Page 1 of 522. INTERNAL. COMBUSTION ENGINES. (IncludingAir Compressors and Gas T\¡rbines. and Jct Propulsion). By. R.K.
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r"
\ =(L\"-t luz)
.
t'.'
=
,,e.,
I = I.ZZ, and
r:*
T-1
li;j
=
) Ll.
It lrr /
l4), Pu
oryg"n
low.
ht - P2u2
0
=f fr-o)
t'.'
*a
iulpiur df""*ti = tÁ,
=l¿¿ Polytropic
=coT+nT
rt follows,
unitXr.
For a perfect gas,
Beferring equation
for any pe;fect gar.
Table 1.1. Summary of p¡ocess€¡ for perfect Gas (Unit me$)
Coutant
...tr.r3 (ó)l
co
'reaüer
a = 7 ís ahrnls grater tlan
v
1.17.6. Enúhalpy one t'he fundamental quanüties which occu¡ invariably in tüennodyn¡nics - sum of is tüe of inte¡nal euergy (¿) and preseure vol"-" pJo"t (pu). This gum is called Enthatpy (á).
The enthalpv
.'.(1.15) trran
Ie.g., for ethane
-_iE_ -pf-l
-
c"
R, it is cle¡r that c, must be
In general, the apprfomaUi valuer of Tare ¡is follows : Ft monoatomrc garee such O¡ org,or¡, lulium 1.6, Fq d.i¿tomi¿ gases such * a¡bon ttn¡w¡id¿, =niir"n", nitrogen
n
i.e.,
=9p-
For some hydro.carbons the value of
;-r=d EE áÉ
CríhJl hs
* o
rr¡
EF 3tg$l a= H
ifr
$$
l-E
\o
.üq
|
ti4d¿
o
¡'
e
e
It
6
o
D
l8i I eV
li$
pn
Hi.ghcr Inwer ratio
I
I !9
heoüng ualw
Constant
IIYDB(rcARBONTUELS
NTSJJ¡JJJJi
Pggg9gooooo
F;5Sü;{¡s firf;fisrBrsrg
OtsN@ io\iebfJ!ó qqqooo{
sA0t'Fqrt€FÉBHs i¡l-F!DgrcDH(o{qCo Hoo¡ñOrb¡i¡Lb¿\io
999P9fr
EH$SSEF
FHSSHs86655 $FF$S$g€EE$
TsFH;frEgB EEFESxEgEsa EFfF$HE*
üfisiE*xsH gFgiltEtñiüt
H ssEEs¡s¡s¡es¡s¡s¡ 3:i::ii $$dddgFsE hsbbeteüEÉs SEHEEEE BIF*t*H;$ES
FHtsHHHgHq
s3üSHtfer "cEsssFs¡EEsÉeenññsE
i99PeeP99
E_e
EHHTEEFEfi ÉHtrg$HHSggE;sFFF$F$g usEqgsEqFsg
@OOoOsgñi-
-tg HH$E$FS$g Ésst66üxÉrEF¡H$SEHgEf =e=e peeFFtsÉ 3 H s g gF gF E g t * p Á Á i¡ i,e i.e ie ¡o:. H$SH $H Efi €F H F^F
FHH$$HHHX
{
3 E
z
E
n
z
0
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J
I
4,
cular
(Phase)
Gasoline diesel Heary üesel Natural gm 200 18
C"H1.?o (1)
C,Hr.* Nor"(g)
46.O7
Ft-:E ¿
rXrXr odoüi'-
u
t@
o o
oN
B ¿
qa999Z ó*338F
g
5
a
g
!
+iE P
E
rráq' *A¡E
gÉigf
OE
!.r oÁ Ca * r: l¡:*9:rorr93'..?'Z ¡!9óoX".ó I | -| ; i I i¡o 1E{ oñ ","!: r iZ -o
^o
N
Pi-ae$-d a-óal a
í+ ! E seg 8oí
Éi: x Eii.; i:itÉ9'a !9líee i Éíísl,s i
H=9É.g
FfftrFeoFg jf88ü3:B. g sí g, + ? 9 ? i s s FFE
$gsec
i; ; :;;
l-fl
U
N
Pa
d
o ¡r
¡.
