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r"

\ =(L\"-t luz)

.

t'.'

=

,,e.,

I = I.ZZ, and

r:*

T-1

li;j

=

) Ll.

It lrr /

l4), Pu

oryg"n

low.

ht - P2u2

0

=f fr-o)

t'.'

*a

iulpiur df""*ti = tÁ,

=l¿¿ Polytropic

=coT+nT

rt follows,

unitXr.

For a perfect gas,

Beferring equation

for any pe;fect gar.

Table 1.1. Summary of p¡ocess€¡ for perfect Gas (Unit me$)

Coutant

...tr.r3 (ó)l

co

'reaüer

a = 7 ís ahrnls grater tlan

v

1.17.6. Enúhalpy one t'he fundamental quanüties which occu¡ invariably in tüennodyn¡nics - sum of is tüe of inte¡nal euergy (¿) and preseure vol"-" pJo"t (pu). This gum is called Enthatpy (á).

The enthalpv

.'.(1.15) trran

Ie.g., for ethane

-_iE_ -pf-l

-

c"

R, it is cle¡r that c, must be

In general, the apprfomaUi valuer of Tare ¡is follows : Ft monoatomrc garee such O¡ org,or¡, lulium 1.6, Fq d.i¿tomi¿ gases such * a¡bon ttn¡w¡id¿, =niir"n", nitrogen

n

i.e.,

=9p-

For some hydro.carbons the value of

;-r=d EE áÉ

CríhJl hs

* o

rr¡

EF 3tg$l a= H

ifr

$$

l-E

\o

.üq

|

ti4d¿

o

¡'

e

e

It

6

o

D

l8i I eV

li$

pn

Hi.ghcr Inwer ratio

I

I !9

heoüng ualw

Constant

IIYDB(rcARBONTUELS

NTSJJ¡JJJJi

Pggg9gooooo

F;5Sü;{¡s firf;fisrBrsrg

OtsN@ io\iebfJ!ó qqqooo{

sA0t'Fqrt€FÉBHs i¡l-F!DgrcDH(o{qCo Hoo¡ñOrb¡i¡Lb¿\io

999P9fr

EH$SSEF

FHSSHs86655 $FF$S$g€EE$

TsFH;frEgB EEFESxEgEsa EFfF$HE*

üfisiE*xsH gFgiltEtñiüt

H ssEEs¡s¡s¡es¡s¡s¡ 3:i::ii $$dddgFsE hsbbeteüEÉs SEHEEEE BIF*t*H;$ES

FHtsHHHgHq

s3üSHtfer "cEsssFs¡EEsÉeenññsE

i99PeeP99

E_e

EHHTEEFEfi ÉHtrg$HHSggE;sFFF$F$g usEqgsEqFsg

@OOoOsgñi-

-tg HH$E$FS$g Ésst66üxÉrEF¡H$SEHgEf =e=e peeFFtsÉ 3 H s g gF gF E g t * p Á Á i¡ i,e i.e ie ¡o:. H$SH $H Efi €F H F^F

FHH$$HHHX

{

3 E

z

E

n

z

0

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J

I

4,

cular

(Phase)

Gasoline diesel Heary üesel Natural gm 200 18

C"H1.?o (1)

C,Hr.* Nor"(g)

46.O7

Ft-:E ¿

rXrXr odoüi'-

u

t@

o o

oN

B ¿

qa999Z ó*338F

g

5

a

g

!

+iE P

E

rráq' *A¡E

gÉigf

OE

!.r oÁ Ca * r: l¡:*9:rorr93'..?'Z ¡!9óoX".ó I | -| ; i I i¡o 1E{ oñ ","!: r iZ -o

^o

N

Pi-ae$-d a-óal a

í+ ! E seg 8oí

Éi: x Eii.; i:itÉ9'a !9líee i Éíísl,s i

H=9É.g

FfftrFeoFg jf88ü3:B. g sí g, + ? 9 ? i s s FFE

$gsec

i; ; :;;

l-fl

U

N

Pa

d

o ¡r

¡.

