As far back as the tenth year of the reign of Emperor Yongping of the Eastern Han ... Eastern Han Dynasty, it was introduced in China via Turkestan. The.
Reconstruction Strategies for Sustainability on the Eco-Climate Modification – Taking the Buddhist Temples after the 921-Earthquake Calamity as the Reviewed Illustration. Wen-Cheng Shao,* Che-Ming Chiang,* Po-Cheng Chou,** Yen-Yi Li,* * Department of Architecture, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan 701, ROC ** Department of Interior Design, Shu-Te University, Yenchao, Taiwan 824, ROC
ABSTRACT Reports from the Chinese Buddhist Temple Association showed that exceeding sixty temples near the fault-belt of the 921-Earthquake were incurred heavy damage. Fourteen temples of them were selected for field investigation in this study. It aimed to analyze the relationship between the temple form and the disasters caused by earthquake. Some reconstruction strategies considering the domestic climate and healthy environment were suggested after reviews. The goal is to propose some concepts of the sustainable development for Buddhist temples. Keywords: 921-Earthquake Calamity; Buddhist temples; reconstruction strategies; local climate 1. INTRODUCTION After the 921-EarthquakeCalamity, exceeded sixty temples near the fault-belt were painfully damaged. Fourteen of them were selected to proceed the field investigation in this study. It was found that the reasons of the structure-injure, caused directly or indirectly by criteria-exceeded earthquake-strength, unfit structure system, improper construction manner and inappropriate equipment attachment etc. Furthermore, construction form of Buddhist temple was the major factor that could increase the ruin. Figure 1 is an on-site photograph after the 921-Earthquake Calamity, which shows a set of typical patterns for Buddhist temple in Taiwan. These typical patterns consisted of the multi-gambrel roof made by the heavily reinforced concrete, the sanctuary hall with large-span, elevated space and blank-wall, and the lots of transoms for air-exchange to be able to adjust the thermal comfort. Unfortunately, it showed that the typical form of Buddhist temple was constructed to be hard to adapt to the regionally natural climate, and to be extremely dangerous building on earthquake-resistance. Those unsuited patterns, led into the short-column effect and the top-heavy effect, caused to the collapse. The intention of the abbots to construct this kind of temple was to inherit the representation of legitimacy. As we known, Buddhism was originated in India, then spread from Central Asia through Central China, North China, South China, and then to Taiwan. Did the temple’s shape, however, adapted to take actions that suit local circumstances, or continued using the fixed style? How was the transition? These would be discussed in coming section. The demands for the transformation of Buddhist temple should be the essential parts in this paper, which focused on the relationship with the local circumstances.
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Multi-gambrel roof, made by the heavily reinforced concrete, led into the topheavy effect. Transoms, for air-exchange, led into the short-column effect. Sanctuary hall, designed with large-span, elevated-space and blank-wall, led into the fracture of the 1F-column by the shear stress.
Figure 1. On-site photograph of Buddhist temple after the 921-Earthquake Calamity 2. TRANSITION OF BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE Around 500-600 B.C., Buddhism was originated in India. Based on the historical records, it was then broadcasted to China via the counties in Central Asia, such as Daroushi, Daxia and Persia (called in ancient title). The spread path of Buddhism from India into Taiwan is illustrated in Figure 2. The Indian Buddhist sermonized the merchants, who traded and journeyed to and fro the ancient Silk-Way between
The White Horse Temple (A.D. 67)
Kyomizu Temple (17th century)
Kingaku Temple (1397)
Shansi Tibet Mogao Caves (A.D. 353)
CHINA
INDIA
Anhui
JAPAN TAIWAN
Potala Palace (A.D. 641)
Qi-yuan Temple (A.D. 653)
Huguo Qingliang Temple (20st century) Figure 2. Sketch map of Buddhism spread in East Asia