{
Y
=E
F a
ae FX E¿
Yr; E1 Y
:> da
zF,
trl
10100
/kg
12000(
10100
33800
20000 26900
44000 40200 40600
,14300
50000 46400
44000 42500 41400 45000
h,J
value
Lower
14.6
0.0685
0.155 0.111
o.0741
0.0580 0.0638 0.0661 0.0675 0.0753
0.0690 0.0697 0.069
2.467 0.405 34.3 0.0292
11.51 0.0869
6.47 9.00
13.50
L4.82 12 tn
15.13
15.67
17.23
14.5
L4.4
14.5
ai--
dh;
oo o6
;
; I
= 8B 6'
óÉFp
zaoor 2Zo ñ :. n:f E.Xo
H
ñ
F
iE!:Hs*tses it ooo.-a-
C)6'S
gPPso* :.^-+qñIe::NqX=5á ooqvo*J-"
_o.iu -
iügiiIi*ÉÉFE :¡IÉ"llr-l:¡ g3g s 3iÉE* t n5 s. ;Ét !EB "ss5
i ñ3 j
!o
Q
107
106
a
?
L20
Y
!t2
120
92.98
ROrv
rdting
ÉliiliFFj;i$ÍÉE; s f E F;;; + q: ' "1
2700 29L0 3400
2680 2690
2720 2750 2750 2780 2820 2790
2830 2740 2760 2900
hJlhs
stoiclu
Lnv atF, (F/A) Fuel
FF€4FiF;;;:eEFss
egSSgc
14200C
28.01
Hr(g) 2.015
29700
2270O
4?,500
55500 50400 47800 47300 41900
47300 44800 43800 50000
l{ydrogen
I.U¡
t.72 r.vó
1.1
1.1
1.6
ualue
kJlkg
-2
:
2.6 2.5
K
1.63
1.6
2.2
2
t-7
L.7
t.7
¿Jlhs
"p
(1.25) (0.0901)
tr
440
1103
1.68
L.72
2.1
0.63 2.5
1.9
2.4 2.2
kJl helj
Higher
33800
0.792 0.785
Specific hcat
Liquid Vapour
12.01
9c
32.04
0.692 o.773 0 879 0.867
509 426 308 358 433 4L2
270 230
305
hJlkg
zation
uapori-
of
Heat
C(s) Carbi:n monoxide CO(g)
Carbon
Other Fuels
Nlcthanol Ethanol
92.14
78.11
226.44
tt4.23
C2H6O(I)
c?Hs(I)
Toluene
(0.72)
0.84-0.88 0.82-0.95 0.?9
0.7?4.78
gravity
Specifii
44.I0 0.51 (20)
CH{O(I)
Cr6Hs{(I) C6H6(I)
Cetae Benzene Alcohols
CH.(s) CrHr(g) c8Hr8(I)
Propane Isooctane
Methane 16.04
L70
110
fu els C"H1.87" (l) C"Hr.B¡ (1)
Pure hydrocarbona
Light
weighl
Mole-
Formula
Connercial petroleun
FueI
APPENDD(.V DATA ON FI,JEL PROPERTIES
zFl
{ { N
a)
a
r.
z
z>
at
Cñ
Y'0 az FU !,x tna
89
92
109
115
100
97
120
80-90
MON
+
t
z
@
t
cr
2
z zc)
+
c
-o
z
z
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10
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS
"
u
APPENDIX
APPENDTX.X
APPE¡TI'IX.VII
SAE CIASSITICATION OF LTJBRICATTNG OILS
SPECIFICAIIONS FOR DIASEL rUEI.s¡ BS zIJÑ
PropeTty Class A1
Viscosity, kinematic ¿t 37.8'C (centistokes)
1.6
1.5
mln.
5.0 50
5.6 45
6W
Cetane number
Carbon residue, Ramsbdorn per cent by mass on 10 per ent residue Distillation, recovery at 350"C, per cent by volume
max.
0.2
min. min. max. max.
Water content, per cent by volune Sediment, per cent Ash, per cent bymns
0.2
85
85.0
56
56
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
max,
0.01
0.01
max.
0.3
0.6
max. Sum.mer (16 Mar-/30 Sept.) Winter (1 Oct./15 March)
I -4
.