{

Y

=E

F a

ae FX E¿

Yr; E1 Y

:> da

zF,

trl

10100

/kg

12000(

10100

33800

20000 26900

44000 40200 40600

,14300

50000 46400

44000 42500 41400 45000

h,J

value

Lower

14.6

0.0685

0.155 0.111

o.0741

0.0580 0.0638 0.0661 0.0675 0.0753

0.0690 0.0697 0.069

2.467 0.405 34.3 0.0292

11.51 0.0869

6.47 9.00

13.50

L4.82 12 tn

15.13

15.67

17.23

14.5

L4.4

14.5

ai--

dh;

oo o6

;

; I

= 8B 6'

óÉFp

zaoor 2Zo ñ :. n:f E.Xo

H

ñ

F

iE!:Hs*tses it ooo.-a-

C)6'S

gPPso* :.^-+qñIe::NqX=5á ooqvo*J-"

_o.iu -

iügiiIi*ÉÉFE :¡IÉ"llr-l:¡ g3g s 3iÉE* t n5 s. ;Ét !EB "ss5

i ñ3 j

!o

Q

107

106

a

?

L20

Y

!t2

120

92.98

ROrv

rdting

ÉliiliFFj;i$ÍÉE; s f E F;;; + q: ' "1

2700 29L0 3400

2680 2690

2720 2750 2750 2780 2820 2790

2830 2740 2760 2900

hJlhs

stoiclu

Lnv atF, (F/A) Fuel

FF€4FiF;;;:eEFss

egSSgc

14200C

28.01

Hr(g) 2.015

29700

2270O

4?,500

55500 50400 47800 47300 41900

47300 44800 43800 50000

l{ydrogen

I.U¡

t.72 r.vó

1.1

1.1

1.6

ualue

kJlkg

-2

:

2.6 2.5

K

1.63

1.6

2.2

2

t-7

L.7

t.7

¿Jlhs

"p

(1.25) (0.0901)

tr

440

1103

1.68

L.72

2.1

0.63 2.5

1.9

2.4 2.2

kJl helj

Higher

33800

0.792 0.785

Specific hcat

Liquid Vapour

12.01

9c

32.04

0.692 o.773 0 879 0.867

509 426 308 358 433 4L2

270 230

305

hJlkg

zation

uapori-

of

Heat

C(s) Carbi:n monoxide CO(g)

Carbon

Other Fuels

Nlcthanol Ethanol

92.14

78.11

226.44

tt4.23

C2H6O(I)

c?Hs(I)

Toluene

(0.72)

0.84-0.88 0.82-0.95 0.?9

0.7?4.78

gravity

Specifii

44.I0 0.51 (20)

CH{O(I)

Cr6Hs{(I) C6H6(I)

Cetae Benzene Alcohols

CH.(s) CrHr(g) c8Hr8(I)

Propane Isooctane

Methane 16.04

L70

110

fu els C"H1.87" (l) C"Hr.B¡ (1)

Pure hydrocarbona

Light

weighl

Mole-

Formula

Connercial petroleun

FueI

APPENDD(.V DATA ON FI,JEL PROPERTIES

zFl

{ { N

a)

a

r.

z

z>

at

Cñ

Y'0 az FU !,x tna

89

92

109

115

100

97

120

80-90

MON

+

t

z

@

t

cr

2

z zc)

+

c

-o

z

z




10

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS

"

u

APPENDIX

APPENDTX.X

APPE¡TI'IX.VII

SAE CIASSITICATION OF LTJBRICATTNG OILS

SPECIFICAIIONS FOR DIASEL rUEI.s¡ BS zIJÑ

PropeTty Class A1

Viscosity, kinematic ¿t 37.8'C (centistokes)

1.6

1.5

mln.

5.0 50

5.6 45

6W

Cetane number

Carbon residue, Ramsbdorn per cent by mass on 10 per ent residue Distillation, recovery at 350"C, per cent by volume

max.

0.2

min. min. max. max.

Water content, per cent by volune Sediment, per cent Ash, per cent bymns

0.2

85

85.0

56

56

0.05

0.05

0.01

0.01

max,

0.01

0.01

max.

0.3

0.6

max. Sum.mer (16 Mar-/30 Sept.) Winter (1 Oct./15 March)

I -4

.

