Reading the Game: Introducing the Notion of Games Literacy Ugo & Nich Brock University
I James Mandigo
n the Kunsthishorisches Museum in Vienna hangs a relatively unknown painting by a Flemish artist named Pieter Brueghel.
The painting entitled Children's Games is dated 1560 and captures the energy and enthusiasm of 230 children taking part in over 90 games being played in the heart of a town square. Had Brueghel been alive today, one wonders what his painting of children's games might look like. Many of our playgrounds and city streets today are void of such enthusiasm and active participation. It is estimated that over two-thirds of Canadian children are not active enough to achieve die health benefits associated with physical activity (Craig,
Nicholas Holt
Cameron, Russell, & Beaulieu, 2001). In response to these alarming inactivity rates, calls for more physical education classes have been
James Mandigo & Nlcbolns Holt are Assistant Professors in the Department oJ'Physical Education and Kinesiology at Brock University. The preparation of this manuscript was stipponed by a SSHRC StautLvd Research Gram ^410-2003-0948 awarded to holh authors.
[email protected]. brockti. ca
raised by provincial, national and international organizations. Other strategies such as Health Promoting Schools (Anderson & Piran, 1999) and Active Schools (Mandigo, 2002) have been presented as ways to develop competencies surrounding healthy, active lifestyles for children and adolescents.
4 PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION
In cducatiotial settings, games can help students gain the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to lead active and healthy lives. They also form the cornerstone ot many physical education programs- In a recent study of ctirricuUr content, Mandigo et al (in press) reported that over 50% of time in Alberta physical education programs was devoted to teaching games. Due to the dominance of games in curricular physical education. Health Promoting Schools can use games and game instruction as one strategy of helping students to acquire positive health outcomes. However, health outcomes associated with the acquisition of behavioural, social, and cognitive skills are not fostered in children merely through participating in games; skillful and progressive instruction is required (Hopper, 2002). This article will promote discussion about ways to foster behavioural, social, and cognitive development among students through games instruction. The notion of games literacy is introduced to incorporate the desired health outcomes of games instruction.
Games literacy arises from concept utilizations of physical literacy presented by Whitehead (2001) and Maude (2001). A physically literate person is someone who: ... moves with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challeiiging situations ... the iiidividual is perceptive in 'reading'all aspects of the physical environment, anticipating movement needs or possibilities and responding appropriately to these, with intelligence and imapnation. Physical literacy requires a holistic engagement that encompasses physical capacities embedded in perception, experience, memory, anticipation, and decision making (Whitehead, 2001, p. 136). Building upon this holistic definition of physical literacy, the notion of games literacy is introduced to indicate the qualities and skills students will acquire from high quality instruction and participation in games play in physical education. One of the aims of teaching games is to produce players who are games literate. Students are games literate
Games form the cornerstone of many physical education (PE) programs. As a nsult, they provide an important vehicle to achieve important health outcomes. This article will extend current notions of literacy to include the concept of games literacy and its relationship to helping students acquire the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes to lead an active, healthy lifestyle. Building upon Maude's (2001) and Whitehead's (2001) holistic notion of physical literacy, this article proposes that what stttdents are literate in games, they (a) have knowledge and understanding that eiiables them to anticipate patterns of play, (b) possess technical and tactical skills to deploy appropriate and imaginative responses, and (c) are able to experience positive motivational states while helping to facilitate motivation among others involved in a variety of games. Practical strate^es are presented to help midents "read the game" more effectively within these thire areas.
Les jeux sont la pierre angulaire de nombreux programmes d'education pf/ysiq!4e (EP). Par consequent, ils constituent un outilforl utile a Vatteintc d'imponants resultats en rtuttihe de sante. Cet article cxtiiipole ii partir des notions eourantes de lithatiepour inchtre le concept de litiratie ludique et examine en quoi cette demi^re peut aider ks elhfes a acquei-ir des habiktes, des connaissances et des attitudes qui lespousseront a adopter des modes de viepltis sains et actifi. Misant sur la notion hoUstique de literatie physique misc au point par Mattde (2001) et par Whitehead (2001), cet article fonnuk Vliypothhe suivame : brsqite les elh'es sont pkincmnit jimnliers avec lejeuXy (a) ils ont le savoiretla comprehension n^cessairespourprcivir divers modules de jeu, (b) ils maitrisent les composantes mctiqua et techniques du jeu, ce qui leur pmnet de reagir de jofon appwprit'e et imaginative, et (c) ils atteignent un haut de^i de motivation positiw (mit en aidimt a motiver les ilh'es engages dam divas types dejaix. l^a stnit^es pratiqtu's sotit decrites de manihv a aider les ^Ihies ^ •< liir » plus fadkment le sens dujeu dam ces trois contextes.
