050 ± 200 3100 3310 ± 150 3600e4700
Cerro Bravo eruption Quindío eruption Cerro Bravo eruption Eruption of lapilli from Tolima, Quindío, Cerro Bravo, Santa Isabel Machín eruptions Machín eruptions Block lava from Tolima, Quindío, Cerro Bravo, Santa Isabel Block lava from Santa Isabel Cerro Bravo eruption Block lava from Santa Isabel Block lava from Santa Isabel Machín eruption Cerro Bravo eruption Ruíz eruption Machín eruption Ash clouds and pumice flows from Tolima, eruption of Quindío
Smithsonian Inst., 2013 Orozco, 2001 Smithsonian Inst., 2013 Orozco, 2001
4300e4400 4600e5100 5400e7200
5490 ± 475 6250 ± 110 6759 ± 180 7435 ± 100 8450 ± 95 8630 ± 50 8590 ± 115 9740 ± 95 10,000e11,500
ndez et al., 2002 Me ndez et al., 2002 Me Orozco, 2001
ndez, 1997 Me Thouret et al., 1985 ndez, 1997 Me ndez, 1997 Me ndez et al., 2002 Me Thouret et al., 1985 Herd, 1982 ndez et al., 2002 Me Orozco, 2001
The beginning of the early Holocene (ca. 11,500e10,000 BP) was marked by significant eruptions in the region, including Machín ca. 9740 ± 95 BP (Thouret and Van der Hammen, 1983:275; Orozco, ndez et al., 2002). From ca. 9000e7500 BP, there were 2001; Me explosive ash and pumice emissions from several volcanoes (Salomons, 1989:33). Thereafter, volcanic activity shifted to large lava flows from Santa Isabel and other volcanos, from ca. ndez, 7200e5400 BP (Thouret and Van der Hammen, 1983:275; Me 1997). After 5100 BP, activity was primarily eruptions from Machín in the southern part of the massif, and the deposition of lapilli from eruptions of Tolima, Quindío, Cerro Bravo, Santa Isabel (Orozco, ndez et al., 2002). The presence of dated evidence of 2001; Me cultural activity despite these frequent and ongoing episodes suggests that ancient peoples found ways of adapting to the volcanic conditions throughout the region. This can be observed at the site level as well. At La Pochola, the sequence of volcanic ash layers and cultural material indicates continued occupation throughout major volcanic events. Evidence of significant ash falls, documented by an elevated percentage of
phenocrysts in the soil, coincide with those levels (12e16) which contain the highest density of archaeological materials, interpreted as the most intensive occupation of the site (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). At El Jazmín, Aceituno and Loaiza (2007:43; 2014) observed a similar pattern in Levels 14e21. Mineralogical analysis of the site sediments indicates that there was relatively low volcanic activity during the initial occupation phase, but increased volcanic activity between 7200 and 5400 BP (Orozco, 2001). This does not mean that human populations did not suffer from the effects of volcanic eruptions. It is likely that eruptions forced people to move away due to harmful gases and destructive ash falls, lahars, and lava flows, but so far we have not detected any clear evidence of a population influx into adjacent regions during periods of intense volcanic activity. However, after this activity had ceased, weathering of the deposited ash resulted in the formation of rich soils and renewed plant growth, likely attracting resettlement of these areas. Based on our data, this appears to have occurred during the preceramic, at least in some parts of the Middle Cauca Valley region (Cano et al., 2013). As they weathered, the fertility of these andisols played an important role in a region where there is evidence for early plant cultivation (Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). Archaeobotanical analysis, particularly starch grain analysis on stone tools, has documented the use of both local plant resources and introduced domesticates in the preceramic subsistence economy of the Middle Cauca region. Radiocarbon dates associated with these stone tools, along with macrobotanical remains, provides a preliminary history of plant use, cultivar introductions, and the adoption of horticulture as part of the subsistence strategy. Starch grains from La Selva and El Jazmín show that local root crops (Dioscorea sp. and Calathea sp.) and a variety of bean (Phaseolus sp.) were being used by 8660 ± 55 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014), possibly cultivated in an incipient horticultural system. Tree fruits, bana (Annona sp.), mora (Rubus sp.), and avocado (P. such as guana americana), supplemented the diet, based on macrobotanical re~ ita (Morcote et al., mains from El Recreo Cancha and La Montan 2010). Starch grain residues from El Jazmín show that manioc (Manihot esculenta) was introduced into the region ca. 7590 ± 60 (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). By 7080 ± 50 BP, people were clearly engaged in cultivation practices, growing maize (Z. mays), along with manioc, yams, and beans (Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). Pollen from El Jazmín shows increased forest clearing around 7000 BP. These archaeobotanical data suggest that since the early Holocene, human settlers in the Middle Cauca region were collecting, and possibly cultivating, wild plants in order to optimize the subsistence returns in a humid tropical environment. With this preexisting familiarity with plant resources, people's adoption of newly introduced domesticates and shift to horticultural activities likely occurred gradually, without any sudden socio-economic reorientation. Rather than being driven away by frequent volcanic events, these early horticulturalists took advantage of the soil fertility to cultivate plants and invest in food production. Research is ongoing to further investigate the history of plant use in this region, and understand the changing dynamics of subsistence, environment, and social organization. A high resolution radiocarbon chronology is essential for establishing the history of these processes. 