Sulphur

-15

1

-9

ASTM D1655

Mit-J-5624 JP.4

Designation

Jet A

Flashpoht,'C (min-max)

43-46

Freezing point, 'C (max) Gravity, API (min-max) Vapour pressure, Reid, icef/cmz cause (min-max)

-40

_60

39-51

-60

35 (max)

45-67

JP.1

max max

EP mar

Heating value, lower, kcal/kg, min Sulphur, 7o by mass, max Smoke point, mm (min) Aromatic, vol 7¿ max Potential gurn, mg/100 ml (max)


Centipoises C,entipoises

JP-5

CITE-II

-48 36-48

270

-DÓ 0.21

204

93

143

232

188

254 288 10220 0.3

Centistokes SUS

30

Centistokes SUS

40

Centistokes SUS

60

Centistokes

sus

::

2400 12000

9600

,t0()o

ut;

45 9.6 68 t2.9 70 16.8 86

58 12.9 70 16.8 85

22.7 110

i

Minimum viscosity at - 18'C may be waived provided üscosity at 99' C is below 40 SUS. $* Minimum üscosity at 18'C may be waived provided viscosity at 99'C is not betow 45 SUS -

APPENDD(.XI MAJOR CLASSES OF ENGINE OIL ADDITTVES AND TTIEIR PRIMARY FI,]NCTIONS

(upM=2) M=2to3

0.14-0.21

204

20

1200 6000* 2400 trooo*-

)-

43 (min)

207omax 60Vo

6000

Mit F-46005,4

9OVo

20w

0

APPENDIK.IX AVIATIONTURB¡NE FUELS

Distillation,'C l0%max

'

1200

SUS

SUS

Pens\r Martins 'C

Ch¿racteristics

10w

Centipoises

sus

Flashpoin!., closed

Copper corrosion test Cold filter plugging point ('C) max.

Class A2

mrn.

r63

249

300

288

10167

L0220

10167

0.2

0.4

0.4

25

Control of high-temperature deposits. If overtased, also acts as effectivc acid neutralizer. Dispersent Control oflow-temperature sludge and varnish deposits, Anti-wear Reduce wear and prevent scoring, galling and seizure. Anti.rust Reduce rusting by acid neutralization of formation by protective film. V.I. improver Increase V.I. ofoil, thereby reducing sensitivity of oil viscosity to tcmperature. Pour point depresent Reduce pour point of oil by interfering with wax crystallization. Anti-foam Reduce oil foaming by causing collapse ofbubbles due to air entrainment. Anti-oxidant, Reduce oil oxidation to protect alloy bearings against corrosive attack. Detergent

288 0.4

20

20

20

25

25

25

l4

8

T4

T4

L4


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l-;;,; l-----

Constituctt.ts

APPENDD(.)UI TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS OI' LPG

APPENDD(.XIV GASEOUS FUELS

-, l-;---TV,, b¡*

-!,thaDe

Propane Propylene Br¡tane

ueight

1.8

4.4

93.1

64.0

2.8

?otal

100.0

1.7

28.7

62.1

2.9

2.1 100.0

APPENDD(-XIII

2. 3.

t o_

Methane, CHo Ethane Propane Isobutane Butane Pentane plus vapours

Total

9o

requiremeni

,,

100.0

Constítuents

aLr

Typt: of gas

TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS

1.

IJ

APPENDIX

(m3 aír lm:l gas)

u.,.¡-^-^Methane

f,thane

by uolume 80 ?

number

2570

2.38

4-80

0.0889

0

9.50

D

- ID

0.7r?0

100.0

15370 22300

3-14 - 8.5

1.36r)0

43.5

23.80

2.7

1.9600

35.0

29500

32.00

t.J - ó.¡

2.6000

10.5

CHn; CO, CHo; CrH.; CrH cn H,o;N,

I Standard

of

8550

Sewage gas (biogas)

Liquificd gas (LPG)

aír

7a

Methane

cHn c^H^

crHt

gas

Specific weights

(kelm3)

H2

Propane Butane Blast-furnace gas PRODUCER GAS I\{anufactured gas

Natural

Ignition limits in

coH,n

16.90

0.74

t2-70

1.2800

100-1300

1.00

20-70

1.1000

33.0

5500 7000 - 950Q

6.00

1000

130.0 90.0

CO; Nr; CO,

700-950

co;

H,

8

-

1.

5-

10.7

C, Hr; CnIIro

cubic metre (m3) equals

7.5

I

15

-

0.7600

20

t0-35

cubic metre of gas at 0"C and 760 mm of mercury.

o

I.D

APPENDD(.X\, GENERAL COMPOSITION OtI BIOGAS PRODUCED FROM FARM WASTES

Z-t)

3.0

r00.0

Volume

7o

CHr-Methane

54 to 70

CO.-Carbon dioxide

27 tn 45

Hr-flydrogen

Ito10

CO-Carbon monoxide

0to

1

Or-Oxygen

0to

1

HrS-Hydrogen sulphide

Traces

--] *.




INTERNAL CO,T,BUSNON ENGTNES

l5

APPENDIX

APPENDIX.XI,I PNOPEETES OF GOBAR GAS AS I.C. ENGINE FUEL

.