FALL. AUTOMNE 2004 5
if they (a) have knowledge and understanding that enables them to anticipate patterns of play, (b) possess technical and tactical skills to deploy appropriate and imaginative responses, and (c) are able to experience positive motivational states while helping to facilitate motivation among others involved in the game. Rather than being literate in a single game, children with games literacy will be able to engage with poise, confidence, and enthusiasm in a wide range of games. In the following sections, each of these three dimensions of games literacy are explored in more detail, and relevant research is described in order to provide empirical evidence for our perspective.
Knowledge and Understanding The primary rules associated with various games shape patterns of play. A child with games literacy knows the primary
A child with games literacy knows the primary rules and understands how these rules create structural and tactical similarities (and differences) between games.
rules and understands how these rules create structural and tactical similarities (and differences) between games. This notion is closely connected to a thematic approach to teaching knowledge and rules common across games (Mandigo & Anderson, 2003; Mitchell, Oslin, & GrifFm, 2003). Rather than teach the rules, skills, and tactics ot one sport, the thematic approach advocates teaching students games through the use ot four game categories: (a) (b) (c) (d)
target games, striking/fielding, net/wall, and invasion games.
Based upon a common structure (i.e., primary rules, Ixindamental skills, and tacticid problems), teachers can collapse similar content areas into themes that represent common game components (Mitchell et al., 2003). Understanding tactics and rules can be promoted alongside an appreciation for the etiquette of the game. For example, the tactic of "setting a pick" to create space is legal in some games (e.g., basketball), but is considered an interference penalty in others (e.g., ice hockey). Etiquette also extends beyond the formal rules of the game. For example, in soccer when an opponent gets injured, the team in possession is expected to kick the ball out of play to allow him/her to receive treatment. Then, the injured player's team returns the ball back to the team that was in possession from the ensuing throw-in (restart). Although kicking the ball out
6
PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION
and subsequently returning possession is not a formal rule of soccer, it is part of the etiquette of the game. Hence, the idea is that students understand not only the rules of the game, but in some cases the spirit of the game. Further, learners who experience a thematic approach to games instruction should be literate of rules and etiquette across a wide range of games. There are certain tactical similarities between games with similar primary rules. For example, the tactical problem of covering space is similar for all fielders in striking/field ing games. In cricket, the fielders must position themselves to cover space in an oval while in baseball the fielders must position themselves to cover space inside a diamond. For invasion games, the tactic of creating space is very similar in soccer and field hockey because many of the primary rtiles of the game shapesimilar principles of play (e.g., both games are 11 v II, the primary objective is to put the ball in the goal, teams defend a forced-target goal). The learner who is games literate will be able to understand and apply knowledge across games within each of the thematic categories, understanding that certain tactical concepts transfer from game to game. The intended result is that students will develop games literacy across a number of sports. Mitcbell and Oslin (1999) supported the notion of tactical concepts being transferable berween similar formal games. In their study, students who were taught badminton using a leaching Games for Understanding (TGfU: Bunker & Thorpe, 1982) approach improved their
decision-making skills in badminton and were able to transfer their decisionmaking skills to a less familiar net/wall game allied pickleball {indoor tennis). These results suggest char setting up units based on game categories radier dian specific sport units (e.g., soccer unit, volleyball unit) can be an effective approach to developing games literacy across a number of form,al games. If children can learn the primary rules and tactics across games categories, they will be in a better position to anticipate the development of patterns of play. Following Whitehead (2001) and Maude s (2001) general conceptualization of physical literacy, children with games literacy will be able to "read the game" and anticipate the plays as they develop. They will also be able to read and understand a wide range of games rather than simply a single game.