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Central Asia and China. As far back as the tenth year of the reign of Emperor Yongping of the Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 67), the Buddhist immigrated into Luoyang (the empire’s capital at that time) attached scriptures and Buddha [1]. In its early years the main affairs for sermon were to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese included the “Forty-two-chapters Scripture”, which was the earliest one to be preserved up to the present. Before the time that the Honglu Temple, the government office of Luoyang at that time, was reconstructed and named the White Horse Temple, it has not been formed the specific patterns for Chinese Buddhist. However, it became gradually broad spread until the interactive evolvement between Buddhist doctrine and Confucian thought. It also happened that the building style for Buddhism in China represented a set of the specific patterns, which was due to a large amount of building needs to accommodate extensively religious activities [3]. 2.1 Specific form of Buddhist temple in East Asia For the early time of Buddhism spread from India to China, it was not introduced to Indian “Buddha” (specific symbol). Chinese Buddhist temple was constructed according to the regional types in the beginning. In India, the traditional temple used to be constructed the Buddhist tower at the central area and the meditation room around the core. In China, the porch-courtyard-type layout was used instead. Toward the Southern and Northern Dynasties, a certain number of persons followed the laws of Buddha, and therefore paid much attention to the environmental concerning. For example, The Yong Ning Temple was described that …planted the green juniper outside the enclosing wall and arranged the stretched stream …, recorded in “Luoyang Jial Lan Ji”. The development of Buddhism was unexampled during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and temple layout was eventually set as the central-axis-precincts-type until now. The purpose of Indian Buddhist tower was to consecrate the “She Li Zi” which was the remains of the eminent monk after the cremation. The construction material was utilized the soil and bricks. Owing to the lack of ventilated requirement and public utilization, it was constructed the nearly filled structure. Figure 3 is the photograph of White Tower, which provides the function mentions above. The appearance was shaped into the graceful mold. The mold was integrated the traditional style of Chinese architecture. However, the Chinese Buddhist tower was built for both consecrating Buddha and utilization of user, as shown in Figure 4. Inside the multi-floor tower, it provided people to ascend floor-by-floor to the top and look far into the distance.
Figure 3. The Courtyard Temple Tower (White Tower) in Wutai Mountain
The stone-cave temple was also originated in India. Around the Eastern Han Dynasty, it was introduced in China via Turkestan. The top period for the excavation of the stone-cave temple was during from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties. In the caves, there was not only the sanctuary hall for worship, there were but also the stone rooms for meditation. The precisely sculptured niches and Buddhist statues were shown the intent, which took actions that suit local circumstances and adapted to the local conditions of the hot and dry climate. In the middle A.D. eighth century, The first Tibetan Buddhist temple was established, called the lamasery in general. It emphasized on the site-locating and the layout-planning. The intent was to combine the temple with the natural environment. According to the site location,
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Figure 4. The Sakyamuni Tower of Buddha Palace Temple
Figure 5. The White Horse Temple
Figure 6. The Potala Palace
It could be defined as the “Ping Chuan” (flat site) and “Shan Di” (slopy site) construction. The representation of these two type were the Da Zhao Temple and the Potala Palace respectively. Shown in Figure 6, the eastern part of White Palace of Potala Palace, especially named the Sunlight Hall, was designed to introduce the sunlight into the interior. It showed that the interior was obtained sufficiently the sunlight all the time that the sun shined. 2.2 Distribution of Buddhist temple and the earthquake As a result of that Taiwan located at the intersection of the Eurasia Plate and the Philippine-ocean Plate, it was strongly necessary to design with the earthquake-resistance structure. Figure 7 shows the distribution map of earthquake focuses, it represents obviously that the frequency of earthquake in Central China and along the coast of South-eastern China was less than in Taiwan. Furthermore, the form of temple in Taiwan originated from the above area, and the construction was built of the extremely heavy reinforced concrete instead of the original lightly timber system. It should be the reason why all this kind of temples was caused the great damage. The patterns of Tibetan temple were to deserve to be mentioned as the example of damage preventing. To face the frequently earthquake, Tibetan temple had not huge roof, small-opening design concerned the influence of local climate, and majority of staffed wall.