5. Conclusions The western Cordillera Central section of the Middle Cauca region has become a key region in the investigation of preceramic settlement of Colombia, and the initial transition to food production in the Neotropics. Our recent research in the area has
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significantly increased the number of dates and data available for the region. The chronological sequence obtained from 26 sites indicates a relatively constant and continuous sequence of human occupation from the terminal Pleistocene to the middle Holocene, without any significantly disruption due to volcanic events. Rather than abandoning the region, people in the Middle Cauca adjusted culturally to the circumstances of volcanic activity. Of course, this does not exclude smaller population movements within the region during volcanic episodes. The regional patterns of lithic technology, such as the predominance of hoes and grinding stones, and archaeobotanical evidence of early plant use, including several domesticates, demonstrates the important role plants played in the adaptive strategies of the preceramic occupants of the Middle Cauca valley. In particular, the region was likely a major route for the dispersal of crops between Central America and the rest of South America, the location of possible domestication of several crop species, and the early adoption of food production in the American tropics (Piperno and Pearsall, 1998; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007, 2014, 2015; Dickau, 2008; Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011; Piperno, 2011). Establishing a solid chronology in the region forms the basis from which to evaluate and interpret the timing of these events. Acknowledgments Funding was provided by NSF Grant 1049588 to AJR and RD. Numerous universities, institutions, and associations were instrumental in the successful completion of this project, including the Dept. of Anthropology at Temple University, the Facultad de Ciengica de Pereira, the cias Ambientales at the Universidad Tecnolo Dept. of Anthropology at the Universidad de Antioquia, the gicas Universidad de los Andes, the Departamento de Ciencias Biolo Dept. of Archaeology at the University of Exeter, the Comite n Aeropuerto Departamental de Cafeteros de Caldas, the Asociacio , the Centro de Museos Universidad de Caldas, Servicio del Cafe gico Colombiano, the Fundacio n de Investigaciones Geolo gicas Nacionales, and Autopistas del Cafe . We gratefully Arqueolo acknowledge the contribution of the late Dr. Michael Tilst, geologist, to this paper and the Middle Cauca Archaeology Project. Botero and palynologist CatThanks also to pedologist Pedro Jose lez for their insights. The map in Fig. 1 was created by alina Gonza squez-Franco for Juan David Arango, and we thank Susana Vela helpful discussions regarding Fig. 2. We also would also like to thank our exceptional excavation crews and the landowners of each site. The manuscript was improved by comments from two reviewers. References Aceituno, F.J., 2001. Ocupaciones tempranas del bosque tropical subandino en la cordillera centro-occidental de Colombia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Facultad de Geografía e Historia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid. Aceituno, F.J., 2002. Interacciones fitoculturales en el Cauca medio durante el Hol oceno temprano y medio. Arqueología del Area Intermedia 4, 89e113. Aceituno, F.J., 2010. Nuevos datos para la arqueología temprana del Cauca Medio: La mico en la Cuenca del Río San Eugenio, Cordillera Pochola, un sitio precera Central (Colombia). Universidad de Antioquia. Unpublished manuscript. Aceituno, F.J., Lalinde, V., 2011. Residuos de almidones y el uso de plantas durante el holoceno medio en el Cauca Medio (Colombia). Caldasia 33, 1e20. n del bosque en el Cauca medio Aceituno, F.J., Loaiza, N., 2007. Domesticacio colombiano entre el Pleistoceno final y el Holoceno medio. In: British Archaeological Reports International Series 1654. Archaeopress, Oxford. Aceituno, F.J., Loaiza, N., 2014. Early and Middle Holocene evidence for plant use and cultivation in the Middle Cauca River Basin, Cordillera Central (Colombia). Quaternary Science Reviews 86, 49e62. Aceituno, F.J., Loaiza, N., 2015. The role of plants in the early human settlement of Northwest South America. Quaternary International 363, 20e27. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.027. Aceituno, F.J., Loaiza, N., Delgado-Burbano, M.E., Barrientos, G., 2013. The initial human settlement of Northwest South America during the Pleistocene/
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