Technical and Tactical Skills The second aspect of games literacy relates to a child possessing the skills required to effectively respond to a range of conditions that may occur during games. The term 'skill' includes technical skills (passing, shooting, dribbling, etc.) and tactical skills (off-the-ball movement, decision-making, defensive marking, etc.). A literate games player can pertorm a broad range of these skills, knowing both how to do a skill as well as when to do it (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982). For example, in badminton students may know how to play a drop shot, but it is also important to know when it is executed during the game (i.e., when the opponent is at the back of the court or on the back foot). In this case, games literacy incorporates both the technical and tactical understanding that is required to successfully respond to patterns of play that occur during a game. In recent years, mote attention has been given to developing approaches to teaching games that include both technical and tactical skills. For example, the TGflJ model suggests that students work on technical skills once they have
developed tactical awareness of the game (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982). At the centre of the model is the leartier. As a result, the games that are played prior to the skill development part of the lesson are developmentally appropriate for the students' current skill level. In a net/wall lesson, students may start oft by playing a game that requires them to toss a ball underhand into an opponents court so that it lands in bounds and cannot be caught in time before it bounces again (cf. Mandigo & Anderson, 2003). This simple type of game helps students to develop an appreciation for the rules of net/wall games and initiates an awareness of important tactical problems such as how to create space and how to place the ball into that open space on an opponent's side of the net. From here, teachers introduce the mechanics of how to strike the ball with an open hand, which is die precursor to the forehand stroke. Students would then understand why they are practising the technical skill because they understand the tactical demands of the g-ame (and therefore why the skill is required). There is some evidence to show that TGfU approaches can be useRil for teaching children how and when to perform skills. Turner, Allison, and Pissanos (2001) interviewed 30 children (aged 11-13 years) about their conceptions of skillfulness after they had been taught a field hockey unit through the TGfU approach. Findings revealed that students viewed skillfulness as a broad concept of game play performance. In other words, performance of game skills was assessed in terms of whether the skills were successfully used in the context ot game play or not (e.g., good dribbling was not holding the stick ptoperly, but getting the ball downfield or creating a scoring opportunity). Students were also able to make connections between field hockey and other high-stiategy invasion games with
similar tactical structutes (e.g., soccer, basketball). This study shows that a teaching approach that includes both tactical and technical skills (i.e., TGfU) can produce learning outcomes among children that places the performance of skills within the context of the game. We expect that children who possess such a range of skills will be able to respond to game situations with intelligence and imagination (cf Maude, 2001; Whitehead, 2001).
Positive Motivational Experiences for Self and Others Opportunities to experience positive affective states of fun and enjoyment are
FALL. AUTOMNE 2004 7
fundamental reasons why children participate in games (Weiss &c FerrerCaja, 2002). Facilicaring positive motivational experiences is therefore another important characteristic in the development ot a literate games player. Game environments that motivate students intrinsically help in the development of positive motivational experiences for children and adolescents. One of the most prominent theories that explains the social factors that facilitate intrinsic motivation is Deci and Ryan's (1985) Self-Determination Theory (SDT). According to SDT, individuals have an intrinsic desire to feel autonomous, competent and related to others. Ntoumanis (2002) showed the importance of these three tenets in developing self-determination among students in physical education settings. Self-determination is facilitated when students are provided with opportunities ro be active-agents to make their own choices or to be involved in decision making (Chatzisarantis, Biddle, &c Meek, 1997). For example, Mandigo and Holt (2003) reponed that when children are provided with an opportunity to modify the challenge level of an activity, they are more likely to experience positive affects due to the students structuring an activity that is optimally challenging (i.e., skills and challenges are equal) tor them. Reeve (2002) recommended the use of autonomy-supportive practices in the classroom to promote self-determination among children. Teachers who are autonomy-supportive are responsive (e.g., spend time listening), supportive (e.g., praise the quality of performance), flexible (e.g., give students time to work in their own way), and use strategies that motivate through interest (e.g., support intrinsic motivation). These strategies can be adapted to help promote games literacy in physical education classes. For example, when posed with a tactical problem such as how to get close to the button in curling (i.e., a target game), teachers are encouraged to be flexible with respect to the various potential tactical solutions. Some sttidents may
8 PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION
decide that trying to take-out an opponent's rock is the best solution, while others may decide that raising one of their own rocks would be appropriate. By providing students with an opportunity to try their ideas rather than tell them the solution, teachers are fostering a sense of autonomy when it comes to student learning. Teachers can also enhance competence by providing supportive and informative feedback about the decisions made by the students after they have experienced the game and have seen the results of their decisions. Then when the students go hack to playing the game, they have developed a better understanding of potential outcomes associated with their decisions and are more likely to be motivated to implement this new knowledge within the game. In other words, games literacy has been enhanced through an autonomy-supportive approach that was shown to have a positive impact on students' perceived competence, selfesteem, conceptual understanding, flexibility in thinking, creativity, and retention (Reeve, 2002).
Although being intrinsically motivated on a personal level is an important part in the development of games literacy, students need to also be aware of how to help facilitate positive experiences for others. Games literacy within the affective domain should not be gained at rhe expense of others. Much like the other two domains where students
develop the ability to "read the game" by understanding it (i.e., cognitive domain) and reacting to it competently through the execution of appropriate skills and tactical solutions (i.e., the behavioural domain), students should be able to read how other students are experiencing the game from a motivational perspective. Constructivist approaches to teaching games is one way in which students acquire the skills to help others achieve positive motivational experiences. This approach to teaching games encourages teachers to; (a) be respectful of indivJdualdifferences; (b) encourage the development of pmblcmsolving and decision-making skills; (c) encourage students to construct their own meaning from their physical education experiences; and (d) encourage a positive social network in the development of students (Allison & Barrett, 2001). Using a constructivist framework to develop games literacy, a teacher could ask small groups of students to think of ways they can create space in an invasion game. Given that there are a number of potential solutions to this tactical problem (e.g., short passes, shielding the object, provide support off the ball), students are encouraged to use a democratic process where every voice in the group is heard and respected. Throughout the process, students also need ro develop solutions within the rules and etiquette ot the game. As a
The literate games player looks for opportunities in which to demonstrate their proficiency in games without always having to play within the context of specialized rules and equipment
result, .students are developing important moral and ethical skills about how to relate to others while at the same time helping to Increase other students' sense of autonomy and competence in game environments. Literate game players, therefore, are able to read the game through their own ^ e s and through their peers' eyes so rhac everyone has an opportunity to have a positive and motivating games experience.