Hot & humid zone Hot & dry zone Sub-tropical zone Temperate zone Frigid zone
The area lacked for earthquack
The Tropic of Cancer
The Equator
Figure 7. Sketch map of distribution of regional climate and earthquake focus in East Asia
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2.3 Relationship between Buddhist temple and local climate In terms of the spread of Buddha, the development of Buddhist temple appeared a variety of building styles during the different countries or districts, which belonged to the different climate zone. The adjustment of the style was to harmonize with local climate. The concept of the environment-oriented design is to take actions that suit local circumstances. The vast majority of Buddhist temples in Taiwan, therefore, were designed with lots of transoms for air convection owing to suit the local humid-and-hot climate. Besides, the sanctuary hall was designed with large and elevated space. Those structures, represented the short-column effect, were unsuited to resist the shear stress caused from earthquake. 3. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUDDHIST TEMPLE OF TAIWAN Taiwan, consisted of a group of islands, which was crossed through by the Tropic of Cancer in the middle. On the whole, it showed the characteristics both of the sub-tropical and tropical climates as shown in Figure 8. There were, besides, the variety of changes in height, including mountains, hills, plains, wetlands and seashores. Even though the area of Taiwan was measured as a few magnitudes, but the change of the natural environment was diversified and represented a variety of sub-climates. To suit the circumstances of landforms and sub-climates was one of the most important strategies in the planning and design stage. 3.1 Thermal environment In order to maintain the thermal environment in the proper range, it was necessary to avoid a large amount of heat radiation, which transmitted into the interior space of Buddhist temple, and to consider the increased indoor temperature when the occupants raised. So far as authors’ knowledge, it is suggested that utilizing the natural ventilation as the major manner to modulate the temperature and humidity indoors, the forced ventilation system acting as the assistance. Also, parts of spaces, such as the depositaries of Buddhist texts and stockrooms, need to control the indoor moisture. 3.2 Air environment Based on the purpose of natural lighting and ventilation, the style of the window opening of Buddhist temple in Taiwan was designed as continuous windows and transoms. Although the character of the opening, mostly originated from the South China (illustrated with Figure 9), responded the local climate,
Sub-tropical & island climatic zone The Ju-Long-Pu Fault-belt
The 921-Earthquake Focus The Tropic of Cancer
Tropical & island climatic zone
Figure 8. Sketch map of climatic zone of Taiwan
Figure 9. Tian Tong Temple in Ningbo, South China
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continuous windows, represented the short-column effect, were caused the great damage by shear stress of earthquake. It was to reflect deeply that the Buddhist temple of Eastern-south China did without consideration on the risk of earthquake to arrange a large amount of opening. However, Taiwan was located on the frequent earthquake zone. It should be considered that the utilizing of the building form and structure has to harmony with locally ecological environment, sub-climate and geological structure. For this reason, the pattern of the window opening of Buddhist temple needs to be reformed. It is suggested that applying the CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) techniques acts as a tool on numerical simulation for the ventilation design. Figure 10 shows the perspective plots with airflow vector-distribution between the existing and reforming projects. The adjusted form is aimed to avoid or to reduce the phenomenon of short column effect, also it is intent to introduce sufficient ambient air and light into the temple.
Existing type
Reforming type
Figure 10. Results of numerical simulation of Buddhist temple on natural ventilation
3.3 Light environment The lighting strategy in temple should introduce the natural light as far as possible, the highly efficient lamp for energy saving acts as the assistant. The lighting performance in the significant space, such as the sanctuary hall, is also to consider the needs of Buddhist atmosphere. To control the proper illumination and the minimum power consumption is the prerequisite concern. 3.4 Acoustic environment Buddhist temple was the place offered the monks to practice Buddhist rules and to realize the truth theory, moreover, served the followers to make a formal visit and to try to reach understanding of dhyana. To obtain this situation, it is provided not only with safely and grandly outward appearances and completely facilities, but also it is contributive to represent the solemn surroundings by way of maintaining the fine acoustic environment. It is necessary to provide the peaceful and silent surroundings, and to extend the reverberation time to suit the religionary activities. Owing to highly humid and hot climate, it was adopted a mount of windows for heat sink and ventilation. Unfortunately, it spoiled the integrity of sound field, including the transmission loss of the voices and the disturbance from the outer noise. From the viewpoint of the acoustics, it is necessary to provide the closer enclosure. However, this design strategy was opposite to the one for air environment. It is the challenge to integrate all of the viewpoints. 3.5 Water environment Because the insufficient groundwater emptied subterranean strata which raised the dangerous damage from earthquake, it was to avoid using the groundwater for long-term. Besides, it is obvious to pay attention to the public safety and health on the quality of potable water, including the cistern maintenance and the clarifying process differed from the tap-water. It is effective to install the water-saving equipment to control the quantity of the water-use. It is also suggested establishing the rainwater collector as the water-recycling system, which can be provided with the benefit of sprinkling the plants and sewering the ordure without using the tap-water.