Sulphur
-15
1
-9
ASTM D1655
Mit-J-5624 JP.4
Designation
Jet A
Flashpoht,'C (min-max)
43-46
Freezing point, 'C (max) Gravity, API (min-max) Vapour pressure, Reid, icef/cmz cause (min-max)
-40
_60
39-51
-60
35 (max)
45-67
JP.1
max max
EP mar
Heating value, lower, kcal/kg, min Sulphur, 7o by mass, max Smoke point, mm (min) Aromatic, vol 7¿ max Potential gurn, mg/100 ml (max)
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Centipoises C,entipoises
JP-5
CITE-II
-48 36-48
270
-DÓ 0.21
204
93
143
232
188
254 288 10220 0.3
Centistokes SUS
30
Centistokes SUS
40
Centistokes SUS
60
Centistokes
sus
::
2400 12000
9600
,t0()o
ut;
45 9.6 68 t2.9 70 16.8 86
58 12.9 70 16.8 85
22.7 110
i
Minimum viscosity at - 18'C may be waived provided üscosity at 99' C is below 40 SUS. $* Minimum üscosity at 18'C may be waived provided viscosity at 99'C is not betow 45 SUS -
APPENDD(.XI MAJOR CLASSES OF ENGINE OIL ADDITTVES AND TTIEIR PRIMARY FI,]NCTIONS
(upM=2) M=2to3
0.14-0.21
204
20
1200 6000* 2400 trooo*-
)-
43 (min)
207omax 60Vo
6000
Mit F-46005,4
9OVo
20w
0
APPENDIK.IX AVIATIONTURB¡NE FUELS
Distillation,'C l0%max
'
1200
SUS
SUS
Pens\r Martins 'C
Ch¿racteristics
10w
Centipoises
sus
Flashpoin!., closed
Copper corrosion test Cold filter plugging point ('C) max.
Class A2
mrn.
r63
249
300
288
10167
L0220
10167
0.2
0.4
0.4
25
Control of high-temperature deposits. If overtased, also acts as effectivc acid neutralizer. Dispersent Control oflow-temperature sludge and varnish deposits, Anti-wear Reduce wear and prevent scoring, galling and seizure. Anti.rust Reduce rusting by acid neutralization of formation by protective film. V.I. improver Increase V.I. ofoil, thereby reducing sensitivity of oil viscosity to tcmperature. Pour point depresent Reduce pour point of oil by interfering with wax crystallization. Anti-foam Reduce oil foaming by causing collapse ofbubbles due to air entrainment. Anti-oxidant, Reduce oil oxidation to protect alloy bearings against corrosive attack. Detergent
288 0.4
20
20
20
25
25
25
l4
8
T4
T4
L4
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l-;;,; l-----
Constituctt.ts
APPENDD(.)UI TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS OI' LPG
APPENDD(.XIV GASEOUS FUELS
-, l-;---TV,, b¡*
-!,thaDe
Propane Propylene Br¡tane
ueight
1.8
4.4
93.1
64.0
2.8
?otal
100.0
1.7
28.7
62.1
2.9
2.1 100.0
APPENDD(-XIII
2. 3.
t o_
Methane, CHo Ethane Propane Isobutane Butane Pentane plus vapours
Total
9o
requiremeni
,,
100.0
Constítuents
aLr
Typt: of gas
TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS
1.
IJ
APPENDIX
(m3 aír lm:l gas)
u.,.¡-^-^Methane
f,thane
by uolume 80 ?
number
2570
2.38
4-80
0.0889
0
9.50
D
- ID
0.7r?0
100.0
15370 22300
3-14 - 8.5
1.36r)0
43.5
23.80
2.7
1.9600
35.0
29500
32.00
t.J - ó.¡
2.6000
10.5
CHn; CO, CHo; CrH.; CrH cn H,o;N,
I Standard
of
8550
Sewage gas (biogas)
Liquificd gas (LPG)
aír
7a
Methane
cHn c^H^
crHt
gas
Specific weights
(kelm3)
H2
Propane Butane Blast-furnace gas PRODUCER GAS I\{anufactured gas
Natural
Ignition limits in
coH,n
16.90
0.74
t2-70
1.2800
100-1300
1.00
20-70
1.1000
33.0
5500 7000 - 950Q
6.00
1000
130.0 90.0
CO; Nr; CO,
700-950
co;
H,
8
-
1.
5-
10.7
C, Hr; CnIIro
cubic metre (m3) equals
7.5
I
15
-
0.7600
20
t0-35
cubic metre of gas at 0"C and 760 mm of mercury.
o
I.D
APPENDD(.X\, GENERAL COMPOSITION OtI BIOGAS PRODUCED FROM FARM WASTES
Z-t)
3.0
r00.0
Volume
7o
CHr-Methane
54 to 70
CO.-Carbon dioxide
27 tn 45
Hr-flydrogen
Ito10
CO-Carbon monoxide
0to
1
Or-Oxygen
0to
1
HrS-Hydrogen sulphide
Traces
--] *.