Implementing Opportunities for Games Literacy Outside the Physical Education Class It was already mentioned that games play a vital role in helping to curtail the physical inactivity and health concerns of todays children. Physical education serves as the one place in our society where every child has equal and equitable access to becoming games literate. The school community, therefore, has a collective responsibility to providing environments where children can demonstrate and celebrate these competencies. Although the environments need to be safe, they do not necessarily need to contain highly specialized equipment or facilities for children to demonstrate their games literacy. A child who is games literate is likely to seek out and identify opportunities to participate in games when provided with a supportive environment. The modern game of Stickball, for example, was invented by youth in the streets of New York City who had a desire to demonstrate their competencies and enjoyment of baseball.
Armed with the skills, knowledge, and positive attitudes towards baseball, they soon maximized their resources to invent a new game. Wooden sticks, broom, and mop handles were used as bats while fielders had to manoeuvre around parked cars and fire hydrants to cover the manholes that served as bases. Although many safety regulations, municipal bylaws, and urban designs would prevent Stickball from being played in local streets today, the point is that these children were games literate - they knew how to tise their existing understanding to maximize the resources available to invent a game they could play during their leisure time. The ability to recognize these opportunities is not always evident for students. Teachers not only play an important role in the development of literate game players, they can also help students identify opportunities to demonstrate their games literacy. Strategies such as children inventing their own games (Mandigo & Shcppard, 2003) or students being allowed to make their own decisions on how to play games (Chalip, Csikszentmihalyi, Kleiber, & Larson, 1984) are effective ways to enhance participants' intrinsic motivation. In other words, literate game players begin to recognize opportunities to play games in their every day life without having it scheduled for them into their daily routine. For example, hitting a tennis ball against a wall in the schoolyard with their open hand can soon become a game of how long they can keep a rally going by hitting it to
certain parts of the wall. A child may realize that they can invent a target game by trying to throw pebbles at rocks in a lake located at various distances. A group of youth may invent a game of beach cricket using lifejackets as wickets and a pool noodle as a bat. The literate games player looks for opportunities in which to demonstrate their proficiency in games without always having to play within the context of specialized rules and equipment. School communities play an important role in helping literate games players to recognize these opportunities and to help provide their students with safe and accessible environments.
Conclusion Children that are games literate can "read" different situations in a variety of games and respond with appropriate skills, behaviours, emotions, and attitudes. The promotion of understanding rules and tactics across games will help learners to recognize situations and deploy skills accordingly. Permeating these experiences is a sense of positive affective engagement with the ^ame and with other people involved in that game. As a result, the games curriculum becomes the vehicle in which literacy across a number of areas can be developed. For example, feeling self-determined in a games environment may not only increase students' intrinsic desire to play games in the physical education environment, but it may also help facilitate their intrinsic desire to participate in other forms of physical activity outside the physical education class. It may also help them to develop important social skills (e.g., democratic, ethical, and moral behaviour) that will enhance their relatedness with others when they take part in such aaivities. This defmition of games literacy is holistic and broad, encompassing a whole child perspective ("Wall & Murray, 1990) because it invokes cognitive (i.e., knowledge and understanding), behavioural (i.e., skills), and affective (i.e., positive motivational outcomes) domains. Clearly the notion of literacy
FALL. AUTOMNE 2004 9
extends well beyond the idea of being able to read and write. Given that games tend to dominate many physical education programs, we have chosen to initiate the discussion about games literacy within the context of a constructivist approach such asTGOJ (Allison & Barrett, 2001). Other constructivist teaching approaches such as the Sport Education Model (Siedentop, 2002) and Peer Teaching Model {e.g.,
Sharpe, Hosung, Mavi, 6c Brown, 2002) may also be useRil for promoting the concept oi games literacy. We must add the caveat that although we have introduced games literacy based on the established notion of physical literacy (Maude, 2001; Whitehead, 2001), and incorporated recent research to justify our position, further dialogue and research is required to establish the value of games
literacy. Nonetheless, we hope that by initiating a discussion about games literacy, a more holistic perspective on the importance of games for student learning can be undertaken. It is also our hope that by developing literate games players, the portrait of children playing a variety of games in the new millennium is similar to the enthusiasm and energy that Brueghel captured almost 500 years ago. •
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