APPE¡¡DIX.)WIII

PORT TIMbIGS FOR DITT'ENENT TYO€TROXE ENGINES. 21500 kJlm8 19550 ld rg

Opens

5

1. Crankcase scavenging 2. Loop scaveagiag 3. Uniflowscavenging 4. Opposed piston

to t5% vol. in air-gas mixture 130 methane number (Pure methane 100)

6(L76 60-?6 80-90 60-67

Application

APPENDIX.XVII

Inlet valve

opens (IVO)

epeed engine

TDC

Inlet valve clo¡ee (IVC) Inlet valve is open for

10'b TDC

BDC,

l0'a

Exhaust valve opene Exhaust valve ctoses Exhaust valve is open for Valve overlap Spark.

High

speed. engíne

(idi) Large passenger car (iu) Light commercial (u) Heaw commercial

10" b TDC

180'

BDC 200.

60'a BDC

BDC

26" b BDC

TDC

6'a TDC

55'b BDC

180.

20" a TDC

2t0"

255.

Nil'

15'

TDC

16. b TDC

30" 30. b TDC

Note: Valve tining is diferent for different makes ofengines. b-before, a---after, TDC-Top dead centre, BDC_Bottoii"r¿

250.

2. Railway locomotives 3. Small aincreft

(i) Helicooters (ii) Airplane6

416-.60

charge deg.

60-€7 60-76

10-20 10-20

45-60

0

.15-6q

16-ffi

38+9

20-'4.0

s8-56

0-70

tG47

10-20

50-66

38-55 á0-65

Appror., enginn pouer, hV

(j) Motor boats

(,t) ships

Off-road vehicles (i) Light vehicles (factory, airport etc.)

(ii) Agticulture

(iii) Earth moüng (iu) Military Industrial, Stationa¡y

".ntre.

(i) Electrig power

a

Home use-lawn movers

-7

0.76

15-?5 75 -200

35 - 150 120 - 300 400 - 3000

-

45 46

1500 2700

-

Marine

(ii) Others (iii) Gae Pipeline


Clases

0

10-20

Pndominant type SI or

Cycle

Cooling

IA--Air

CI

waterl

vehiclee

(i) Mopede, Scooters, Motor cycles (ii) Sm¡ll pesssnger car

Actu¿l

Iaw

Super-

Scauenge

Opens

W = 1. Road

Theorcti¿al

angle

dag.

Cbees

APPENDIX.EX APPLICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

TYPICAL VALVE TIMI¡TGs FOR FOUA.SIA,OITE SI.ENGI¡TES Position

kad

Ethaust

Engüptype

0.5 - 7.6 9600 - 22000 1.5

-

15

3-150 40 - 760 40

-

2000

35

-

22000

5-400 750

-

5000

0.7-3

2,4

A

A,W

CI

4 4 4 4

CI

2,4

w w w w

SI

4 4

A A

SI, CI

4

CI

2,4

w w

SI

2,4 2,4 2,4 2,4

A,W A,W

2,4 2,4 2,4 2,4

w

SI SI

SI SI, CI

SI

SI, CI CI CI

CI CI SI SI

w

A,W

w w A


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11

APPENDIX

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

APPENDD(.)OüI REI,ATÍVE HEAT I.OSS DTJRING DTFFERENT PIIASES OF TT{E CYCLE OFA SI ENGINE FORA PARTICULAR DESIGN

APPEIVDIX-:O{

IGMTION SYSTEM CIIARACTERISTICS

I |

Systen (12 uolt)

Rise time

Are

p sec

dumtion

Energy

AuaiLable uoltage and

mJ

F Sec

d,rop off

rpn

nv

I

(.lonvcntional

80

Transistor (TAC)

60

l'ransistor (CD)*

-

1000

-

2000

20-40

1000

-

3000

5-300

60-100 5-100

20-30 15-30

8000

18-25 18-25

6000

I\{agneto Low-tension

60+

500

High-tension

20

50*

400

20

2000

-25

Barrel Exhaust port

3000

APPENDD(-)QüII RELATfVE HEAT LOSS T{) COOIANT DI,'RING DIFT'ERENT PIIASES OF CYCLE

APPENDIX.)Oü COMPARATIVE IGNITION SYSTEM DATA OF SOME INDIAN AUTOMOBTI.I¡S Fiat 1100

Jeep uniuersal

Ambassad.or

Dodge I Fargo

Múel

89, M4

ignition Ignition coil T'ype of

tsattery Lucas Model

I I

Battev

Battery

Battery

Prestolite

Prestolite 200713

Prestolit¿

L,}'72 3.