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INTERNAL CO,T,BUSNON ENGTNES
l5
APPENDIX
APPENDIX.XI,I PNOPEETES OF GOBAR GAS AS I.C. ENGINE FUEL
.
APPE¡¡DIX.)WIII
PORT TIMbIGS FOR DITT'ENENT TYO€TROXE ENGINES. 21500 kJlm8 19550 ld rg
Opens
5
1. Crankcase scavenging 2. Loop scaveagiag 3. Uniflowscavenging 4. Opposed piston
to t5% vol. in air-gas mixture 130 methane number (Pure methane 100)
6(L76 60-?6 80-90 60-67
Application
APPENDIX.XVII
Inlet valve
opens (IVO)
epeed engine
TDC
Inlet valve clo¡ee (IVC) Inlet valve is open for
10'b TDC
BDC,
l0'a
Exhaust valve opene Exhaust valve ctoses Exhaust valve is open for Valve overlap Spark.
High
speed. engíne
(idi) Large passenger car (iu) Light commercial (u) Heaw commercial
10" b TDC
180'
BDC 200.
60'a BDC
BDC
26" b BDC
TDC
6'a TDC
55'b BDC
180.
20" a TDC
2t0"
255.
Nil'
15'
TDC
16. b TDC
30" 30. b TDC
Note: Valve tining is diferent for different makes ofengines. b-before, a---after, TDC-Top dead centre, BDC_Bottoii"r¿
250.
2. Railway locomotives 3. Small aincreft
(i) Helicooters (ii) Airplane6
416-.60
charge deg.
60-€7 60-76
10-20 10-20
45-60
0
.15-6q
16-ffi
38+9
20-'4.0
s8-56
0-70
tG47
10-20
50-66
38-55 á0-65
Appror., enginn pouer, hV
(j) Motor boats
(,t) ships
Off-road vehicles (i) Light vehicles (factory, airport etc.)
(ii) Agticulture
(iii) Earth moüng (iu) Military Industrial, Stationa¡y
".ntre.
(i) Electrig power
a
Home use-lawn movers
-7
0.76
15-?5 75 -200
35 - 150 120 - 300 400 - 3000
-
45 46
1500 2700
-
Marine
(ii) Others (iii) Gae Pipeline
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Clases
0
10-20
Pndominant type SI or
Cycle
Cooling
IA--Air
CI
waterl
vehiclee
(i) Mopede, Scooters, Motor cycles (ii) Sm¡ll pesssnger car
Actu¿l
Iaw
Super-
Scauenge
Opens
W = 1. Road
Theorcti¿al
angle
dag.
Cbees
APPENDIX.EX APPLICATION OF I.C. ENGINES
TYPICAL VALVE TIMI¡TGs FOR FOUA.SIA,OITE SI.ENGI¡TES Position
kad
Ethaust
Engüptype
0.5 - 7.6 9600 - 22000 1.5
-
15
3-150 40 - 760 40
-
2000
35
-
22000
5-400 750
-
5000
0.7-3
2,4
A
A,W
CI
4 4 4 4
CI
2,4
w w w w
SI
4 4
A A
SI, CI
4
CI
2,4
w w
SI
2,4 2,4 2,4 2,4
A,W A,W
2,4 2,4 2,4 2,4
w
SI SI
SI SI, CI
SI
SI, CI CI CI
CI CI SI SI
w
A,W
w w A
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11
APPENDIX
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES
APPENDD(.)OüI REI,ATÍVE HEAT I.OSS DTJRING DTFFERENT PIIASES OF TT{E CYCLE OFA SI ENGINE FORA PARTICULAR DESIGN
APPEIVDIX-:O{
IGMTION SYSTEM CIIARACTERISTICS
I |
Systen (12 uolt)
Rise time
Are
p sec
dumtion
Energy
AuaiLable uoltage and
mJ
F Sec
d,rop off
rpn
nv
I
(.lonvcntional
80
Transistor (TAC)
60
l'ransistor (CD)*
-
1000
-
2000
20-40
1000
-
3000
5-300
60-100 5-100
20-30 15-30
8000
18-25 18-25
6000
I\{agneto Low-tension
60+
500
High-tension
20
50*
400
20
2000
-25
Barrel Exhaust port
3000
APPENDD(-)QüII RELATfVE HEAT LOSS T{) COOIANT DI,'RING DIFT'ERENT PIIASES OF CYCLE
APPENDIX.)Oü COMPARATIVE IGNITION SYSTEM DATA OF SOME INDIAN AUTOMOBTI.I¡S Fiat 1100
Jeep uniuersal
Ambassad.or
Dodge I Fargo
Múel
89, M4
ignition Ignition coil T'ype of
tsattery Lucas Model
I I
Battev
Battery
Battery
Prestolite
Prestolite 200713
Prestolit¿
L,}'72 3.