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4. SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES FOR RECONSTRUCTING BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN TAIWAN Based on the transition of life pattern and social environment, the development concept of sustainable building becomes the future trends for the architecture and environment design. Buddhism is chiefly concerned with the natural circumstances. To reform a promised land for awakening to truth, and to stride forward to the circumstances of symbiosis with natural environment, it is greatly essential to integrate the concepts of sustainable development into Buddhist temple from the beginning of planning and designing period. It is deeply expected that the reconstruction of the Buddhist temple after the 921-Earthquake calamity could be represented the typical demonstration for all living creatures. And, it could be integrated with the characteristics of futurity, education and demonstration into the design of Buddhist temple, which is combined with the locally climatic conditions, land properties, religionary activities and healthy requirements as the goal. Those strategies are illustrated as following: 4.1 Site planning on sustainability （1） The site location, direction and interface ought to harmony with natural climate. （2） The existed temple ought to considerate to preserve the historic symbol and landmark. （3） The aquatic environment and plants in and around the site ought to recuperate the ecological circulation. 4.2 Healthy building （1） The selection of building materials, especially the finishing materials, ought to realize the characteristics of the physical change and the chemical reaction to application. （2） The outdoor materials ought to consider the climate-tolerant properties. （3） It have to control the indoor pollutants sources and emissions. （4） It is suggested to introduce the natural ventilation devices for the fresh-air exchange. （5） It is suggested to choose the low moisture-absorbing materials. （6） The meditation room and preaching space ought to construct by the sound-insulation components. （7） The requirements for all materials ought to be easy to clean, maintain, repair and exchange. 4.3 Energy and resources management （1） The utilizing renewable energy, such as solar photoelectric cell and wind power generator, is intensely supported as an assistant to save consumptive power. （2） The materials and components ought to be designed and made with recycling. （3） It is suggested to utilize the heat-insulation components to contribute to the energy-saving. （4） It is suggested to utilize the performing devices without power use, such as the natural ventilation. （5） It is suggested to introduce the natural light and to utilize the lighting system with high performance and efficiency. （6） The sewage system ought to consider the water-saving. （7） The rainwater collector ought to be introduced into the water-circulation system for reuse. （8） The wastes have to be classified carefully, and act the beneficial resources after recycling. 4.4 Ecological circulation （1） The utilizing the natural resources, such as sunlight, rainwater, soil and wind, have to chiefly consider. （2） The water-circulation system ought to arrange properly to suit the landforms, such as the flood control basin at the lowest place. （3） The vacant land in the temple can be introduced the organic farming as the eatables. （4） It ought to fit in the requirements of the assessment indicators of the green building. （5） The local ecosystem and primitive creatures out to be preserved. （6） The biological water-treatment techniques ought to be introduced. （7） The excrement and kitchen waste ought to be collected as the compost.
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5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS After the 921-Earthquake Calamity, the whole community was paid the painful expense. It is not only examined thoughtfully the reflection on the building form and construction of Buddhist temple, but also have to think deeply how the creatures and circumstances could harmonize. It has been mentioned that the space, which Sakyamuni realized the truth under the bodhi tree, represented the one for realizing the philosophic theory and expanding the philosophy of Buddha. Figure 11 shows the above situation, which illustrated that “Sakyamuni crossed his legs and sat in the middle, and the disciples and Bodhisattvas stood at the both sides. the bodhi tree was behind the Sakyamuni, suspended the canopy above, and the flyers played the instruments and shed the flowers at the both sides”, it was precisely represented the circumstance as the fusion with the natural environment completely. Figure 11. Drawing of Preaching, To succeed in that, it ought to re-considerate the site plan, No.394 Cave, Mo Gau Cave building layout, structure system, construction manner, equipment components and the finishing materials from the environment-oriented viewpoint. It also is the major responsibility for the development of Buddhism to enhance and glorify the spiritual civilization in the coming 21st Century. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3]
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