Distributor

'Lucas

cAH 400r DM 2

Lucas

Control breaher gap 0.36 - 0.40 mm Type ofautonzatic o.

0.45

r

0.03 mm

0.457

Centrifugal

Centrifugal and

Centrifugal

ignition aduance

Centrifugal and vacuum

Spark plug

lVfico Bosch HW

Ml4-J1225 74 mm Mico Bosch FIW

145 T 2 or

KLG

Spark plug gap

0.64 mm

14 mm 0.5-0.6 mm

IBR-4002

-

Average temperature

Heat loss

Average

relatwe drea

degrees

erposed

Inlet

180

0.7

320

Compression Combustion Expansion Blow down

150

0.7

470

35

40 125

0.4 0.7

1600 2160

1170

8

t.z

1720

40

6.0

90

r.¿

1820

1390

48

7.2

Exhaust

135

1.3

1150

720

auerage temperature,

K dffirence,"C

-

Relative

7o heat an

fuel

-

110

Totel

Vo

I

0.3 0.2

0.7 100

IO

0.559 mm

KLG-TF-550,

vacuum Mico Bosch IIW 145 T3 or KLG.TFS-50

u,fo mm

0.7-10.81 mm

145 T3 or

50,

14mm 7.

Prestolite IAY-4401 0.5 mm

Estímated

Duration cranhshdft

Phase

(PetrcI type)

l.

0.16 to 0.18 0.20 to 0.25

6000

Eight cylinder engine, single coil. At nominal speed (2500 rpm) and same capacitance load

Hindustan

frktion

0.57 to 0.63

0.5 to 0.55 0.2? to 0.32 0.L7 tn 0.22

Head and valve seat

200

not íncluding piston

including piston friction

rpm

- 200 I-L00

20

Fraction of total heat flow to coolartt

Part of cylindzr

I

{I .t



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EFEECT OF VAR,IABI.ES ON DEL.AY PER.IOD

APPENDIX.UVI DI|EAUSII EMISSION STA¡IDARDS FOR INI,IAN VEICI,ES

1.

2. 3.

Cetane nuinber offi¡el Iqiection presoure Iqi ection

-advance

angle

4.

Refen table

Reduce¡ Reduces Incre¡¡geg Reduces

6.

Intake temperature Jacket water ternperature

8¿duces

a.

Fuel temperaturo

Reduces

D.

8.

Reduee self.ignition temperature. Gre¡ter surfaco-volume ratio hence Iess physical delay. he¡sr¡¡es and üemperaturee lower when injection begins. Increa¡ea air temperature and presBure arrd reduces auto-ignition ternperatu¡e.

Intake pressure (euperchai8ing)

9.

l¡ad (fuel-air-ratio) Engine eize

Reduces

Reduce¡ Reduces in milliseconds, i¡cre¡see in crank angte. Decreas€s

-

1

for éxhaugt emission standardE for gaeoline eogiaea ilriven velúcleg for.two wheel-

tlree wheeleñ¡, pa&nenger care and Dies€l engines driven vahidoó ofgroes weight > 3,5 tonnes and dEo < 3.6 ton¡és for'India¡ il¡iving cycleE. Tablc'1 ere,

)

Category ofvéhícles

.Statdnrds

St4trdotd,s

and, ex,haust emi¿sibns

effectiue

April 1991*

effafue Ap,41996

Aprili 2Cn0

&and¿rds prcposed,

Inc¡eag air teroperatures. Increages c¡all and hence air

Two Wheelere:

temp€returc.

(c) COgi/km

Bettar vaporisaüion and increases

12-30

1,6

2.O

G) HC s/kn

":'

3.6

1.5

6.76

4.0

6.40

1.5

cheuical ¡eaction. Increage in denaity reduces autoignition temperature. l¿ss loss ofheat mo¡e crank angle in

GASOLINE:

(c) (HC

,

(c) CO g/tm (ó) HC s/tm (c) (HC + NQ)gilkn

a given üime.

Operatiag temperature increases.

+NQ)e/km

lbree Whselerg: 12-30

8:

12

Paerenger Carc:

Little effoct in milli e€conds low r,p,m. but cranl angle d€creases.

(o) COgi/h (ó) HC s/kn (c) (HC + NO,) gn 3.5 tonne¡ (¿) CO e/t