Distributor
'Lucas
cAH 400r DM 2
Lucas
Control breaher gap 0.36 - 0.40 mm Type ofautonzatic o.
0.45
r
0.03 mm
0.457
Centrifugal
Centrifugal and
Centrifugal
ignition aduance
Centrifugal and vacuum
Spark plug
lVfico Bosch HW
Ml4-J1225 74 mm Mico Bosch FIW
145 T 2 or
KLG
Spark plug gap
0.64 mm
14 mm 0.5-0.6 mm
IBR-4002
-
Average temperature
Heat loss
Average
relatwe drea
degrees
erposed
Inlet
180
0.7
320
Compression Combustion Expansion Blow down
150
0.7
470
35
40 125
0.4 0.7
1600 2160
1170
8
t.z
1720
40
6.0
90
r.¿
1820
1390
48
7.2
Exhaust
135
1.3
1150
720
auerage temperature,
K dffirence,"C
-
Relative
7o heat an
fuel
-
110
Totel
Vo
I
0.3 0.2
0.7 100
IO
0.559 mm
KLG-TF-550,
vacuum Mico Bosch IIW 145 T3 or KLG.TFS-50
u,fo mm
0.7-10.81 mm
145 T3 or
50,
14mm 7.
Prestolite IAY-4401 0.5 mm
Estímated
Duration cranhshdft
Phase
(PetrcI type)
l.
0.16 to 0.18 0.20 to 0.25
6000
Eight cylinder engine, single coil. At nominal speed (2500 rpm) and same capacitance load
Hindustan
frktion
0.57 to 0.63
0.5 to 0.55 0.2? to 0.32 0.L7 tn 0.22
Head and valve seat
200
not íncluding piston
including piston friction
rpm
- 200 I-L00
20
Fraction of total heat flow to coolartt
Part of cylindzr
I
{I .t
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EFEECT OF VAR,IABI.ES ON DEL.AY PER.IOD
APPENDIX.UVI DI|EAUSII EMISSION STA¡IDARDS FOR INI,IAN VEICI,ES
1.
2. 3.
Cetane nuinber offi¡el Iqiection presoure Iqi ection
-advance
angle
4.
Refen table
Reduce¡ Reduces Incre¡¡geg Reduces
6.
Intake temperature Jacket water ternperature
8¿duces
a.
Fuel temperaturo
Reduces
D.
8.
Reduee self.ignition temperature. Gre¡ter surfaco-volume ratio hence Iess physical delay. he¡sr¡¡es and üemperaturee lower when injection begins. Increa¡ea air temperature and presBure arrd reduces auto-ignition ternperatu¡e.
Intake pressure (euperchai8ing)
9.
l¡ad (fuel-air-ratio) Engine eize
Reduces
Reduce¡ Reduces in milliseconds, i¡cre¡see in crank angte. Decreas€s
-
1
for éxhaugt emission standardE for gaeoline eogiaea ilriven velúcleg for.two wheel-
tlree wheeleñ¡, pa&nenger care and Dies€l engines driven vahidoó ofgroes weight > 3,5 tonnes and dEo < 3.6 ton¡és for'India¡ il¡iving cycleE. Tablc'1 ere,
)
Category ofvéhícles
.Statdnrds
St4trdotd,s
and, ex,haust emi¿sibns
effectiue
April 1991*
effafue Ap,41996
Aprili 2Cn0
&and¿rds prcposed,
Inc¡eag air teroperatures. Increages c¡all and hence air
Two Wheelere:
temp€returc.
(c) COgi/km
Bettar vaporisaüion and increases
12-30
1,6
2.O
G) HC s/kn
":'
3.6
1.5
6.76
4.0
6.40
1.5
cheuical ¡eaction. Increage in denaity reduces autoignition temperature. l¿ss loss ofheat mo¡e crank angle in
GASOLINE:
(c) (HC
,
(c) CO g/tm (ó) HC s/tm (c) (HC + NQ)gilkn
a given üime.
Operatiag temperature increases.
+NQ)e/km
lbree Whselerg: 12-30
8:
12
Paerenger Carc:
Little effoct in milli e€conds low r,p,m. but cranl angle d€creases.
(o) COgi/h (ó) HC s/kn (c) (HC + NO,) gn 3.5 tonne¡ (¿) CO e/t